ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to convey our heartfelt gratitude to Prof. T. Kumar (Director, ISM), Prof. B.C. Sarkar (HOD, Applied Geology), and Dr. A.K. Varma (Training InCharge) first of all, for the entire arrangement of the summer training program in CMPDIL HQ, Ranchi.

We would like to take this opportunity to thank all the people involved in making this summer training at CMPDI, Ranchi, a very fruitful assignment.

We would like to convey special thanks to Mr. S.K. Mitra [Director (T / ES)], Mr. B. Kumar [HOD (HRD)], Mr. N. Ahmad [GM (Expl)], Mr. S.Nath [GM (Geology)], Dr. H.K. Mishra [GM (Labs)], Mr. P. Prasad [Senior Manager (Hydrogeology)] and Dr. R.K.Jain [GM (Geology)] of CMPDIL Head Quaters, Ranchi, for their valuable guidance during the summer training program.

Date: 3rd June, 2011 Place: Ranchi

Poulomi Baksi Shreyasi Das Satavisha Ganguly Sulekha Bhaya Prasanta Ku. Mishra Nikhil Marda
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INTRODUCTION
We, students of Applied Geology (M.Sc. Tech) of ISM, Dhanbad have done our summer training job at CMPDI HQ (Central Mine Planning and Design Institute), Ranchi. The duration of this training was from

16th May to 4th June, 2011.We are very thankful to Prof. T. Kumar (Director ISM), Prof. B.C.
Sarkar (HOD, Dept. of Applied Geology), and Dr. A.K. Varma (Training in-charge). We would like to thank Mr. S. Nath, Mr.R.K.Jain , Mr. H.K. Mishra of CMPDIL for giving us such an opportunity and guidance.

COAL INDIA AND ITS SUBSIDIARIES:

The mission of Coal India is to produce the planned quantity of coal which is found in Jharkhand, Bihar, Orissa, M.P., A.P., Maharashtra, West Bengal, Assam, Sikkim states, efficiently and economically with due regard to safety, conservation and quality. Coal India Limited has eight subsidiaries while seven of them are engaged in coal mining operation and production of coal, CMPDI does all the prospecting, exploration, preparation of Geological Reports, Project Reports, Mine planning and design works for all the coal producing subsidiaries apart from many other activities.

Coal India Limited

Dankuni Coal Complex (DCC) North-Eastern Coalfields (NEC) 0.86 b.t. 5mines Margherita (Assam) Eastern Coalfields Ltd. (ECL)36.63 b.t. 129 mine Asansol (W.B.) Bharat Coking Coal Ltd.(BCCL) 19.42 b.t. 92 mines Dhanbad (Jharkhand) Central Ltd.(CCL) Coalfields

33.45 B.T. 54 mines Ranchi (Jharkhand)

Northern coalfields Ltd.(NCL) 10.34 b.t. 10 mine Singrauli (UP)

South-eastern Coalfields Ltd. (SECL) 27.36 b.t. 73 mines Bilaspur (Chhatishgarh )

CMPDI

Ranchi

Mahanadi Coalfields Ltd. (MCL) 46.22 b. t. 22 mines Sambalpur(Orissa)

Western Coalfields Ltd.(WCL) 8.65 B.T. 64 mines Nagpur(Maharashtra)

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INDIAN COAL:
1. A total of 2,85,862 Millon Tonnes of geological resources of coal have so far been estimated in India up to maximum depth of 1200m (as per GSI). Out of total resources, the Gondwana coalfields account for 2,84,369 Mt (99.5%) while the Tertiary coalfields of North-eastern region (Assam, Meghalaya) contribute 1493Mt (0.5%) of coal resources. The type wise and category wise break up of Indian coal resources are given below:

Type of coal
Prime Coking Medium Coking Semi-Coking Non coking Tertiary coal Total of all type

Proved(Mt)
4,614.35 12,448.44 482.16 87,797.69 477.68 1,14,001.60

Indicated(Mt) Inferred(Mt)
698.71 12,063.93 1,003.29 109,614.09 89.68 1,37,471.10 0 1,880.23 221.68 35,312.63 506.02 34,389.51

Total(Mt)
5,313.06 26,392.60 1,707.13 232,724.41 1073.38 2,85,862.21

%Share
1.99 9.88 0.64 87.09 0.40 100

2. The depth-wise and category-wise break-up of Indian coal resources is as follows:

Depth Range Proved (Mt) (mt)

0-300 300-600 0-600 (jharia) 600-1200 Total 89,263.57 9,349.62 13,710.33 1,678.08 114001.60

