Internship (May-July, 2011) Report Topic:STUDY OF LONG PERIOD GRATING SENSITIVITY (TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN) IN ORDER TO DISCRIMINATE THE

TEMPERATURE AND STRAIN

Submitted By:Yogesh Kumar 3 year undergraduate IIT Delhi

rd

Under Guidance of:Prof. J.P.Meunier & Dr. Emmanuel Marin Department of Optics & Photonics Laboratoire Hubert Curien UMR CNRS 5516

Contents:1. Acknowledgement 2. Introduction 3. Theory 3.1 Mode Fields in an Optical Fiber 3.2 Long Period Fiber Grating(LPFG) 3.3 Coupling in LPFG 3.4 Sensitivity of LPFG 4. Experiment 4.1 Temperature and strain sensitivity for LPFGs of different period 4.2 Discrimination of temperature and strain 4.3 Discussion 5. Simulations(using MATLAB ) 5.1 Core Modes in a step index fiber 5.2 Cladding Modes in a step index fiber 6. References

1. Acknowledgement
I would like to acknowledge and extend my hearty gratitude to Prof. J.P.Meunier and Dr. Emmanuel Marin for their continuous support, feedback and experience sharing during this project. Comments from both of them over my work were really helpful in successful completion of my internship. Without their help it was not possible to complete this project successfully. I would also like to thank for other supports apart from project work. I loved working with them and would love to work with them in future. I really loved my first stay in Europe. Although there was a problem of language but these 2.5 months are unforgettable days of my life. I will always remember this beautiful city of Saint Etienne and its culture. I would also like to thank University Jean Monnet for financial support and Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi for providing me this great opportunity.

2. Introduction
The prime object of this internship is to develop a sensor based on long period fiber grating (LPFG) to discriminate between temperature and strain. A LPG helps to match the phase of core modes to cladding modes and thus power from core mode is transformed to cladding modes. These modes attenuate rapidly in the fiber and hence light at the phase matched wavelength is lost from the fiber. Thus, this coupling results in formation of attenuation bands (called mth mode) in the optical spectrum of LPG. These attenuation bands (resonance wavelength or peaks) are sensitive to several factors including strain and temperature. So when these factors change, there is a wavelength shift in the attenuation bands which is mode dependent. So by using two (or more) peaks and measuring the wavelength shift, we can determine the applied strain and temperature. In this internship we intend to improve the determination of temperature and strain by using more than two peaks.

3. Theory
3.1 Step Index optical fiber
In a step Index fiber, the core and cladding have uniform refractive indices with core having higher refractive index. The refractive index decreases sharply at the core-cladding interface.

Fig.1. Diagram of a cross section of a fiber geometry considered here, showing the cylindrical coordinate system, the refractive indexes, and the radii of the core( ) and of the cladding( ).

Examples of standard core and cladding diameters 2 /2 85/125, or 100/140 (units of m) [1].

are 8/125, 50/125, 62.5/125,

The fractional refractive-index change is = (n1-n2)/n2 .The value of n1 is typically between 1.44 and 1.46 while the value of is typically between 0.001 and 0.02.

3.2 Scalar modes in a step index fiber

The field guided in an optical fiber can be written as a superposition of bounded modes in the fiber. These modes are solution of the following scalar wave equation. [2]

(1)
A circularly symmetric step index fiber is characterized by following refractive index

( )

As in actual fiber cladding radius is comparatively very large than core radius, so this approximation is very much valid. Also <<1, so scalar wave approximation can be used. Also

radial coordinate system (r,,z) will be best for the optical fiber geometry given above. Now for depending only on the radial coordinates(r), we may write

(
is the angular frequency and obtains

(2)

is propagation constant. Substituting in equation (1), we

( )

(3)

In cylindrical coordinates, above equation becomes,

( )

(4)

The solution of this equation will give propagation constant (eigen value) of modes (eigen functions) propagating in the fiber as given in equation (2). The transverse dependence of modal field is then given by

( ) ( )

. /[ . /[

] (5) ]

Where, (x) is bessel function of first kind and ( ) is modified bessel function. And, l is the azimuthal mode number which takes only positive integral values including zero. Also

(
And,

(6)

is called free space wave vector.

Also the normalized waveguide parameter V is defined as

(7)

Also normalized propagation constant, b is defined as,

(8)
Propagation constant (or ) are then found by solving following eigenvalue equation,

(
And

, (

, , -

, (

(9)

(
For a given value of

)
V

, (

, ,

, (
and fixed

(10)
b and the mth solution

l , there will be finite number of solutions for

mode (linearly polarised).

