Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
L Bending test P
P Shear Test T T
dL/2
P Torsion test
Tension test
P Compression test
The most common tests are tension test for ductile materials (steel) & compression test for brittle materials (concrete)
Tension Test
Yield Stress y : Stress at which a slight increase in stress will result in appreciably increas in strain without increase in stress Elastic Limit: The upper stress level at which the material behaves elastically Proportional Limit PL : The upper stress limit that strain varies linearly with stress. Material follows Hooke's Law
C' True Stress-strain using actual area to calculate Ultimate stress u Failure stress f C A Stress-strain using original area to calculate
B'
Necking
Elastic
Yielding
Necking
Plastic Behaviour: Material will deform permanently and will NOT return to its orginal shape upon unloading. The Elastic Behaviour: Material deformation that occurs is called will return to its orginal plastic deformation shape if material is loaded and unloaded within this range
= E
E is the modulus of elasticity Esteel = 200 GPa
Econcrete = 29 GPa (21 29 GPa)
Ductile Materials Materials that can be subjected to large strains before rupture Have high percent elongation
L Lo Percent elongation = f 100 Lo
Have capacity to absorb energy If structure made of ductile materials is overloaded, it will present large deformation before failing Some ductile materials do not exhibit a well-defined yield point, we will use offset method to define a yield strength Some ductile materials do not have linear relationship between stress and strain, we call them nonlinear materials
= f ( )
Elastic-plastic Materials Stress-strain for structural steel will consist of elastic and perfectly plastic region. We call this kind of material elastoplastic material Analysis of structures on the basis of elastoplastic diagram is called elastoplastic analysis or plastic analysis
Bilinear stress-strain diagram having different slopes is sometimes used to approximate the general nonlinear diagrams. This will include the strain hardening.
Perfectly plastic
y
Brittle Materials
Materials that do not exhibit yielding before failure Some materials will show both ductile and brittle behaviours, e.g. steel with high carbon content will demonstrate brittle behaviours while steel with low carbon content will be ductile or steel subjects to low temperature will be brittle while those in the high temperature environment will be ductile Creep Deformation which increases with time under constant load (examples: rubber band; concrete bridge deck: sagging between supports due to self weight therefore the deck is constructed with an upward camber)
to
In several situations, creep will associate with high temperature If creep becomes important, creep strength will be used in design
Relaxation Loss of stress with time under constant strain Another manifestation of creep
o
Prestressed wire Creep strength t
Cyclic loading and fatigue Fracture after many cycles of loading If material is loaded into the plastic region, upon unloading elastic strain will be recovered but plastic strain remains
Permanent set
Elastic recovery
Strain energy Energy stored internally throughout the volume of a material which is deformed by an external load
k
Fo Work
x
xo
Consider a linear spring having stiffness k If we apply a force F , the spring will stretch x . The relationship between F and x is F = kx If we apply a force from zero to Fo and the spring stretches to the amount of xo , the work done is the average force magnitude times the displacement, i.e.
1 W = Fo xo 2
From the conservation of energy, this work done must be equivalent to the internal work or strain energy stored within the spring when it is deformed
If an infinitesimal element of elastic material is subjected to a normal stress , then tensile force on the element will be
dz
dF = dxdy
The change in its length is dz
dy
dx
The work done, which equals to the strain energy stored in the element, is 1 1 dU = ( dxdy )( dz ) or dU = dV 2 2 The total strain energy stored in a material will be
U = dV
V
The strain energy per unit volume or the strain energy density is
u=
dU 1 = dV 2
If the material is linear elastic ( = E , Hookes Law holds), the strain energy density will be
1 1 2 u= = 2 E 2 E
PL
If the stress reaches the proportional limit, the strain energy density is called the modulus of resilience ur
ur
1 ur = PL PL 2
PL
ut
The total strain energy density which stored in the material just before it fails is called the modulus of toughness ut
Answer to 1.
10
Answer to 2.
11
More on crazing and shear deformations and zones next time. (Phenomena in amorphous polymers, as discussed yesterday)
12