Dennis Zheng

December 14, 2007

Final Glossary

AD HOMINEM FALLACY

Ad hominem fallacy: Attacks on the opposing speaker’s character, rather than the ideas
presented.

Example: “Bill Clinton was obviously an immoral philanderer. How can we trust his work
on NAFTA?”

AD POPULEM FALLACY

Ad populem fallacy: (bandwagon) appeal to popular opinion when the speaker asks the
listener to become part of a supposedly overwhelming group in favor of some person, product,
or idea.

Example: “So many teenagers do drugs that it must be good for you.”

ALLITERATION

Alliteration: The repetition of initial identical consonant sounds or any vowel sounds in
successive or closely associated syllables, especially stressed syllables.

Example: “…said my book was a total waste of time, a boring, sentimental, self-indulgent
sack of spider puke” (Lamott, xxv).

Function: Lamott mentions a notice she receives about her soon-to-be-published book about
her father’s life. Her description is a highly negative collection of thoughts, and what makes
the criticism even worse is the collection of “s” sounds. The repetition of the consonant adds
an almost-hissing auditory image, helping the reader feel the damaging effects that depress
Lamott. Certainly the opposite of encouraging, the alliteration deflates the author’s tone and
mood while maintaining a hint of humor.

ALLUSION
Allusion: A figure of speech that makes a brief reference to a historical or literary figure,
event or object outside the primary text.

Example: “Your publisher will be so excited that they will have hired the Blue Angels
precision flying team to buzz your squalid little hovel” (Lamott, 213).

Function: Placing the allusion in the paragraph about the date of publication is a move that
associates the popular feelings about the air show with the release of a book. The Blue Angels,
with their high-flying routine, bring to mind a sense of excitement, danger, and crowd-pleasing
ability. The fantasizing about the myth of publication is enriched by adding the allusion to the
exaggeration, because the specific allusion evokes a striking emotion in the reader’s mind.

AMBIGUITY

Ambiguity: The state of having more than one meaning, with resultant uncertainty as to the
intended significance of the statement. In other cases, since language can function on levels
other than that of denotation, words are capable of operating with two or more meanings at the
same time, adding a richness and a complexity to the text.

Example: “Put money in thy purse” (Othello, 1.3.342).

Function: As Roderigo’s mood takes a downturn, Iago aims to maintain his plan by
convincing him to go to Cyprus and be patient. A heavily-repeated piece of advice, Iago’s
statement to place money in its holder is fairly ambiguous, for it carries multiple meanings for
Roderigo. He is reminded to keep spending money (and giving it to Iago) in order to win
Desdemona’s love, yet the term money also has a figurative function. Iago wishes for his
companion to stay committed to his goal, investing not only money but also time, so that in the
end he can be assured of success.

ANADIPLOSIS

Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word of one sentence (or clause) as the first word of the
next.

Example: Luke wished to be a Jedi, but the Jedi were not everything he had expected.

ANALOGY

Analogy: A comparison of two things alike in certain aspects; a method by which something
unfamiliar is explained or described by comparing it to something more familiar.
Example: “Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native
crowd—seemingly the leading actor of the piece…” (Orwell, 73).

Function: The focus of his narrative is the realization of the true effect of imperialism, and
Orwell points out the absurdity of the situation by comparing his position to that of an actor on
stage. Due to his race and ranking, he ought to be at the forefront, the star of the show. Yet
when shown to the crowd, he is an imposter, “an absurd puppet” controlled by the natives
themselves. Once the analogy falls away, his plight becomes clear.

ANAPHORA

Anaphora: Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of clauses or sentences.

Example: Die, rebels! Die a long, hard death! Die and never challenge the Empire ever
again!

ANECDOTE

Anecdote: A short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event.

Example: “My own version of this is that the other day, Sam and I were at the mall…”
(Lamott, 216).

Function: The account of Lamott’s interaction with the clothing store owner is incredibly
well-paced and achieves its purpose. One cannot truly understand the price of being a writer
until visualizing this painful scenario from the writer’s point of view. Through a critical self-
commentary, Lamott lets us hear the inner thought processes of the author as she deals with
the relentless conversation, and though the audience knows the ending of the anecdote far
before it is reached, the last few words are just as painful to the reader as they were for her.