(m=1,2,3,) is referred to as the

3.3 Long Period Fiber Grating

A fiber grating is a dielectric structure in which refractive index varies periodically along the fiber. In contrast to a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG), the period of an LPFG is of the order of a fraction of millimeter (100 of micrometers). Length of an LPFG is few centimeters. It couples light from a guided mode to forward propagating cladding modes which is then lost due to absorption and scattering. This coupling is very much wavelength dependent which results in spectrally selective loss. In comparison to FBGs, LPGs are easy to fabricate and have better wavelength tunability.

Fig.2. Coupling of fundamental guided modes to cladding modes in a LPFG

The most widely used method for introducing index modulation in Ge-doped silica fibers is UV laser irradiation with wavelengths typically between 193 and 266 nm [3]. The photosensitivity of fiber is increased by hydrogen loading. The exposure of fiber to UV light is done through an amplitude mask.

3.4 LPFG Coupling

Consider a single-mode fiber with the propagation constant of the fundamental mode, , denoted by and also assume that propagation constant of the cladding modes are given by

, where the superscript denotes the order of mode [4]. The relative position of the propagation constants are shown in the figure (3). is period of grating.

Fig.3. Phase matching considerations for the long period fiber grating

The strength of coupling between the core mode and the cladding modes is determined by coupling coefficient ( k ). This coefficient is zero for all cladding modes other than 1st order mode. So we need to consider only first order cladding modes. As period of LPFG is comparatively larger (or 2/ is small), so it can couple a forward propagating mode to only forward propagating cladding mode. The phase matching condition between guided mode and the forward propagating cladding modes is given by ;

(11)

As are wavelength dependent, so when light passes through LPFG, we obtain peaks in the transmission spectrum corresponding to the wavelength which satisfies the phase matching condition. The transmission spectrum for an LPFG (SMF-28 fiber) with period of 290 m is given in the figure (4). n represents the order cladding mode.

Fig.4. Transmission spectrum for a LPFG of period 290 m (SMF-28)

3.5 LPFG Sensitivity

Unlike FBGs in which counter-directional coupling occurs in the core, co-directional coupling in LPFGs is between a core and a cladding mode, this results in that LPFGs are not only sensitive to temperature T and axial strain, but also to bending causing a curvature C, to hydrostatic pressure p, to ambient refractive index and to torsion changes. [5]

(12)

( ) The center wavelength is mode dependent and so are coefficients These coefficients also depend on fiber type and technology involved. Temperature sensitivities are generally higher for higher mode and higher period, also these sensitivities (strain and temperature) could be positive, zero and even negative also. The temperature dependence of peak wavelength can be written as [3]

)+

(13)

While axial strain sensitivity can be determined as

)+

(14)
is the effective

is the effective refractive index of propagating core mode and refractive index of ith cladding mode. L is the length of LPFG.

4. Experiment
The LPFGs were fabricated using SMF-28 fiber by UV Laser irradiation (Phase mask technique). We fabricated LPFGs of different periods. The basic idea for discriminating between strain and temperature using a LPFG is that the sensitivity of transmission peaks due to coupling between fiber core mode and cladding modes is mode dependent. If we apply strain and temperature simultaneously to an LPFG, the wavelength shift will be given as
(15.a)

Where and are temperature and strain sensitivity coefficient for mth mode. These coefficients can be found by solving following system of equations, for I measurements:

[ [ ]

] [ ]

(15.b)

and T are then given by solving the following system of equations, by considering m modes:

1 [ ]

(15.c)

Where,

S= [ ]

is called sensitivity matrix.

In fact only two modes are enough to determination of and T. In general, Sensitivity matrices with higher determinant give more accurate solutions. We have mainly tried to solve

using both with 2 modes and more than two modes. The above overdetermined systems are solved approximately using the least square solutions.

I.

Period = 290 m

Fig.5. Transmission spectrum of an LPFG of period 290 m showing different peaks

Error in determination is less when peaks are sharper and deeper. Thats why I have chosen peaks A, B and C for the measurements.

Fig.6. Wavelength shift for different modes with temperature

The temperature sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 73.83, 54.75 and 49.08 (pm/K) respectively.

