B.Sc.

IT 17 – 01
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

1. Explain the advantage of Optical Fiber.

Ans.:- Communication using optical carrier wave guided along a glass fiber has many attractive
features, which makes optical fiber advantage over other media particularly copper cable. These
features are

a.) Enormous Potential Bandwidth: The light carrier frequency is in the range of 1013 to 1016 Hz
(generally near the infrared, around 1014 Hz). Hence there is greater transmission band width than
copper cables system (The maximum B.W. of coaxial cable is about 500 MHz).This is even better
than millimeter wave radio systems. Actually in optical communication system, the bandwidth is
not limited by the optical fiber but the by electronic systems used at the terminal stations
(transmitter and receiver).

b.) Small size and weight: Optical fiber has vary small diameter (a few micrometers). Hence even
with the protective jackets, the size & weight of optical fiber are much less than copper wires. This
feature is vary useful in areas like satellites and aircraft, where the size and width must be as low
as possible.

c.) Electrical isolation: Optical fiber is made up of glass or plastic polymers, which are insulators.
Hence optical fiber transmission ideally suited for communication in electrically environments.
There are no possibilities of arcing hazard.

d.) Immunity to interference and cross-talk: Optical fibers are made up of dielectric material
(glass). Hence it is free from electromagnetic & radio frequency interference. There is no optical
interference between two fibers. Hence cross-talk is negligible. Optical fibers are immune to
external interference.

e.) Low loss: Optical fiber has very low transmission loss. Presently fibers with attenuation of as low
as 0.2 db/km, are available. This along with high bandwidth is major advantage of optical fiber
communication.

f.) Signal Security: Optical Signal is well confined to the fiber. No radiation outside the fiber. It is
not possible to tap signal security is more.

2. Explain ISO network model.

Ans.:- A typical communication in an ISO/OSI model is shown in the figure.

The OSI model has seven layers:

a.) The Physical Layer: This layer handles the unstructured raw, bit stream data that is transferred
over the physical medium. It also defines the how the physical medium or cables is attached to the
network interface card (NIC). It does that by determining how many pins are in the connector that
is being used and also the function of each pin. The physical layer sends out bits equaling 1s and
0s and determines how long each bit lasts and how it is translated into the suitable optical or
electrical impulse for the network cable.
b.) The Data Link Layer: The Data Link Layer is responsible for providing error free transfer of
frames from one computer to another using the Physical Layer. A frame is a bundle of information
sent as a signal entity. Some of the other functions provided by the Data Link Layer are:

a. Transmitting and receiving frames sequentially

Application protocol
7 Application Application APDU

Presentation protocol
6 Presentation Presentation PPDU

Session protocol
5 Session Session SPDU

Transport protocol
4 Transport Transport TPDU
Communication subnet boundary
Internal subnet protocol

3 Network Network Network Network Packet

2 Data link Data link Data link Data link Frame

1 Physical Physical Physical Physical Bit

Host A Router Router Host B

Network layer host-router protocol

Data link layer host-router protocol
Physical layer host-router protocol

b. Providing frame acknowledgement for frames it receives

c. Re transmitting frames that are acknowledged by the receiving computer
 c.) The Network Layer: This layer is responsible for determining the route that is taken from the
transmitting computer. It is also responsible for addressing message and the translation of logical
addresses into Physical addresses. The Network Layer determines what path the data should take,
based upon the several factors, including the condition of the network and the priority of the
service.

d) The Transport Layer: Transport Layer is responsible for ensuring that all data is delivered in the
correct sequence, error free, with no losses. It is the Transport Layer that breaks up large messages into
smaller packets for delivery. Some of the other functions provided by this layer are:

a. Error handling
b. Flow control, by notifying the transmitting computer to not to transmit when the receiving
computers has no available buffers.

e) The Session Layer: The layer establishes a communications connection between processes running on
different computers. It performs name recognition and related functions- for example user authentication
and resource access security that are needed to allow processes to communication over the network. To
ensure that all data gets sent, it uses the checkpoints placed in the data stream to provided for
synchronization. In the case of network failure the only data needs to be sent again is the data after the last
checkpoint. The session layer is also responsible for controlling when and for how long each side transmits.

f) The Presentation Layer: The Presentation Layer is the translator for the network as it determines the
format used to exchange data among the computers on the network. Some of its functions are:

a. Protocol conversion
b. Data translation
c. Data encryption
d. Data compression
e. Conversion of the character set

g) The Application Layer: Application Layer is the top layer of the OSI model. It is used to allow
application to access network services. It handles general network access, flow control and error recovery.
Some of the function it supports are:

a. Accessing remote files

b. Accessing remote printers
c. Accessing remote data bases
d. Electronic mail

The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:

a. A layer should be created where a different level of abstraction in needed.

b. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
c. The function of each layer should be chosen for defining internationally standardized
protocols.
d. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the
interface.
e. The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity, and small enough that the architectural does
not become unwieldy.