Indicated (Mt)
68238.66 55195.47 502.09 13534.88 137471.10

Inferred(Mt)
11756.89 16556.53 0.00 6,076.09 34389.51

Total (Mt)
169,259.12 81101.62 14,212.42 21289.05 285862.21

%Share
59.21 28.37 4.97 7.45 100.0

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Coal and its Characteristics:

Coalification
Coal is formed from plants and is a complex substance consisting of different constituents representing several chemical compounds, is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous material. Peat undergoes transformation through physical and chemical changes brought about by continued subsidence, increasing pressure and temperature leading generally to the formation of the coal series. The coal series generally expressed as peat, lignite, sub-bituminous, bituminous and anthracite develops mainly due to enrichment of carbon and decrease of volatile matter, decrease of moisture, increase in calorific value and increase in reflectance of vitrinite. The moisture content however marginally decreases in anthracite. This process of physical-chemical changes is also known as Coalification and indicative of the maturity of Rank of coal.

Coal Constituents:
Just as a rock composed of several minerals so is the coal composed of several organic constituents termed as mecerals, the organic equivalent of minerals. The mecerals can be divided into three groupsVitrinite (termed as Huminite for peat and Lignite essentially woody materials), Exinite (Liptinite derived mainly from spores, resins and cuticles), Inertinite (derived mainly from oxidized plant materials). Mecerals are normally intermixed and occur as groups termed as Micro-litho type which are mainly four types and they are Vitrain, Durain, Clarain, Fusain.

Coking and Non-Coking Coal:

Some coals on heating suitably swell and fuse to form a hard and porous mass called Coke which can provide concentrated heat and withstand a huge pressure. Such coals are known as coking coal which is extensively used in metallurgical industries. Coals lacking this property are called as Non-coking coal and used in power, railway, fertilizer and other industries.

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EXPLORATION
Coal India Ltd. has eight subsidiaries in which seven are production companies (ECL, BCCL, CCL, WCL, SECL, NCL & MCL) and one is Mine Planning and Design company - CMPDI (Central Mine Planning and Design Institute). Head quarter of CMPDI is situated in Ranchi and it has seven Regional Institutes (R.I. s). The location of the Regional Institutes is RI 1 Asansol (ECL), RI 2 Dhanbad (BCCL), RI 3 Ranchi (CCL), RI 4 Nagpur (WCL), RI 5 Bilaspur (SECL), RI 6 Singrauli (NCL) and RI 7 Bhubaneswar (MCL). Our summer training program was held in CMPDI HQ, Ranchi for 21 days. In CMPDI, mine planning and design works are carried out mainly, apart from many activities related to Civil Engineering, Electrical & Mechanical Engineering, Coal Technology & Lab, Exploration, Geomatics, Coal Bed Methane, Finance, Information &Communication Technology, Personnel & Administration, Town Engg. & CM Division. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (GSI) has already done the geological mapping and has given us the Formational details of the coal bearing horizons in almost all the coalfields of India. The investigations of GSI are a continuing process establishing the coal bearing Formations which is still going on.

STAGES OF EXPLORATION

Preliminary Investigation

Regional Exploration

Detailed Exploration

Developmental Exploration

PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION: First of all survey work is carried out. It includes the location of the block (latitude, longitude), i.e. the relative position of the block in the coal field is earmarked. Its location and distance with respect to adjacent explored block and/or existing mines is determined. Accessibility, objective of exploration, likely period of investigation, area of the block in sq.km are required to be determined. In virgin areas, the help of satellite imagery and aerial photograph is needed. At this
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stage, 1-2 boreholes are drilled. Before proceeding for further investigation, factors considered for the design of exploration programme are to be assessed. These factors include the geology of the area, nature of the deposit, degree of confidence required, schedule, accessibility, inputs like density of boreholes, diameter, target seam, depth of drilling, quantum of drilling etc., are to be determined. REGIONAL EXPLORATION: In this case, the block is regionally explored. Here boreholes are drilled at 800m-1km apart. These days, 1 km interval is chosen. Based on the data generated after drilling, litholog plotting, sampling, construction of seam structure etc, seam correlation with the help of logs is carried out. At this stage an idea about the presence or absence of fault, fault types, throw, lithology, number and thickness of the seams etc are obtained. Almost all the coalfields of India except the coalfield of Assam are suffered by normal faults. DETAILED EXPLORATION: Here boreholes are drilled at 400m interval which is suggested by The Bureau of Indian Standard by which the influence of coal is up to 200m from the known point. This is evidenced from the Gondwana coalfields where up to 200m from the known point, there is no significant variation between the lithological and other characteristic features. At this stage structural modeling is carried out. Here the reserves are accessed as Proved Reserve. DEVELOPMENTAL EXPLORATION: In India, this stage is followed wherever it is required. It helps in day-to-day planning and quality control. In TISCO, this practice is followed. The main objective of this stage is to Prove Incrop, faults and the heat affected zones, etc. DRILLING: -. In the case of drilling, mainly diamond core drilling is used. There are two types of drilling methods. One is by using single tube core barrel and another is by using double tube core barrel. In coal industry mainly the use double tube core barrel is adopted. For the drilling, mainly diamond bits and TC bits are used. During drilling operation CMPDI mainly uses NQ core size .Sometimes they use the BQ core size as and when required due to boreholes conditions.