Fig.7. Wavelength shift for different modes with strain

The strain sensitivity coefficient for peaks A, B and C are 0.1506, -0.089 and -0.2067 (pm/) respectively. The Sensitivity matrix is

S=[
* ( )+

( ( 27.95

)] ) ;

And sensitivity matrix for peaks A and C,

[ ( ] ) ; |Determinant|=22.65

Experimental

Calculated (using A, B and C)

Error

Calculated (using A and C) 18.3 0.52 14.4 50.53 1433 2024 2375 4277

error

22.3 0 15 57 1111 1944 2222 3333 18.42 0.46 14.8 51.31

1408 2038 2293 4117 3.88 -0.46 0.2 5.69

C) 4 -0.52 0.6 6.47 2.9

-412 -80 -153 -944 397

-297 -93.75 -71 -784 311

Avg(|error|) 2.56

Table.1. Discrimination between temperature and strain and error between experimental and calculated values

II.

Period =270 m

Fig.8. Transmission spectrum of an LPFG of period 270 m showing different peaks

Fig.9. Wavelength shift for different modes with temperature

The temperature sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 62.94, 37.56 and 34.99 (pm/K) respectively.

Fig.10. Wavelength shift for different modes with strain

The strain sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 0.2764, -0.2781 and -0.1657 (pm/) respectively. The sensitivity matrix is

S=[
* ( )+ [

( (

)] )

While sensitivity matrix for peak A and B is

( ] ) ; |Determinant|=27.89

Experimental

Calculated(using A, B and C)

Error 14.25 -189 92.75 -242 64.25 -15.25 152.5 -11 253.25 115

Calculated(using A and B) 27.84 76.95 29.52 77.3 78.37 78.06 76.82 79.48 78.01

Error -0.75 -364 148.75 -424 -119 -207 -56.5 -182 81.25 176

28.11 77.63 28.33 78.63 82.36 80.73 79.63 81.43 81.93

1944.25 3333 1388.75 3055 833.25 2500 2777.5 2222 1944.25

27.9 78 29.2 78.4 79.43 79.2 78.02 80.47 79

1930 0.21 3522 -0.37 1296 -0.87 3297 0.23 769 2.93 2515 1.53 2625 1.61 2233 0.96 1691 2.93 Avg(|error|) 1.29

1945 0.27 3697 0.68 1240 -1.19 3479 1.33 952 3.99 2707 2.67 2834 2.81 2404 1.95 1863 3.92 2.09

Table.2. Discrimination between temperature and strain and error between experimental and calculated values

III.

Period=200 m

Fig.11. Transmission spectrum of an LPFG of period 200 m showing different peaks

Fig.12. Wavelength shift for different modes with temperature

The temperature sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 76.26, 46.94 and 39.26 (pm/K) respectively.

Fig.13. Wavelength shift for different modes with strain

The strain sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 0.8864, 0.015 and -0.0082 respectively. The sensitivity matrix is
[ ]

)+

Calculated Experimental Error

-0.05 16.7 0 1944

) 1.15 13.52

1974 -1.2 2430 3.18

-30 208

16.9 41.45 42 93.1 105.25 141.8

2222 1389 2780 1111 1944 833

16.73 44.03 39.58 90.66 100.6 146.29

1078 0.17 2401 -2.58 834 2.42 2004 2.44 1000 4.65 3259 -4.49 Avg(|error|) 2.64

311 379 277 -60 -167 -479 239

Table.3. Discrimination between temperature and strain and error between experimental and calculated values

IV.

Period=300 m

Fig.14. Transmission spectrum of an LPFG of period 300 m showing different peaks

Fig.15. Wavelength shift for different modes with temperature

The temperature sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B, C and D are 143.95, 53.49, 48.39 and 41.58 (pm/K) respectively.

Fig.16. Wavelength shift for different modes with strain

The strain sensitivity coefficient for peaks A, B, C and D are 1.7421, -0.2508, -0.2326, 0.4337 (pm/) respectively. The sensitivity matrix is
( ( ( ) ] ) )

)+

Experimental

Calculated

Error

63.1 55.6 20 20.2 20.8 56.9 55.1 0 0 0 2499.75 2222 833.25 1944.25 3055.25 1111 555.5 3333 2780 1667 60.72 53.92 21.61 21.72 20.87 54.18 55.09 -1.03 2862 0.85

2332 2.38 2344 1.68 785 -1.61 1819 -1.52 2883 -0.07 969 2.72 325 0.01 3282 1.03 -0.1 1670 Avg(|error|) -0.85 1.2

167.75 -122 48.25 125.25 172.25 142 230.5 51 -84.5 -3 115

Table.4. Discrimination between temperature and strain and error between experimental and calculated values

V.