ANTECEDENT

Antecedent: The word, phrase, or clause that determines to what or whom a pronoun refers,
such as the children in The teacher asked the children where they were going. Here, the
children is the antecedent of the pronoun they.

Example: “A Los Angeles man is discovered, bloodshot, banging the trunk of his white El
Dorado following a night and day trapped instead; he says his captors went on joyrides and
picked up women” (Weiss, 129).
Function: N/A

ANTIMETABOLE

Antimetabole: Repeating words in reverse order.

Example: Luke must kill his father, or his father will kill Luke.

ANTITHESIS:

Antithesis: Opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.

Example: To the outsider, Star Wars was just a movie; to the boy, it was a religion.

APHORISM

Aphorism: A concise statement of principle or precept given in pointed words that usually
implies specific authorship.

Example: "Don't mind, don't pay no mind. Sticks and stones may break your bones, but
words... You know, I been working for her for twenty years" (Angelou, 36).

Function: Although Angelou herself is quite distressed, here the speaker Miss Glory does not
seem too troubled about the name crisis. The use of the age-old adage evokes a feeling of tired
reassuring, reminding the reader of the difference between young indignation and the
accepting nature of the wizened. The older lady has likely experienced much worse treatment,
so her sympathy is reduced to a concise statement of comfort, subtly implying that the slight
should be ignored for Angelou’s own good.

APOLOGY

Apology: A defense of or explanation for a topic or treatise. No admission of wrongdoing or

expression of regret is intended.

Example: "The Moral Law tells us the tune we have to play: our instincts are merely the
keys..." (C.S. Lewis, Mere Christianity).

Function: In this example, C.S. Lewis explains and defends the topic of his work, which itself
is an example of apology. He wrote the book in order to defend the fundamental teachings of
Christianity; the basis of his writing is a belief in the existence of a Moral Law governing right
and wrong. Later he talks about how comprehension of this basic Moral Law, common to each
human being, is key to understanding the Christian religion. A concise introduction of the
subject of his writing makes for easier reading.

APOSTROPHE

Apostrophe: A figure of speech in which someone absent, some abstract quality, or a

nonexistent personage is directly addressed as though present.

Example: “Move back, Tio, I tell him. I don’t want to hear what you have to say. Give the
dancers room to move. Soon it will be midnight. Who is the New Year’s Fool this time?”
(Cofer, 66).

Function: When the narrator is saying these words, she is, in fact, speaking in the context of
her dream, not real life. Cofer directly addresses her absent uncle after the home movie has
ended, when all she is left with is her own mental conflict. By exposing that she struggles with
the memories of her family, the author reveals that her uncle is a symbol of the costs of
assimilation. Despite the receiver of the message not being present, the vivid image resonates
strongly with the reader.

APPEAL TO AUTHORITY

Appeal to authority: Using a famous name to support a claim though the person is not a
true authority.

Example: “Chuck Norris told me to buy a Toyota, so I did.”

ARCHETYPE

Archetype: A pattern or model of an action, a character type or an image that occurs

consistently enough in life and literature to be considered universal (recognizable as an
element of one’s literary experience as a whole).

Example: “I hate the Moor: my cause is hearted; thine hath no less reason” (Othello 1.3, 367-
369).

Function: Iago plays the role of the archetypal villain in Shakespeare’s Othello. He is very
hateful of the protagonist and almost incomprehensible in the motivations for his pure
malevolence. The play’s beginning establishes Iago’s hatred of Othello, but his love for
manipulation and deception is never truly explained. In the end, he is the archetype of
undiluted evil, a bad person wishing bad things on others for his own enjoyment. He is an
incredibly deep character yet still easily comparable to the devil, the ultimate force of evil.

ASYNDETON

Asyndeton: Omission of the conjunction that usually comes just before the last item in a
parallel series.

Example: As Vader walked, one could hear the harshness of his steps, the clank of metal, his
raspy flow of breath.

BEGGING THE QUESTION

Begging the question: To support a claim with the claim itself.

Example: “God exists, because the Bible, which He wrote, says so.”

