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AAMS1623 CALCULUS AND ALGEBRA

CHAPTER 1: PLANE COORDINATE GEOMETRY

1.1 PLANE CARTESIAN COORDINATES

- The positions of all points in a plane can be measured with respect to 2
perpendicular real lines in the plane intersecting at the 0-point of each. These lines
are called coordinate axes in the plane. Usually we call the horizontal axis as x-
axis and the vertical axis as y-axis. The point of intersection of the coordinate
axes (the point where x and y are both zero) is called the origin and is often
denoted by O.
y

4
3
b P(a, b)
2

1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 O 1 2 3 4 5
-1
-2 a

-3
-4


The coordinate axes and the point P with coordinates (a, b)

- The ordered pair (a, b) is called the coordinate pair or the Cartesian coordinates of
the point P. (Note that the x-coordinate appears first in a coordinate pair.)

- The coordinate axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants. These
quadrants are numbered I to IV. Both coordinates are positive in quadrant I and
both coordinates are negative in quadrant III. Only y is positive in quadrant II and
only x is positive in quadrant IV.

y


II I

x
III IV

The four quadrants
2
- An increment in a variable is the net change in the value of the variable. If x
changes from
1
x to
2
x , then the increment in x is

1 2
x x x = A

Example 1:
Find the increments in the coordinates of a particle that moves from A(3, -3) to B(-1, 2).














1 2
x x x = A
1 2
y y y = A
y
Distance between two points in the plane ) , (
2 2
y x Q
The distance D between ) , (
1 1
y x P and ) , (
2 2
y x Q is D
( ) ( )
2 2
y x D
PQ
A + A = y A
( ) ( )
2
1 2
2
1 2
y y x x + = ) , (
1 1
y x P x A ) , (
1 2
y x
x
Example 2:
Find the distance
a) between A(3, -3) and B(-1, 2)
b) from the origin O(0,0) to point P(x, y).











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Gradient of line segment joining two points

Given 2 points ) , (
1 1 1
y x P and ) , (
2 2 2
y x P in the plane, we call the increments x A , the run,
and y A , the rise, between
1
P and
2
P . Two such points always determine a unique straight
line passing through them both. We call the line
2 1
P P .

Any non-vertical line in the plane has the property that the ratio

1 2
1 2
x x
y y
x
y
run
rise
m

=
A
A
= =
has the same value for every choice of 2 distinct points
1
P and
2
P on the line. The
constant
x
y
m
A
A
= is called the slope of the non-vertical line. The slope tells us the
direction and steepness of a line.

The direction of a line can be measured by an angle, , where
tan =
A
A
=
x
y
m
y



L y A

x A
x

Example 3:
The slope of the line joining A(3, -3) and B(-1, 2) is






Example 4:
Find the gradient of the line joining C(-1, -2) and D(3, 6).






Example 5:
Given E(0, 3) and F(-4, 0). Find the gradient of the straight line joining E and F.
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Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel lines have the same inclination. If they are not vertical, they must therefore have
the same slope. Lines with equal slopes have the same inclination are parallel.

If 2 non-vertical lines,
1
L and
2
L are perpendicular, their slopes
1
m and
2
m satisfy
1
2 1
= m m , so

2
1
1
m
m = and
1
2
1
m
m =
y



2
L
1
L


slope
2
m
slope
1
m


x

Example 6:
Given the points A(1, -1), B(5, 2), P(-1, 10), Q(-1, 3) and R(-9, -3). Show that AB is
parallel to QR and that BP is perpendicular to AB.













Example 7:
The triangle P(-4, 3), Q(-1, 5), R(0, r) is right-angled with QR is the hypotenuse. Find the
value of r.





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Coordinates of midpoint



B(x
2
, y
2
)



M(x , y)

A(x
1
, y
1
)



The mid-point of the line joining ) , (
1 1
y x A to ) , (
2 2
y x B has coordinates
|
.
|

\
| + +
=
2
,
2
2 1 2 1
y y x x
M
AB


Example 8:
Find the coordinates of the midpoint of the straight lines joining the following pairs of
points stated:
a) A(3, 7) and B(5, 9)
b) P(-2, 5) and Q(8, -1)












Example 9:
Three points have coordinates A(3, 8), B(-8, 4) and C(-2, 0). Prove that the line joining
the midpoints of AB and BC is parallel to AC.