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CORE RECOVERY: - For the area prescribed acceptable norm for core recovery percentage are 90% and 70% in non coal and coal horizons respectively in general and 70% and 50% in non coal and coal horizons of soft and friable nature especially in northeastern regions. Core recovery in both coal and non coal cores obtained by drilling in the block satisfy this norm with some exceptions. RECORDING OF DRILLING DATA: - After the drilling carried out the drilling data is recorded as follows-

For example- (Figs in metres) From To Extrapolated Depth 123.00 123.40 123.70 124.10 124.70 125.70 123.40 123.70 124.10 124.70 125.40 126.00 0.40 0.30 0.40 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.20 Coal 0.25 Shaly coal 0.40 Carbshale 0.45 Coal 0.50 Sand stone 0.35 Coal Recovery Lithology

LOGGING: The data obtained by drilling is used in plotting the lithologs using the RF of 1:500 in general. This gives an idea about the lithotypes associated with the seam/s. After litholog plotting seam structure is plotted in which RF of 1:50 is used in general as per detailed chemical analysis whether it is coal, shaly coal or carbshale. SAMPLING: The core logs obtained by drilling are sampled and sent for band by band analysis. The coal cores are arranged in the boxes in book pattern. Here taking into account as per the visual logging C1, C2, C3, etc are indicated for coal and shaly coal and D1, D2, D3 etc are indicated for carbshale. Then the borehole no. and box number are written on the box. e.g.,CMBT-167/Box No-5 and dispatched to the respective laboratories for band by band analysis. On obtaining the band by band analysis of the seams of the respective boreholes, seam structure is plotted on RF 1:50 considering the ash% + Moisture % i.e., for coal (upto35%), shaly
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coal (35%-50%) and carbonaceous shale (>50% - 75%) are marked. Then making the roof-floor corrections to eliminate unviable carbshale, the seam depths are defined. The seams defined in this manner is subjected to overall analysis i.e., at 40 degree centigrade and 60% relative humidity. Approximately 50% of boreholes are determined by Overall analysis. The rest 50% are calculated by using the software CEMGEODOC produced by CMPDI. The useful heat values thus arrived from the overall analysis data are utilized for the estimation of the grade of the respective seams.

SEAM CORRELATION:
Correlation of seams is done with the help of lithologs. Significance of fault is of much importance. Fault are determined by evidence in the boreholes, i.e. when some strata is missing, brecciated strata or the presence of slickensides etc., then it is evidenced that there may be a fault. Fault can also be determined by Inference, i.e. unusual difference in the level of roof and floor of the seam/s on either side of the fault. The observations of some boreholes passing through the fault and some are adjacent to it helps in Stitching the fault alignment.

Overall Advice for seams defined: Floor contour plan is done using the FRL (Floor Reduced Level) value of the boreholes
by means of 3-point method.
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Roof Contour Plan: The same procedure is followed for Roof Contour Plan as that of
Floor Contour Plan using the RRL (Roof Reduced Level) value.

ISOCHORE MAP: - Isochore map is drawn by using the vertical thickness of the coal seam
as encountered in the borehole.

ISOPARTING MAP: - Parting is the difference between the floor of one coal seam and the
roof of another coal seam. By using the isoparting line we draw isoparting map which is mainly used in opencast mine.

ISOEXCAVATION MAP: - This gives an indication of total coal available and total OB
presents in terms of the thickness.

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QUALITYQuality evaluation of coal is most important for rational utilization of this valuable commodity. To suit the requirement of various industries, which requires a particular variety of coal, proper characterization of coal is important before being used. Before going to further ahead in Quality it is needed to define the calorific value and UHV (Useful Heat Value). Calorific value-It is the heat liberated by its complete combustion with oxygen. It is expressed as Btu/lb (British Thermal Unit/Pound) or Kcal/Kg (Kilo Calorie/Kilogram). UHV-Useful Heat Value to grade coal, can be determined by the following formula as follow:[8900-138(Ash + Moisture) kcal/kg.].