CATHARSIS

Catharsis: A beneficial cathartic (purging) effect produced by witnessing a tragic action.

Example: “Blow me about in winds! Roast me in sulfur!

Wash me in steep-down gulfs of liquid fire!

O Desdemon! Dead, Desdemon! Dead! O! O!” (Othello, 5.2.288-290).

Function: Seeing Othello break down as the final result of his growing jealousy, the audience
experiences a powerful catharsis. Despite his heinous wrongdoing, Othello’s misfortune
induces great pity from the reader. Furthermore, witnessing the dangers of jealousy and pride
leaves the reader shaken yet purified. The frightening possibilities of the depths of human
nature terrify and cleanse. By the play’s close, with the two lovers reunited in death and the
villain punished, we feel somewhat relieved with a sense of closure.

CHIASMUS

Chiasmus: Reversal of grammatical elements.

Example: He was a rebel to the enemy, but to his allies a moderate.

CONFLICT

Conflict: The struggle that grows out of the interplay of two opposing forces, providing
interest, suspense, and tension. The conflict can be man against man, man against nature,
man against society or man against himself.

Example: “Both father and son were stubborn and high-strung. Given Walt’s need to exert
control and Chris’s extravagantly independent nature, polarization was inevitable. Chris
submitted to Walt’s authority…but the boy raged inwardly all the while” (Krakauer, 64).

Function: This quote incorporates Chris’s conflict both with man and with himself. His
relationship with his father is quite tenuous, a bond characterized by aggressive and angry love.
Chris’s inability to see past his father’s mistakes was what drove the fight with his family. Also
mentioned in the quote is Chris’s conflict against himself. His struggles to constantly challenge
and rediscover his inner persona were what motivated him to embark on his monumental
journey. Never satisfied, he went into the wild to learn how to live a better life. Throughout
the book Krakauer makes clear that Chris experiences all four types of conflict, which truly
define his character.

CONNOTATION

Connotation: The emotional implications and associated meanings a word carries.

Example: “Maybe there will be a couple of interviews and then probably somewhere along
the line, just when you thought things were settling down, your first really devastating
review, the review that says your book is dog doo” (Lamott, 214).

Function: Obviously Lamott is not using denotation here. Instead, her words “dog doo” carry
a more multi-layered message than simply comparing a book to animal feces. The comparison
brings to mind so many common feelings; the vivid image effects such negativity that the
reader immediately understands her point about the possible outcomes of publication. Not all
authors will be pleased with their newfound recognition, and Lamott emphasizes this lesson
with a small but evocative phrase.

CONTRAST

Contrast: The presentation of two unlike elements whose purpose is to reveal distinctive
characteristics of each. A device which underscores important elements by pointing out their
opposites.
Example: “A certain light was beginning to dawn dimly within her, - the light which,
showing the way, forbids it” (Chopin).

Function: Chopin uses contrast in her description of the light “beginning to dawn dimly
within” Pontellier to uncover the epiphany of the story’s main character. Upon recognizing the
two different aspects of this inner awakening, the light and the dark, the positive and the
negative, the reader finds a woman undergoing a massive transformation. And like many
monumental transitions, this comes with a price. Though Pontellier is ascending to a better
level of understanding with herself and the world “about her,” she encounters a world that is
unfriendly and incomprehensible, said to be “vague, tangled, chaotic, and exceedingly
disturbing.” The obvious contrast highlights Pontellier’s plight, for as she gains worldly
enlightenment she also takes on the weight of the world. Despite a troubling, tumultuous
beginning, she is unable to resist the “soft, close embrace” of the “voice of the sea.”

DENOTATION

Denotation: The dictionary definition of a word.

Example: “The elephant was standing eight yards from the road, his left side toward us”
(Orwell, 72).

Function: Orwell is not using the image of the elephant for any symbolic purpose or deeper
meaning. His intention is strictly to describe a large pachyderm that appeared to him as a part
of his story.

DICTION

Diction: Vocabulary and word choice.

Example: “I found myself stoned on all the attention… needing a new fix every couple of
days and otherwise going into withdrawal” (Lamott, 220).