The OSI model it self is not a network architecture because it does not specify the exact services and
protocols to be used in each layer. It just tells what each layer should do. However ISO has also produced
standers for all the layers, although these are not part of the reference model itself. Each one has been
published as a separate international standard.
3. What is signal degradations in fibers? Explain.

Ans.:- When signal is transmitted through optical fiber, it get attenuated and also under goes what is
known as dispersion.

Attenuation: Transmission loss is one of the most important factors in designing a communication
link using optical fiber. Attenuation determines the maximum channel distance. The copper cable may have
attenuation of more than 5db/km, where as optical fiber has attenuation as low as 0.2 db/km.
The major cause of attenuation is the absorption of light by impurities (extrinsic absorption). These
impurities mainly include hydroxyl ions. Even the basic material can also cause absorption (intrinsic
absorption). But it is very much less compared to extrinsic absorption. Attenuation is also caused due to
scattering of light by structural defects along the fiber. All these attenuation are wavelength dependent.
Hence attenuation in optical fiber is wavelength dependent. An attenuation characteristic exhibits minima
points at around 3 wavelengths, at 850 nano meters, 1300 nano meters, and 1550 nano meters. These are
known as optical windows. The communication links operates at these windows.

Dispersion: Dispersion causes broadening of optical pulses sent through the fiber. This leads to distortion
and loss of data. In a multi mode step-index fiber, dispersion is mainly inter model dispersion. The different
modes will have different path lengths when travel along the fiber (as illustrated in fig.). Hence they arrive
at the output with different delays.

Ray with highest path length Axial Ray(Lowest path length)

θ Core
Cladding

The speed of light in the medium is inversely dependent on refractive index. Therefore by controlling
refractive index, it is possible to make different rays as shown above to travel with different velocity (axial
ray should have lowest velocity). This is achieved by grading the refractive index profile along the radius of
the core (graded index fiber). Thus in graded index fibers, inter model dispersion is negligible.

Dispersion is also caused within a mode. This is intramodal dispersion. This is due to wave length
depending of the refractive index of the material. Dispersion puts upper limit on data rate. Dispersion
increases with length of the fiber. Hence with a given fiber, if data rate is high, then length of the link
should be less. Thus link bandwidth is specified in terms of data rate- distance product.

4. Give the application of optical fiber communication system.

Ans.:-

1. Public network applications: Public telecommunication network provides many optical fiber
communication systems. Present plan is the installation of increasing number of optical finer links
as an alternate to coaxial and high frequency pair cable systems (even to micro wave links).
a. Trunk network or Toll network is used to carrying telephone traffic between trunk exchanges.
The link is to over 300 Km and occasionally to as much as 1000 Km. the data rate is typically 34
Mbps and 140 Mbps. Link uses LED or laser in the 0.85 to 0.9 μm wave region with graded
index fiber. 565 MBPS links are existing in 1.3 to 1.55 μm band using laser and single mode
fibers. Repeater spacing is about 60 Km.
b. Of link is also established for local access network. Ring, tree and star networks are mainly used.
c. Optical fibers are also used in LAN, MAN and WAN.
 d. Submerged system: signal mode optical fiber system operating at 1.3 and 1.55 μm will provided
repeater spacing of 25 to 50 Km and even longer (for coaxial submerged cables the repeater
spacing is only 5 Km). The data rate is 560 MBPS. With the invention of optical amplifiers even
higher rate can be achieved.
e. Optical fiber networks are used for high-speed synchronous networks- SONET.

2. Military application: Most promising areas of military application for optical fiber
communication is within military mobiles such as aircraft, ships and tanker. The small size and
weight of the optical fiber is attractive features here.
Another major areas for the application in military sphere include both short and long distance
communication links.