CHARACTERIZATION OF COAL:-

Coal has been readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight and more than 70% by volume of carbonaceous material including inherent moisture, formed from compaction and indurations of variously altered plant material. Difference in the kind of plant material defines Coal type. Range of impurities define Coal grade. These are main characteristics of COAL. CLASSIFICATION OF COAL:-Depending upon coking property coal has two classifications. One is for coking coal and another is for non coking coal.

FOR COKING COAL:-Some coals on heating suitably swell and fuse to form a hard and porous mass called coke which can provide concentrated heat and withstand some pressure. Such coals are called Coking coals. It is extensively used in metallurgical industries. GRADE Steel Grade I Steel Grade II Washery Grade I Washery Grade II Washery Grade III Washery Grade IV Inferior ASH% Up to 15 15-18 18-21 21-24 24-28 28-35 >35 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.50 1.53 1.58 1.65

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FOR NON-COKING COAL:-Coal lacking the properties of coking coal is non-coking coal. Its classification is as follows. ASH%+MOISTURE% SP.GRAVITY GRADE (K.Cal/Kg) < 20 20-24 24-29 29-34 34-40 40-47 47-55 >=55 A B C D E F G UNGRADED >6200 >5600-6200 >4940-5600 >4200-4940 >3360-4200 >2400-3360 >1300-2400 <1300 1.40 1.45 1.50 1.55 1.58 1.68 1.75 UHV

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PROXIMATE ANALYSIS
By proximate analysis the moisture (water content), ash (mineral content), volatile matter (Gaseous components) are determined in the laboratory as weight percentage. Hundred minus the sum total of these gives the fixed carbon. It reflects the utilization potential. FC = 100 (Moisture + Ash + Volatile Matter)

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS
It consists of the determination of the percentage of elements (viz; carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen) present in coal by weight. SPECIAL TESTs FOR COKING COAL=> a) Caking Index= Inert Material/ (Unit weight of coal in a mixture totaling 25 grams which on

carbonization gives a coherent mass capable of supporting a load of 500 gms.) It gives an idea about the coking property of coal. b) Swelling Index=It gives the Swelling nature of coal during carbonization. It measures the volume increase of coal when unit mass of coal is heated under specific condition and numbered from 1 to 9 by reference to a series of standard profiles. c) LTGK Coke type: The nature, shape, size of the cock pencil formed in the standard L.T.G.K.(Low Temperature Grey King) retort and designated by alphabets A,B,C,D.E,F,G.G1 to G8 gives an indication of the coking potentiality of the coal, for use in metallurgical industries. d) Plastometric Test= i. Gieslers Plastometric test It determines the temp. Where coal softens, attain the maximum fluid state and resolidifies by rotating a small paddle inside a coal mass at a constant torque when coal is being heated and by measuring the rate of rotation of paddle as number of dial division per minute. ii. Sapoznikovs Petrographic study The coal sample is heated from the bottom at the constant pressure of 1 kg/cm2 from top. The maximum thickness of the layer of plastic mass formed after the temp raises above 3000c measures indirectly the maximum fluidity (ddpm) of Gieslers Plastometric test. Page | 11

e) Petrographic study= It is the visual examination of a polished section of coal under microscope under reflected light. This study has gained importance now a day because the relevance of the determination of the parameter s has a great impact on the quality of coal.

FOR NON-COKING COAL=>

a) Gross calorific value=It is the heat liberated by its complete combustion with oxygen. It is expressed as Btu/lb (British Thermal Unit/Pound) or Kcal/Kg (Kilo Calorie/Kilogram). b) Ash fusion temperature=When heated the coal ash commens to soften at substantially lower temp, before melting. Three points are determined the fusion range of coal ash which are initial deformation temp.(IDT),Hemispherical temperature(HT),Flow temperature(FT). c) Ash Analysis=Here various acidic/basic constituents present in coal ash in the form of oxide. It provides the corrosive nature of coal ash when used in power plants and allied industries. d) Hard grove Grind ability Index (HGI) =It indicates the relative grind ability of coal. It helps to provide information on the choice of the type of pulverized required in the industries. e) Trace element Study=Trace elements in coal is derived from the original plant material, from mineral matter washed to the coal swamp, from atmospheric deposition and from surface and underground water flowing into the swamps. f) Mineralogical Study=Coal is composed of organic and inorganic constituents have play a specific characterization of coal. X-ray diffractometry (XRD) is most direct technique for determination of mineral type, because it measures X-ray diffracted from a unique phase crystal structure.