Period= 260 m

Fig.17. Transmission spectrum of an LPFG of period 260 m showing different peaks

Fig.18. Wavelength shift for different modes with temperature

Temperature sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 60.41, 46.99 and 34.62 (pm/K) respectively.

Fig.19. Wavelength shift for different modes with strain

The strain sensitivity coefficients for peaks A, B and C are 0.1573, -0.1437 and -0.2271 (pm/) respectively. The sensitivity matrix is
( ( )] )

( [

)+

=22.65 ]; Det(S) =19.35 )

While the sensitivity matrix for peaks A and B is

(

Experimental 0.1 46.7 47 92.5 2502 2780 1944 2502

Calculated(Using A, B and C) 0.61 44.42 44.75 95.25

Error -97 116 191 357 190

Calculated(Using A and B) 0.47 44.37 44.81 95.43

Error -192 87 234 474 247

2599 -0.51 2664 2.28

2694 -0.37 2693 2.33

1753 2.25 2145 -2.75 1.95

1710 2.19 2028 -2.93 1.95

Avg(|Error|)

Table.5. Discrimination between temperature and strain and error between experimental and calculated values

4.1 Discussion
Above experiments clearly shows that wavelength shift is linear with both temperature and strain. Also we found that temperature sensitivity coefficients are generally positive while strain sensitivity coefficient could be positive as well as negative. From the above results, we can easily see that the sensitivity matrix very much depends on period of LPFG. Also we found that for all the results given above; the LPFG with period of 300 m has the sensitivity matrix with highest determinant (221.51) and at the same time, as expected, it also has least error in the determination of temperature and strain. LPFG with period of 260 m has the minimum determinant (22.65) and it has higher error in determination of temperature and strain.

Period of LPFG (m)

Determinant of sensitivity matrix

Average error in determination of temperature 2.64 1.95 2.09 2.56 1.2

Average error in determination of micro-strain 239 190 176 311 115

200 260 270 290 300

53.79 22.65 34.55 27.95 221.51

Table.6. Determinant and errors in determination of temperature and strain for LPFG of different periods

Also we can see that error is generally higher when we use only to 2 peaks to discriminate between temperature and strain. The main reason for error includes low sensitivity coefficient for strain and the noise in the transmission spectrum of LPG. A suitable method should be used to determine peaks. I mainly used Gaussian fit in the peaks or the smoothing spline(with suitable parameter) function of MATLAB to reduce noise. So the conclusion is this that if a LPFG with suitable period, so that it has high determinant(as in case of LPFG with 300 m period), is used , then it is possible to discriminate between temperature and strain with a single LPFG.

5. Simulations
1. Program to find propagation constants of scalar core modes in a step index fiber
n1= ref. index of core, n2= ref. index of cladding,

a=core radius, lambda= wavelength of light propagating in fiber,

function [ h ] = core_mode( n1,n2,a,lambda) %..this gives propagation constants for core modes in a step index fiber. h=[];k0=2*pi/(lambda); v=k0*a*sqrt(n1^2-n2^2); h1=modes(v,0);i=0;l=0;j=0; while length(h1)>0; for n=length(h1):-1:1; j=j+1;i=i+1;h(i,1)=l*10+n;h(i,2)=h1(j);h(i,3)=k0*sqrt(n2^2+h(i,2)*(n1^2n2^2)); end l=l+1;j=0;h1=modes(v,l); end end

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------function [ h ] = modes( v,l ) if v<10 h=root(v,l,0.0001,0.999,0.01,0.0001); else h=vertcat(root(v,l,0.0001,0.7901,0.01,0.0001),... root(v,l,0.7901,0.8991,0.001,0.0001),root(v,l,0.8991,0.999,0.0001,0.0001)); end end ----------------------------------------------------------------------------function [ y ] = root( v,l,b1,b2,b,c ) %finds a root between b1 and b2(normalization propagation constant). y=[]; for z=b1:b:(b2-b); if func(z,v,l)*func(z+b,v,l)<=0; a1=z;a2=z+b; while abs(a1-a2)>c; if func(a1,v,l)*func((a1+a2)/2,v,l)<=0; a2=(a1+a2)/2; else a1=(a1+a2)/2; end end p=(a1+a2)/2; if abs(func(p,v,l))<10;

y=vertcat(y,p); end end end end ----------------------------------------------------------------------------function y = func( b,v,l ) if l==0; y=((v*(sqrt(1-b))*besselj(1,v*(sqrt(1-b)))/besselj(0,v*(sqrt(1b))))-... (v*(sqrt(b))*besselk(1,v*(sqrt(b)))/besselk(0,v*(sqrt(b))))); else y=((v*(sqrt(1-b))*besselj(l-1,v*(sqrt(1-b)))/besselj(l,v*(sqrt(1b))))+... (v*(sqrt(b))*besselk(l-1,v*(sqrt(b)))/besselk(l,v*(sqrt(b))))); end end