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Definition of Intercepts

Intercepts How to find them
x-intercepts The x-coordinates of points where the graph
of an equation intersects the x-axis.
Set y = 0 and
solve for x.
y-intercepts The y-coordinates of points where the graph
of an equation intersects the y-axis.
Set x = 0 and
solve for y.


Equations of Lines

Straight lines are simple graphs, and their corresponding equations are also simple.
x = a is the equation of the vertical line meeting the x-axis at a.
y = b is the equation of the horizontal line meeting the y-axis at b.

To write an equation for a non-vertical straight line L, it is enough to know its slope m
and the coordinates of one point ) , (
1 1 1
y x P on it.
If P(x, y) is any other point on L, then
m
x x
y y
=

1
1

so that ) (
1 1
x x m y y = or
1 1
) ( y x x m y + =

The equation
1 1
) ( y x x m y + = is the point-slope equation of the line that passes through
the point ) , (
1 1 1
y x P and has slope m.


Example 10:
Find the equation of the line through the points (1, -1) and (3, 5).










Example 11:
Find the gradient and the two intercepts of the line with equation 8x + 5y = 20.





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Example 12:
In the rectangle ABCD, A and B are the points (4, 2) and (2, 8) respectively.
Given that the equation of AC is y = x 2, find
(a) the equation of BC
(b) the coordinates of C
(c) the coordinates of D
(d) the area of the rectangle ABCD.
























Example 13:
The diagram shows a parallelogram ABCD with A and C on the coordinate axes. The
equation of AB is y = 2x + 1 and the equation of BC is 2y + x = 12.
(a) Show that ABCD is a rectangle
(b) Find the coordinates of A, B, C and D
(c) Find the area of ABCD









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1.2 CIRCLES AND DISKS

The circle having centre C and radius a is the set of all points in the plane that are at
distance a from the point C.

The distance from P(x, y) to the point C(h, k) is ( ) ( )
2 2
k y h x + , so that the equation
of the circle of radius 0 > a with centre at C(h, k) is
( ) ( ) a k y h x = +
2 2


A simpler form of this equation is obtained by squaring both sides.


Standard equation of a circle
The circle with centre (h, k) and radius 0 > a has equation

2 2 2
) ( ) ( a k y h x = +

In particular, the circle with centre at the origin (0, 0) and radius a has equation

2 2 2
a y x = +


Example 14
Find the equation of a circle with radius 2 and centre (1, 3).











Example 15
The circle having equation 7 ) 1 ( ) 2 (
2 2
= + + y x . Determine the centre and radius of the
circle.









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Example 16
Find the centre and radius of the circle 3 6 4
2 2
= + + y x y x .




















Example 17
A straight line tangent to a circle at point T. The center of the circle is (1, 2). Find the
coordinates of T and the radius of the circle. Hence, write the equation of the circle.





















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1.3 PARAMETRIC CURVES

Suppose that an object moves around in the xy-plane so that the coordinates of its
position at any time t are functions of the variable t.
x = f(t) y = g(t)

The path followed by the moving object is a curve C in the plane which is specified by
the two equations above. We call these equations parametric equations of C. A curve
specified by a particular pair of parametric equations is called a parametric curve. The
variable t is called the parameter.

Example 18
Given a parametric curve is defined by the following parametric equation
1
2
= t x , 1 + = t y
Find the Cartesian equation of the curve.











Example 19
Identify the curve t y t x sin 3 , cos 3 = = by changing the parametric equation to Cartesian
equation.











Example 20
A curve is defined parametrically by 1 , 2
2
+ = + = t y t t x .
a) Obtain the Cartesian equation of the curve.
b) Find the coordinates of the points where the curve intersects the y-axis.