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MAJOR COALFIELDS IN INDIA

In India, all the coal is explored and produced by the Coal India Limited, a Navaratna Company of Indian Government. Coal India has 7 production unit and one R&D unit. These total 8 units discovered the Indias major coal fields. In India, there are 20 major coal fields. These are the followingI. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. XVIII. XIX. XX. Raniganj Coalfield Jharia Coalfield East Bokaro Coalfield West Bokaro Coalfield Ramgarh Coalfield South Karanpura Coalfield North Karanpura Coalfield Daltonganj Coalfield Hutar Coalfield Singrauli Coalfield Sohagpur Coalfield Korba Coalfield IB river Coalfield Talcher Coalfield Pench-Kanha-Tawa Valley Coalfield Wardha Valley Coalfield Rajmahal Coalfield Godavari Valley Coalfield North Eastern Region Coalfield Namchik- Namphuk Coalfield

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Basics of Ground Water Hydrology

1. Introduction
Water is the essence of life which is essential for the survival of all living beings i.e. humans, animals and plants. Water is a principal element that influences the economic, agricultural and industrial growth of mankind. Since the olden times Ground water has been a major dependable source for domestic and irrigation use. During the past few decades it is also being extensively used for industrial purposes. The water resources can be distinctly classified into two categories -1).Surface water. 2).Ground water. The water on the earths surface is nearly 70% and the remaining is land surface. The Oceans contain 97.25% of the total global water and remaining 2.5% is fresh water. The distribution of total fresh water is as follows:- Ice caps and Glaciers :-68.9%, Ground water:-29.9%, Lakes & Rivers:-0.3%, soil moisture:0.005%, atmosphere:-0.001%, streams & rivers:-0.0001%, Soil moisture, swamp water etc:- 0.9%.

2. Hydrologic Cycle
The water of the earth circulates in the three media namely hydrosphere, atmosphere and the upper part of lithosphere. The circulation of water from the oceans to the atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the lithosphere and from lithosphere to the oceans, occurring through complex and inter-dependent processes including precipitation, runoff, ground water flow, evaporation and transpiration is called as the hydrologic cycle. The water evaporates from the oceans, rivers, streams, lakes and other water bodies and forms a part of the atmospheric moisture. This moisture when it moves to low temperature areas is condensed and precipitates as rain, snow or hail. The water that reaches the ground is dissipated in several ways. It may be evaporated, transpired by plants, infiltrated in the ground or flow as surface runoff into streams, rivers or the oceans. The hydrologic cycle is an important natural phenomenon on Earth; it is the driving force behind most other natural processes.

Fig 1: Hydrological Cycle Page | 14

3. Hydrogeology
Hydrogeology is a branch of earth science that is concerned with the mode of occurrence, distribution, movement and chemistry of water occurring in the subsurface in relation to the geological environment.

SUBSURFACE WATER: The water in the rocks existing in the liquid, solid or gaseous state is called
subsurface water. The subsurface water can be divided into ground water or phreatic water, vadose water and internal water. Ground water occurs in the zone of saturation in which all interconnected voids are filled with water that is under hydrostatic pressure. The upper surface of this zone of saturation is termed as water table. The zone of aeration lies between the ground surface and the water table. The zone of aeration contains the vadose water which includes water held in the interstices of capillary dimensions. Depending on the origin and source the subsurface water is classified as connate water if the water occurring in the rock formation was entrapped during the deposition of the rock, meteoric water if it was derived from atmospheric precipitation and as juvenile water if it is derived from the interior of the earth. The geology, topography, climate, drainage and vegetation control the form and configuration of zone of aeration and also control the position of water table. Water bearing and wateryielding properties of the zone of aeration mainly govern the percolation of water to the zone of saturation. There may be two or more zones of saturation in some areas. Where there is an impermeable rock in the zone of aeration, the downward movement of water may be hindered resulting in the saturation of interstices of the rocks above the impermeable barrier. Water in such zones of saturation is termed as perched ground water.

3.1 Hydraulic Properties of Rocks

The important hydraulic properties of rocks are a) Porosity and b) Permeability.