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Program to find propagation constants of cladding modes in a step index fiber n= (1xN) array containing ref. indices of different layer starting from core. R= {1x(N-1)} array containing radii of different layers starting from core radii. lambda= wavelength of propagating light. m= azimuthal order. l= minimum value of propagation constant.

For e.g. in case of a step profile fiber, n=[n1,n2,n3]; R=[a1,a2];

function [ a ] = cladding_mode( n,R,lambda,m,l ) a=[];y=[]; k=2*pi/(lambda);N=length(n);j=0; for z=(l):0.0001:(k*n(2)); j=j+1; x(j,1)=z; p=k^2*(n(1))^2-z^2; if p>=0; k1=sqrt(p); e=k1*R(1); E=besselj(m,e); E1=k1*(m/e*besselj(m,e)-besselj(m+1,e));

else k2=sqrt(-p); e=k2*R(1); E=besseli(m,e); E1=k2*(m/e*besseli(m,e)+besseli(m+1,e)); end i=1; while i<N; i=i+1; p=k^2*(n(i))^2-z^2; if p>=0 k1=sqrt(p); r=R(i-1); e=k1*r; A=pi*r*(k1*E*(m/e*bessely(m,e)-bessely(m+1,e))-E1*bessely(m,e))/2; B=pi*r*(-k1*E*(m/e*besselj(m,e)-besselj(m+1,e))+E1*besselj(m,e))/2; if i<N e=k1*R(i); E=A*besselj(m,e)+B*bessely(m,e); E1=k1*(A*(m/e*besselj(m,e)-besselj(m+1,e))+B*(m/e*bessely(m,e)... -bessely(m+1,e))); end else k2=sqrt(-p); r=R(i-1); e=k2*r; A=r*(k2*E*(m/e*besseli(m,e)+besseli(m+1,e))-E1*besseli(m,e)); B=r*(-k2*E*(m/e*besselk(m,e)-besselk(m+1,e))+E1*besselk(m,e)); if i<N e=k1*R(i); E=A*besselk(m,e)+B*besseli(m,e); E1=k2*(A*(m/e*besselk(m,e)-besselk(m+1,e))+B*(m/e*besseli(m,e)... +besseli(m+1,e))); end end end y(j,1)=B; end n1=length(y); for n2=1:n1; y1(n2)=y(n2)/abs(y(n2)); end i1=0; for n2=n1:-1:2; if y(n2)*y(n2-1)<0; i1=i1+1;a(i1,1)=(x(n2)+x(n2-1))/2; end end end

3. Following programme is to determine the soln. of equn. When number

of equation is equal or greater than number of variables. For e.g.

[ [ ]

] [ ]

In this

function [ x ] = soln_eq( a,b ) % no. of equations can be more than no. of variables. c(1,:)=a(:,1);c(2,:)=a(:,2); % matrix 'c' is transpose of matrix 'a' a1=c*a; b1=c*b; x=(a1)^-1*b1; end For e.g.

[ [ ]

] [ ]

In this case a=
[ ] ; b= [ ] ; are unknowns.

----------------------------------------------------------------

6. References
[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step-index_profile [2] Ajoy Ghatak and K.Thyagarajan, Introduction to optics, Cambridge University press, 1997: pp.132-138 [3] Stephen W James and Ralph P Tatam, Optical fiber long-period grating sensors: characteristics and applications, Meas. Sci. Technol., 14, p.49-61, 2003 *4+ M.Vengsarkar, Lemaire, Judkins, Bhatia, Erdogan and E.Sipe, Long-Period fiber gratings as BandRejection filters, Lightwave Technology, Vol.14, No.1, pp.58-65, January 1996 [5] Tinko Eftimov, Sensor Applications of Fiber Bragg and Long Period Grating, Plovdiv university, Bulgaria, NATO ASI in Optical Waveguide Sensing & Imaging, Gatineau, Qubec, Canada, Oct.12-21 2006 in W.J. Bock et al. (eds.), Optical Waveguide Sensing and Imaging, p.1-23, Springer,2008