Function: In this section Lamott equates the attention publication brings to an addictive
drug. The vivid, powerful wording she chooses helps the reader to understand the published
writer’s situation. The pleasure derived from the attention of others could be considered the
writer’s high, but the perils of this addiction are what make up the center of Lamott’s message.
Words like “stoned,” “lost and derailed,” “needing a new fix,” and “going into withdrawal”
indicate the use of familiar terms in a far different context, in order to reveal the darker side of
publication, an aspect rooted in man’s self-centered nature.
DIDACTIC

Didactic: Intended for instruction, material written for the purpose of teaching a lesson.

Example: “Publication is not going to change your life or solve your problems” (Lamott,
185).

Function: Most of Lamott’s writing in this book is didactic. She presents her varied
experiences for students so they can learn from her mistakes and successes. Merely one
example of this style, here she begins the section on publication by making clear the plain facts
about becoming a published writer. Her warning stands as a stark contrast to preconceived
notions an innocent writer might possess, but her seasoned knowledge can only help those
trying to improve at writing. In the following pages, she goes on to explain and elaborate on
that main point about publication, but all of it can be linked to the purpose of instruction.

DIGRESSION

Digression: The insertion of material often not closely related to the subject in a work.

Example: “I have too long digressed, and therefore shall return to my subject” (Swift, 386).

Function: Swift’s discussion of his “Modest Proposal” takes a turn into a description of the
despondent conditions of his countrymen. He describes the painful existences of both the old
and the young, explaining the various problems of their lives. This social commentary he
provides helps clarify the dire need for his extremist solution, injecting a sense of realism to the
satirical work. We are reminded by his digression that though he is not serious about eating
children, a serious issue does exist.

ELLIPSIS

Ellipsis: Omission of one or more words.

Example: The Death Star was evil; its operators, worse.

EPANALEPSIS

Epanalepsis: Using the same word or phrase at the beginning of a sentence and at the end.

Example: Lousy light-sabers make their Jedi lousy.

EPANORTHOSIS

Epanorthosis: Correction.

Example: Wookies are impressive monsters—no, lovable beasts—that are very capable of
anything.

EPIGRAPH

Epigraph: A quotation or other short paragraph set at the beginning of a literary work or one
of its divisions to suggest its theme and/or give insight as to its subject.

Example: “Here is her life as she told it to me, and betwixt and between the pages of her life
you will find mine as well” (McBride, xix).

Function: McBride begins his powerful work with an introduction of background, and this
sentence is the ending of the initiation into his world. The words create an air of mystery
around his mother’s life, enticing the reader to continue through the pages and learn about the
woman’s “remarkable story.” Not only does this epigraph touch on the memoir’s themes of
inner strength and racial relations, but it also presents the unique structure of linking
McBride’s writing with his mother’s words. Thus, from the very beginning, the reader gains
insight about the personal truths the work is intended to reveal.

EPIPHANY

Epiphany: An intuitive grasp of reality achieved in a quick flash of recognition in which

something, usually simple and commonplace, is seen in a new light. A sudden revelation or
insight about oneself and his or her place in the world.

Example: “Are there no stones in heaven but what serves for the thunder?—Precious
villain!” (Othello, 5.2.242).

Function: After Emilia protests vehemently for Desdemona’s chastity and reveals the truth
behind the handkerchief deception, Othello finally realizes at that instant that the real villain is
in fact his right-hand man, to whom he had entrusted so much of his well being. The new
situation leaves his world turned upside down, as the guilty and the innocent parties have
reversed places. He now wishes that the death he had brought upon his wife would leave Iago
struck dead.

EPISTROPHE
Epistrophe: Words or phrases at the ends of clauses and sentences.

Example: Not studying will result in your death; failure to practice will result in your
death; listening to your instructor will prevent your death.

EUPHEMISM

Euphemism: A device in which indirectness replaces directness of statement, usually in an

effort to avoid offensiveness. (For example, senior citizens instead of old people)

Example: “O thou public commoner!” (Othello, 4.2.75).