3.1.1 Porosity:
The portion of the rock (or) soil not occupied by the solid rock material may be occupied by air (or) ground water. These spaces are known as voids, interstices, pores/pore spaces. The porosity is the measure or property of the interstices present in the formation. It is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume and can be expressed as a percentage or as decimal fraction. Porosity is usually of two types a) primary porosity and b) secondary porosity. Primary porosity is the inherent character of a rock which is developed during the formation of the rock itself. In semi-consolidated (sedimentary) rocks and unconsolidated (alluvial) formations, porosity is of primary nature and is due to the inter-granular space. In volcanic rocks, the primary porosity is due to the presence of gas cavities (vesicles) and also lava tubes and lava tunnels. Vesicular and scoriaceous lavas have high primary porosity. Secondary porosity is the induced character and is developed subsequent to the formation of rocks. It is characteristic of consolidated and semiconsolidated formations and it is introduced by weathering, fracturing and jointing in hard rocks and dissolution of minerals in carbonate rocks (Limestones and Dolomites). Joints and fracture may induce secondary porosity in sandstone already possessing primary porosity.

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Individual pores in a fine-grained material like clay are extremely small but the total pore space is usually large. While clay formation has large water holding capacity, water can not readily move through the tiny pores and hence is not aquifer even though it may be saturated with water. In semi-consolidated (sedimentary) and unconsolidated (loose sediments) formations, the porosity of formation is controlled by the size, shape, sorting, distribution, packing of particles and degree of cementation. In consolidated formations (hard rocks), the porosity is dependent on the size of the individual fractures, joints and other openings; the extent, spacing and the pattern of fracturing or on the nature of solution channels.

3.2 Relation Between Texture and Porosity:

Fig. 2 a) If the grains that make up a rock are mostly spherical in shape, then the rock is said to have well sorted arrangement and hence have greater porosity. Fig. 2 b) On the other hand, if the grains of a rock are not uniform, then the smaller grains will fill up spaces between the larger ones and hence poorly sorted and the porosity is less. Fig. 2 c) Well-sorted sedimentary deposit consists of pebbles that are themselves porous, so that the deposit as a whole has a very high porosity. Fig. 2 d) Well sorted sedimentary deposit, whose porosity has been diminished by the deposition of mineral matter in the interstices. Fig. 2 e) Rock rendered porous by solution. Fig. 2 f) Rock rendered porous by fracturing.

3.2.2 Packing:

Fig 3: Arrangement of Grains in Cubic and Rhombic packing The geometrical arrangement of grains or the types of packing also affects porosity. In cubic packing, the porosity is as high as 48% while in rhombic packing it is as low as 26%. Page | 16

3.2.3 Shape:
Regarding the shape of grains, it is seen that angularity tends to increase porosity. Cementation and compaction reduces porosity. In unconsolidated alluvial formations, the porosity at deeper levels is less due to greater compaction. In volcanic rocks, the porosity decreases with the deposition of secondary minerals in vesicles in the form of amygdule.

3.2.4 Effective Porosity:

The holes in the rocks may be connected or disconnected. The term effective porosity refers to the amount of interconnected pore spaces available for fluid flow and it is expressed as the ratio of volume of interconnected voids to total volume of rocks.

3.2.5 Permeability:
The pores or openings in the rocks may be connected or disconnected normally or randomly distributed, interstitial or planar rock like feature. Larger openings are usually associated with larger permeability. It is not only the size of openings that determine the permeability. The connection between the openings also plays an important role. Thus the degree of connectivity of the pores governs the permeability of the rock. The effective porosity is more closely related permeability than its total porosity. The permeability of porous medium is the ease with which a fluid can flow through the medium and is measured by the rate of flow in suitable units. In other words, permeability characterizes the ability of a porous medium to transmit a fluid or water. It is a factor governing how a rock will act as a source of water for a well. On the basis of permeability, the rocks are classified into permeable, semi-permeable and impermeable (impervious).

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4. Water Bearing Formations

The water bearing properties of various geological formations can be classified on the basis of their hydraulic properties. The best known classification is based on rock porosity and permeability is as follows: AQUIFER: - An aquifer is defined as a saturated geological formation that is permeable enough to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. Thus, a porous and permeable water bearing formation is called an aquifer. The terms "water bearing formation/stratum" and "ground water reservoir" are synonyms for the aquifer. The granular unconsolidated sedimentary formations like gravel and sand form potential aquifers. AQUICLUDE: - It is a saturated formation through which virtually no water is transmitted. Aquicludes may have high porosity but relatively have very low permeability and hence do not yield appreciable quantities of water to wells. In other words, a highly porous and an impervious (that does not transmit water at all) geological formation is called an aquiclude e.g. clay and shale. AQUITARD:- Aquitard is a saturated formation that has low permeability and yields water slowly in comparison to the adjoining aquifers. In other words, aquitards are rock layers that are partly impervious and transmit water at a lower rate than aquifer (e.g.) sandy clay. Most aquitards do yield some water but usually not enough to meet even the modest demand. AQUIFUGE :- It is a formation which is neither porous nor permeable and hence neither stores nor transmits water (e.g.) massive igneous and sedimentary rocks (compact limestone).