3. Optical fiber also finds application in industries: In establishing an optical link many fiber have
to be joined together. A permanent fiber to fiber joint is called splice. Fiber connectors are also in
use. Certain amount of power is lost in these splice,sand,connecters.

A typical optical power budget for 140 MBPS trunk system operating over 8 Km of multimode Gl
fiber at 0.85 micro meter is given below:

Mean power launched from laser - 4.5 dBm

Receiver sensitivity - 48 dBm
Total system margin 43.5 dB
Cable loss = 8 * 3 20.0 dB
(3 dBm/Km)
Splice loss 2.7 dB
Connector loss 2 dB
Dispersion equalization penalty 6 dB
Safety margin 7 dB
Total loss 41.7 dB
Excess power margin 1.8 dB

5. Explain Ring Topology.

Ans.: - This layout is similar to the liner bus, except that the nodes are connected in a circle using cable
segments. In this layout, each nodes is physically connected only two others. Each node passes the
information along to the next, until it arrives at the intended destination. Performance can be faster on this
system because each portion of the cabling system is handling only the data flow between two machines.
This type of topology can be found in peer-to-peer networks, in which each machine manages both
information processing and the distribution of data files.
 Fig:- RING TOPOLOGY

6. Explain LOS propagation on free space.

Ans.: - In LOS, the radio wave propagation takes place between two isolated isotropic antennas in an
isotropic, homogeneous and lossless medium infinite in extent. In this case transmission takes place only
along the direct ray path from the Transmission to Receiver.
Consider two isolated isotropic antennas separated by a distance located in an isotropic, homogeneous and
lossless medium infinite in extent.
Let Pt be the total power radiated by transmitter antenna, then the power density at a distance ‘d’ from the
Transmitter is given by Sr = Pt / 4πd2 ………. (1)
The power received by the receiving antenna Pr =SrAr ……….(2)
Where Ar is the effective or capture area of the Receiver antenna.

Tx

Rx

The effective area of an antenna with directly

Gr is given by Ar = λ2/4π Gr For isotropic antenna Gr =1

Ar = λ2/4π …..(3) For isotropic antenna .

Then Pr = Pr/4πd2 * λ2/4π = Pt{ λ/4πd}2…… (4)

Now the free space loss Lfs = Pt/Pr = (4πd / λ)2 …… (5)

Then Lfs(dB) = 10 log [ 4πd/λ]2 = 20 log [ 4π/ 3*108 dkm * 103fGHz *10 9]
= 92. 4418 + 20log dKm + 20 log fGHz ………. (6)
This is an ideal situation and forms a useful standard of communication for other types of
propagation. Satellite communication is a good example of free space propagation. When applied
to practical cases, the above expression needs modifications.
In practice directive antennas are used in place of isotropic antennas. Then
[Pr / Pt] directive = GtGr [Pr / Pt] isotropic Where Gt and Gr are the gains of transmitting and
Receiving antennas respectively.

Then Lfsg = 1/ Gr Gt [Pt / Pr] isotropic ………….(7)

Or Lfsg(dB) = 92.4418 + 20 log dKm + 20 log fGHz – Gt(dB) – Gr(dB)

But the gain of the antenna, G = Aeff / Aiso = 4π / λ2 * A
 = 4π / λ2 * K * (πD / λ2)
Where K = 0.55 and D is the diameter of the paraboloid.

G = 0.55(πD / λ)2
Or G(dB) = 10 log 0.55 + 20 log (πD / λ)
= 10 log 0.55 + 20 log(πDKm * fGHz * 109/3 * 108)
= 17.8042 + 20 log Dm + 20 log fGHz …………(8)
Then Lfsg = 92.4418 + 20log dKm + 20 log fGHz – 20 log Dm - 20 log Dm – 2(17.8042 + 20 log
fGHz)
Lfsg = 56.8334 + 20 log { dKm f GHz-1 / Dm Dm} dB ……..(9)

The power received by the receiver antenna is given by

Pr (dBW) = (Pt (dBW) – Lfsg) (dB) …. (10)
Power density at the Received is Sr (dB) = Pr (dBW) – At (dB) ….. (11)
If the field strength at the receiver is Er then