Function: Othello uses the euphemism “commoner” instead of simply saying prostitute to
add a sarcastic air to his rebuke of his wife. During his interrogation of Emilia and
Desdemona, his accusations grow increasingly passionate and exaggerated, indicating that his
jealousy is causing him to lose a grip on reality. The euphemism, by avoiding bluntness, is
actually more insulting in its subtlety. Othello’s reaction shows just how much he values his
reputation and his wife’s faithfulness.

FALSE DILEMMA

False dilemma: Suggesting a limited number of choices.

Example: “Either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists.”

FOIL

Foil: (Character Foil) A character, who, by comparison or contrast, highlights the qualities or
characteristics of another character.

Example: “Nor I neither by this heavenly light; I might do‘t as well ‘I the dark” (Othello,
4.3.68).

Function: Here Desdemona and Emilia discuss women’s unfaithfulness toward their
husbands. Desdemona, who does not think she would ever commit adultery, asks Emilia if she
would cheat, and the experienced maid replies that she should, but not just for anything.
Emilia follows her answer by describing how many women of the world share the sexual
appetites of their male counterparts. Thus Emilia is Desdemona’s foil, a worldly perspective
willing to deal practically with and accept sin, contrasted with young, romantic innocence
naively believing in the good of people’s hearts.
FORESHADOWING

Foreshadowing: The presentation of material in a work in such a way that later events are
prepared for.

Example: “The bush is an unforgiving place, however, that cares nothing for hope or
longing” (Krakauer, 4).

Function: The foreboding statement that Krakauer places at the beginning of the novel gives
a sense of danger and warning. He knows the ending of the tragic tale, but the audience
remains yet unaware. Thus his hints at the negative forces of the wild are especially powerful
at this point of the narrative. Later on, the reader recognizes the triumph of nature over Chris,
who failed to survive despite all the hope and love his soul possessed.

HAMARTIA

Hamartia: The error, frailty, mistaken judgment or misstep through which the fortunes of the
hero of a tragedy are reversed. Not necessarily a flaw in character. Rather, it can be an
unwitting, even a necessary misstep in doing rather than an error in character. Hamartia may
be the result of bad judgment, bad character, ignorance, inherited weakness, accident, or any of
many other possible causes. It must, however, express itself through a definite action or failure
to act.

Example: “I have no spur

To prick the sides of my intent, but only

Vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself

And falls on the other” (Macbeth 1.7, 25-28).

Function: Here, Macbeth himself admits that his fatal flaw is his overwhelming,
uncontrollable ambition. The weakness of his character manifests itself in his conscious choice
to forsake morality and pursue his "vaulting ambition," which he says is his sole motivation.
Killing King Duncan sets him on an irreversible path that can only lead to more death and
tragedy. Most indicative of the hamartia is that Macbeth recognizes the battle between his
humanity and ambition and yet remains a slave to the potential power of the throne.

HYPERBOLE
Hyperbole: An exaggeration, which may be used to heighten effect or provide humor.

Example: “After being on the phone all morning reading each other passages from your
book, they agree that it is the most embarrassingly bad book ever written, and they are
honking and screaming with laughter. At one point your editor is laughing so hard that she
has to take some digitalis, and your agent ruptures a blood vessel in his throat” (Lamott,
210).

Function: Obviously, this event is far from realistic. It is yet another example of an integral
part of Lamott’s style—humorous exaggeration. Her amplifications go so far beyond typical
writing that one is almost forced to laugh at their outlandish quality. Here she is explaining the
worries a writer has when waiting to learn if he/she will be published. The envisioned situation
is so strong (people laughing at your work to the point where they physically injure themselves)
that the audience sees how tough the anticipation of publication can be. The hyperbole truly
conveys the message that one’s worry can join in with imagination to create a vividly terrible
scenario.

IMAGERY

Imagery: The pictorial quality of a literary work achieved through a collection of images. At
times, the images provide a key to the deeper meaning (themes) of a work.

Example: “I felt the jungle drums start to beat, warning me to keep my mouth shut”
(Lamott, 217).

Function: This particular image pops up during Lamott’s anecdote about buying a dress at
the mall, a story that tells of the hazardous life of published writers. One can almost hear the
reverberations of the bass, echoing and increasing as Lamott fails to heed her inner warning
signs and knowingly treads into the dangerous waters of authors discussing their work. While
the auditory image is fleeting and used only once, its true impact is felt once the climax of the
story has been reached, when the reader can truly understand how dire the drums’ warnings
had been.