4.1 Types of Aquifers

A further classification of aquifers in an area can be made on the basis of their location in the ground water basin, and the position of their associated water levels. Aquifers are of three types: a) Unconfined b) Confined c) Leaky

4.1.1 Unconfined Aquifers:

An unconfined aquifer is not overlain by any confining layer but it has a confining layer at the bottom. The upper surface is defined by the water table and it is in direct contact with the atmosphere. Water in a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer is under atmospheric pressure and therefore does not rise above the water table. The water table in unconfined aquifers is free to rise and fall. Rises and falls in the unconfined aquifer correspond to changes in the volume of water in storage within aquifer. It is also referred to as water table or phreatic aquifer. The water table in unconfined aquifers is often termed as phreatic water level. Movement of the ground water is in direct response to gravity (Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4: Confined and Unconfined Aquifer

4.1.2 Confined Aquifers

A confined aquifer is bounded above and below by an aquiclude, which is impermeable to water flow. It has an overlying confining layer. Water in the confined aquifer occurs under pressure, which is usually more than the atmospheric pressure, so that if a well taps the aquifer, the water level will rise above the top of the aquifer i.e. above the base of the overlying confining bed. It will rise up to an elevation at which it is in balance with the atmospheric pressure. If this elevation is greater than that of the land surface at the well, the water will flow from the well and such wells are termed artesian or flowing wells. The confined aquifers have only an indirect or distant connection with the atmosphere. The imaginary surface, conforming to the elevations to which water will rise in wells penetrating confined aquifers is known as the piezometric surface or potentiometric surface. It coincides with the hydrostatic pressure levels of the water in the aquifer (Fig. 4.).

4.1.3 Leaky or Semi-confiend Aquifers:

It is an aquifer whose upper and lower boundaries are bounded by aquitards. As the aquitards are semipermeable, it may slowly transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent aquifers. For example, a water bearing formation may be overlain by an aquitard, which permits water to move slowly upward out of the aquifer or vertically downward into the aquifer depending upon the hydrostatic head in the aquifer. Where the aquitard is under the aquifer, water may be lost to or gained from the rocks below. Confined aquifers that loose or gain waters from the surrounding formations are called leaky confined aquifers.

4.1.4 Perched Aquifers:

It is a type of an unconfined aquifer (Fig. 5). Sometimes, an impermeable bed of clay or silt may be present in some areas above the regional water table within the vadose zone or zone of aeration. This impermeable barrier intercepts downward movement of water and causes some of it to accumulate in the interstices of the rocks present above the stratum. Thus, a zone of saturation of limited areal extent is locally formed with in the zone of aeration i.e. a small water-bearing zone sometimes exists between the main water table and the ground surface. This zone is called the perched ground water zone and the aquifer is called a perched aquifer. The upper surface of the ground water in this case is called a perched water table. Depending on the climatic conditions, a perched water table may be permanent or seasonally intermittent. The perched aquifer has limited thickness and areal extent Page | 19

Fig. 5: Perched Aquifers

4.2 Aquifer Properties

Besides porosity and permeability there are several parameters that are related to the flow of water through the aquifers and confining layers. The important parameters are transmissivity and storage coefficient which are known as Formation Constants.

4.2.1 Transmissivity:
The overall capacity of an aquifer to transmit water is dependent on the thickness and hydraulic conductivities of the components parts of the aquifer. It is, therefore, a product of average hydraulic conductivity and saturated thickness of the aquifer.

T Kb

(T= transmissivity in m2/day, K= hydraulic conductivity in m, b = thickness of the aquifer) Transmissivity is defined as the rate of flow of water in cubic meters per day, through a vertical strip of the

aquifer of one meter wide (unit width) and extending through the entire saturated thickness of the aquifer under a hydraulic gradient of (100% unit hydraulic gradient) at a temperature of 15.6C.

4.2.2 Co-Efficient of Storage/Storativity (S):

The capacity of an aquifer to store water is expressed as a coefficient designated as S. The head in the aquifer changes when the water is either stored or released indicating a change in the storage volume within the aquifer. Storativity is defined as the volume of water that an aquifer releases or takes in to storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in component of the head normal to that surface. Thus storativity is equal to the amount of water removed from each vertical column of aquifer of height m and unit basal area when the head declines by one unit (Fig. 7). S = Volume of water / (Unit area) (Unit head change ) = m3 / (m2) (m)

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Fig. 7: Diagram illustrating storage coefficient of confined aquifers Storatitivity is non-dimensional. In confined aquifer, storatitivity is a result of compression of the aquifer and expansion of the contained water a result of reduced pressure due to pumping. The value of S ranges from 0.00001 (10-5) to 0.001 (10-3) for confined aquifers.