Sr = |Er|2 / η = |Er|2 / 120 π for free space, η = 120 πΩ

Then 20 log Er (V/m) = 10 log Sr + 10 log(120π)
= Sr(dB) + 25.7633
= 25.7633 + Pt(dBW) – Lfsg – Ar(dB)

But Ar (dB) = Gr(dB) – 21.45 – 20 log fGHz

Since Ar = Gr λ2 / 4π
= ( Gr /4π * 3*108 / f)2

Er (dB) = Pt (dBW) – 9.6021 – 20 log { dKm / Dtm Drm} …… (12)

Also Sr = Er2 / 120π ; Er2=120π Sr = 120π Pt / 4πd2

Or Er2 = 30 Pt / d2 or Er = √ 30 Pt / d V/m for an isotropic antenna

For an antenna with directive Gr

Er = √ 30 Pt Gt / d V/m ……. (13)

7. Explain PIN photo diode.

Ans.: - Photon

Intrinsic layer

n+

Load
 A pure semiconductor layer (intrinsic layer ) is sandwitched between p and n layers as shown in the Fig.
No. 3.11. The device is reverse biased. Light is incident layer through transparent p layer where it is
absorbed giving rise to electron-hole pairs. Under the influence of the external bias these photo generated
carrier give rise to current through the external load. This current through the external load. This current is
proportional to incident light. This current is given by

Lp = (ηq Po) / hv

Where η = quantum efficiency (generally about 0.65)

q = charge of an electron = 1.6* 10-9C
h = Plank’s constant = 6.625 * 10 –34 J-s
v = c/λ, where c = light velocity in free space = 3* 108 m/sec
and λ = where length , Po = incident optical power.

Absorption of light in the layer is wave length dependent. Hence diode made up of a material is
useful only in a particular range of wave length and germanium diodes are used at higher wave length
region.

8. Explain the principle of Laser.

Ans.: - LASER is acronym for Light Amplification of Stimulated Emission of Radiation. When a
photon gives sate (Absorption). This radiatively recombines to give photon again (spontaneous emission).
If electron in the higher energy band stimulated by a photon to come back to original state, stimulated
emission takes place. If many electrons are there in conduction band (population inversion), then large
number of stimulated emission take place leading to a coherent narrow beam of light output. This is called
LASING action. Semiconductor injection laser works on this principle.

9. Explain LOS propagation on flat earth.

Ans.: - Consider the two antennas at the height ht and hr above the surface of the earth and separated by a
distance of ‘d’ over a flat earth as shown in the fig. Let ‘d 1’ be the direct ray path TR and let ‘d 2’ be the total
path length of the reflected ray

i.e. TQ + QR = d2.

T
Tx

Direct Ray ‘d1’

h1 R
‘d2’ Rx
θ θ hr
 d

On reflection at the partially conducting ground the amplitude and phase of the reflected wave are changed.
This is accounted for the complex reflection coefficient ρ, defined as the ratio of the complex field strength
of the reflected wave Er to that of incident wave Ei

i.e. ρ = Er / Ei = |ρ| e Jφ
ρ is also function of the polarization, conductivity of the ground, εr angle of incidence and operating
frequency f.
ρh = Sinθ - √(εr – cos2θ) - jx where x = σ / ωε0
Sinθ + √(εr – cos2θ) - jx

And ρv = (εr – jx) Sinθ - √(εr- cos2θ) – jx

(εr – jx) Sinθ - √ (εr – cos2θ – jx

In practice ‘d’ is the order of 50 Km, hr and ht are of the order of 50m then θ is extremely small. For most
of the practical cases ρh ≈ ρv ≈ -1 or ρ = e jx

The path length for the direct wave d1 = √ d2 +(h1-hr)2

= d [ 1+ (ht-hr / d)2 ] ½ ≈ d [1+1/2 (ht-hr/d)2] ; by neglecting higher order

terms, as ((ht-hr) / d) is vary small.

d1 = d + ½ (ht – hr)2 /d
The path length for the reflected wave d2 = √d2 + (ht + hr )2

d2 = d + ½ (ht + hr)2 /2

Then the path difference between direct and reflected wave is

d + (ht + hr)2 / 2d – { d + (ht – hr)2 /2d} = 2hthr/d
Because of this path difference the reflected wave is retarded in Phase w.r.t direct wave by an angle ψ = 2π /
λ * 2hthr / d = 4π/λ * hthr/d ;
Hence the total field at the receiver antenna Elos is given by
ELos = Edirect + Edirect |ρ|e jΦ e-jψ
= Edirect [ 1+ |ρ| e j(Φ- ψ) ]

or | ELos | = |Edirect| [1+2 |ρ| cos(Φ – ψ ) + |ρ|2 ] ½

then |ELos| max = |EFS | [1± |ρ| ]

min

or ELos = √30Pt Gt / d (1 ±|ρ|)