INVERSION

Inversion: A departure from the customary arrangement of words, moving the complement,
or part of the complement, to the head of the sentence.

Example: Talk like this Yoda did.

IRONY

Irony: The recognition of a reality different from appearance. Verbal irony is a figure of
speech in which the actual intent is expressed in words that carry the opposite meaning.

Example: “Here was I, the white man with his gun, standing in front of the unarmed native
crowd—seemingly the leading actor of the piece; but in reality I was only an absurd puppet
pushed to and fro by the will of those yellow faces behind” (Orwell, 73).

Function: Orwell writes about the highly unusual position in which he found himself. The
incident of shooting the elephant causes him to realize that conquerors of countries end up
losing their own freedoms. Because he represents the powerful empire of Britain, it is
unexpected that Orwell, the authority figure, would be controlled by the natives. The narrative
truly displays irony at its best, as it is the armed police officer who is figuratively dominated by
the public will, and thus, powerless, forced to shoot the elephant.

METAPHOR

Metaphor: A figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object
or idea is used in place of another so suggest a likeness or analogy between them. An implied
analogy.

Example: “I knew it was a nice big plate of cocaine for my ego” (Lamott, 219).

Function: Because Lamott has had past troubles with drug abuse, likening her self-esteem
boost to narcotics is quite accurate on many different levels. Her initial joy was certainly quick,
reaching a rapid, impressive high, but once that euphoria wore off, she was left with nothing
but painful after-effects and feelings of wasteful withdrawal. Furthermore, her endless quest
for recognition would remain, and she would need more and more of the drug-like attention in
order to stay satisfied. This metaphor goes along with her diction on pg. 220.

MOTIF

Motif: A recurring image, work, phrase, action, idea, object or situation that appears in
various works or throughout the same work.

Example: “Reading of these monks, one is moved by their courage, their reckless innocence,
and the urgency of their desire. Reading of these monks, one can't help thinking of Everett
Ruess and Chris McCandless” (Krakauer, 97).

Function: Krakauer uses the image of the Papar monks to clarify and add depth to the
personalities of Everett Ruess and Chris McCandless—both adventurous, kindred souls living
life on the limits. Unafraid of the unknown, they actually welcomed the uncertainty of
undiscovered locales. This monk motif is repeated later, most notably in the book’s conclusion,
as Chris left this world as peacefully as a monk. The repetition emphasizes numerous elements
of his character, such as his peaceful nature, eternal serenity, and his fervent desire to explore.

NEGATION

Negation: Presenting the negative aspect of an idea; a form of affirmation by denial.

Example: “They were not the quietest people on earth…” (Lamott, XI).

Function: Lamott does not outright say that her father and his friends were very loud; her
method of negation softens the blow of a potentially-insulting remark. It turns a negative
statement into a humorous one, and her carefully chosen wording adds a nuance to the
description. Thanks to the technique of emphasizing the opposite, the reader must take a
moment to contemplate her exact meaning.

ONOMATOPOEIA

Onomatopoeia: Words that suggest their meaning by their sound.

Example: "They would hiss and recoil" (Dillard, 10).

Function: The word “hiss”, while on paper quite ordinary, is made much more powerful when
verbalized. Repeated, elongated “s” sounds come to life in the reader’s mind, reminding of the
authentic sizzling of insects in flame. The auditory device adds an element of realism to the
visualization.

OXYMORON

Oxymoron: A self-contradictory combination of words or smaller verbal units. “Oxymoron”

is itself an oxymoron, from the Greek meaning “sharp-dull.”

Example: "They will have days at the desk of frantic boredom…" (Lamott, xxix).

Function: Here Lamott is relating lessons that she teaches her student writers. While at first
glance, the concept of being frantic, the mind working hurriedly, seems to contradict the
dullness of being bored, she is actually revealing the reality of writing. Some days, writers will
be burdened by the slowness of their mental processes, the boredom in their mind troubling
them to the point of extreme anxiety. What at first appear to be incongruous terms becomes a
reminder that the writer’s words will not always flow so easily.