4.2.3 Specific Yield (Sy):

The capacity of the rock to drain water under the force of gravity is termed specific yield.. It is defined as the volume of water released or stored per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in the head normal to that surface. When water is drained from a saturated material by gravity force, only part of the total volume stored in its pores is released. The quantity of water that a unit volume of material will give up when drained by gravity is the specific yield. The part of water that is not removed by gravity drainage is held against the force of gravity by molecular attraction and capillary. The quantity of water that a unit volume of aquifer retains when subjected to gravity drainage is called its specific retention.

4.3 Well Hydraulics

Water wells are used for the extraction of ground water for domestic, municipal, industrial and irrigation needs. Flow towards a well has been termed Radial Flow.

4.3.1 Definition of Terms:

1. Static Water Level (SWL):- The level at which the water level stands in a well before pumping is called static water level. It is generally expressed as the distance from the ground surface to the water level in a well. For example, when the SWL is 15m, it means that the water stands 15 meters below the ground surface or measuring point when there is no pumping. Page | 21

2. Pumping Water Level (PWL):- This is the level at which water stands in a well when pumping is in progress. This level is variable and changes with the quantity of water being pumped. The pumping water level is also called the dynamic water level. 3. Drawdown (s):- It is the difference between the static water level and the pumping water level. Drawdown affects the yield of the well. 4. Residual Drawdown (s'):- After pumping is stopped, the water level rises and approaches the SWL observed before pumping began. During water level recovery, the distance between the recouping water level and the initial SWL is called residual drawdown. 5. Recovery:- This the amount by which the water level in a well has risen at a given time after pumping ceased. Thus, it is the difference between the residual drawdowns after the given time and drawdowns when pumping stopped. When the water level returns to the SWL, recovery is said to be complete. 6. Pumping Rate (Discharge):- This is the volume of water per unit time discharged from a well by pumping. This is also called the well yield. It can be measured in liters per minute (lpm). Other units employed are cubic meter per hour (m3/h) and cubic meter per day (m3/day).

4.3.2 Ground Water Flow

Turbulent flow Two basic types of flow occur in ground water with one more prevalent than the other. The water in the interstices of the permeable rocks in the zone of saturation is, as a rule, move very slowly and steadily. This slow and steady kind of movement is called the laminar flow. It is also known as streamline (or) viscous flow. In each thread of laminar movement there is an endless procession of particles of water, and each particle of water moves in a regular path without crossing or intersecting those of others. That means there is no intermixing individual threads /layers. (Fig. 9)

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4.3.3 Radial Flow to Wells

CONE OF DEPRESSION:- When a well is pumped, water is removed from the aquifer and the water table is lowered and hydraulic gradient is established resulting in convergent or Radial flow towards the well. The distance between static water level and the pumping water level is called drawdown. A drawdown curve shows the variation of drawdown with distance from the well. In three dimensions, the drawdown curve describes a conic shape known as cone of depression. The water surface assumes approximately the shape of an inverted cone with PWL as apex and the base conforming to the original SWL. The perimeter of the cone of depression defines the area of influence and the radius of base of the cone is referred as the radius of influence (R). Radius of influence is the horizontal distance from the center of a well to the limit of the cone of depression. As more and more water is pumped out of the well, the area of influence keeps expanding indefinitely till a position is reached when the rate of discharge from the well equals to the rate of recuperation from the storage of the well. It is at this instant that the cone of depression is stabilized and the well is in equilibrium condition. In a formation with high transmissivity, the cone of depression is shallow with flat sides and has a large radius. In a formation with low transmissivity, the cone is deep with steep sides and has a small radius.

STEADY-STATE FLOW:- Flow is said to be under steady or equilibrium state when the magnitude and direction specific discharge remain constant with time. Steady-state flow implies that the position of the piezometric surface and the hydraulic gradient remain unchanged. There is no addition to or withdrawal from the storage of the aquifer, and equilibrium conditions have been reached between recharge and discharge.

NON-STEADY STATE FLOW:- Flow is said to be under non-steady, also called unsteady or nonequilibrium or transient state when the magnitudes or direction of specific discharge changes with time. Changes in storage of the aquifer are involved in non-steady flow. Non-steady state flow is described with respect to boundary and initial conditions.

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