Efs = √ 30 PtGt / d

jθ
1+ a e = 1 + a cosθ + jaSinθ This is the standard relation used to find
 |1+ a e jθ | = √ (1+ a cosθ)2 + a2 Sin2θ find the Magnitude
=√ 1+ 2a cosθ + a2

Hence for a Practical LOS, since in this case ρ = ejπ = -1, the field strength at the
receiver antenna is
|ELos| max = 2√ 30 Pt Gt / d and |ELos| min = 0

In gegeral case ELos = 2√30PtGt / d Sin ψ/2 mV/m ;

For |ELos|max, ρ = ejπ = -1, Φ = π = 180o,

 1+2 |ρ| cos (Φ –ψ) + |ρ|2

 2 +2 |ρ| cos (180 –ψ)
 2[1- cosψ]
 22 Sin2 ψ/2

where ψ/2 = 4π /λ* hthr/2d = 2π / 3*108 fGHz * 109 / dKm * 103

= π /6 40 fGHz htm hrm / dKm * 103

ψ / 2 = (π/6) 0.04 fGHz htm hrm / dKm

Then |ELos | = 2√ 30 PtGt / dKm Sin(π/6 * d0Km/ dKm) mV /m

Where d0 = 0.04 fGHz htm hrm in Km.

At a fixed freq. And for constant antenna heights as the receiving antenna is brought from the infinity the
sine function increase from zero. Where ‘d’ is large compared to ‘d0’

Sin (π /6 * d0/d) = π/6 * d0/d and |ELos| = 2√30 PtGt / dKm π/6 d0 Km / dKm

Or |ELos| = 2√30 Gt Pt / d2 Km π/6 d 0 Km or ELos α 1/d2

At d = d0, |ELos| = 2√30 PtGt / dKm Sin π/6 = √ 30 Pt Gt / dKm mV/m = |Efs|
At d = d0 / 3, | ELos| = 2|Efs| ; At d = d0 /6, |Elos| =0

Therefore |ELos| goes through its maximum and minimum.

The maximum occurs at d = d0/3, d0/9, d0/15, ………

Minimum occurs at d = d0 /6, d0 /12, d0 /18, ………

To study the variable of ELos with parameters other than the distance ‘d’, note that equation for equation for
ELos can be written as
| ELos | = 2√ 30 PtGt / dKm Sin (2π ht hr / λd) = 2|Efs| Sin(2π f hr ht / d v0)

where v0 is the velocity of Eloctromagnetic waves in air.

For a fixed freq., |Elos| varies sinusoidally with the height hr keeping ht constant as hr increase from 0 and
becomes equal to hr0 given by

hro = 25KKm / f GHz htm . Then |ELos| = |Efs|

and the first max is reached for hr = 3 hr0. In fact the max occurs at hr = 3 hr0, 9 hr0, 15 hr0 … and reaches
minimum value of ‘0’ at hr = 6 hr0, 12 hr0, 18 hr0 ….. Similar variation in |Elos| is observed when the freq. Is
varied keeping ht and hr constant.
At f = f0GHz = 25dKm / hrm htm, |ELos| = |Efs|
| ELos| max occurs at f = 3 f0, 9 f0 , 15 f0 …….
And min occurs at f = 6 f0, 12 f0 , 18 f0 ……..

10. Given the distance of the obstacle from the Tx dt = 20 Km & the second F.Z,
clearance = 40 meters. Find the distance of the obstacle from the Rx, the frequency
of the transmission is 4 GHz.
Ans.: - r2 = 17.32 √ 3dtKm drKm /(dtKm + drKm) fGHz

402 = 17.32 * 3 dtKm drKm / (dtKm + drKm) * 1/4

dtKm + drKm / dtKm drKm = 0.1406 or 1/drKm = 0.1406 – 1/20 = 0.0906

drKm = 11.034 Km.