PARADOX

Paradox: A statement that although seemingly contradictory or absurd may actually be well
founded or true.

Example: “Sometimes I can see it most clearly if I close my eyes” (Lamott, 79).

Function: At first glance, this statement does not appear to make much sense. The reader
would initially wonder how restricting the very instruments of vision would augment one’s
sight, but upon further consideration Lamott’s point becomes clear. When envisioning the
movie sets, she can visualize best by shutting her eyes, closing her mind and imagination off
from the distractions of the world. This mental solitude would logically be quite effective, and
it is a strategy many can relate to. A seemingly contradictory concept now becomes reasonable.

PARALLEL SENTENCES

Parallel sentences: Sentences containing repetition of words or repetition of kinds of words.

Example: Watching Star Wars was painful for the jock, tolerable for the drunkard, and
heavenly for the science-fiction enthusiast.

PARALLELISM

Parallelism: The balanced repetition of syntactical structures for rhetorical effect.

Example: “We can never be satisfied as long as the Negro is the victim of the unspeakable
horrors of police brutality. We can never be satisfied as long as our bodies, heavy with the
fatigue of travel, cannot gain lodging in the motels of the highways and the hotels of the
cities. We cannot be satisfied as long as the Negro’s basic mobility is from a smaller ghetto to
a larger one” (King, 464).

Function: This is a prime example of anaphora, the repeating of words at the beginning of
successive sentences. MLK, Jr., places the powerful words “we can never be satisfied” to
emphasize the everlasting nature of his people’s fight. He uses parallelism to evoke intense
passion, as his audience must pay attention to such an eloquent speaker. His speech leaves no
doubt about his heart being in the battle, an encouraging and uplifting reminder that there is
so much work to be done.
PERSONIFICATION

Personification: A figure that endows animals, ideas, abstractions, and inanimate objects
with human personalities, emotions or intelligence.

Example: “Others will step out of the shadows like Boo Radley and make you catch your
breath or take a step backward” (Lamott, 136).

Function: Lamott discusses the process she goes through when beginning her writing
process. She tackles the problem of finding material by utilizing note cards, but sometimes
ideas simply arrive out of thin air. These thoughts or images are given the human quality of
being able to suddenly appear and surprise another being with their significance. The device is
included to emphasize the importance of notability of such landmark occurrences, as Lamott
once again reveals the vivid details of being a writer.

POINT OF VIEW

Point of View: The vantage point from which an author presents a piece. Possibilities
include first, second and third person, and omniscient, limited, or naïve. In some works,
authors employ several methods.

Example: “When I became a double amputee at the age of 29, I was forced to shed many
misconceptions I had unknowingly embraced regarding the importance of physical
perfection. In the space of one hour I changed from an acceptably attractive female to an
object of pity and fear” (Davis, 202).

Function: What makes this writing shine is the author’s first-person, highly personal
perspective. As she explores the world around her, the reader is able to accompany her in both
the proud and humiliating moments, and later when she realizes the innocence of children and
her own previous shortcomings. She explains her new discoveries on life from a point of view
that most of us will never get to experience, adding to its value. A similar piece written by a
person with a more “perfect” body perhaps could come close, but could never match the insight
achieved by Davis.

POLYSYNDETON

Polysyndeton: Addition of conjunctions where they are not normally present in a series.

Example: The Ewoks and Wookies and Banthas gave the audience warm and fuzzy feelings.
POST HOC FALLACY

Post hoc fallacy: After the fact, therefore because of the fact.

Example: “I used a new font and got an A, so next week I will get another A as long as I use
my lucky font again.”

REPETITION

Repetition: Reiteration of a word, sound, phrase, idea or motif for the purposes of emphasis
and/or unity.

Example: “I have a dream that one day this nation will rise up and live out the true meaning
of its creed…I have a dream that the state of Mississippi…I have a dream that my four little
children…I have a dream…” (King, 464).

Function: The expressive words of MLK, Jr., use the device of repetition to emphasize a
specific concept, that he possesses a clear dream for the country to be a better place. The
rhythm of his repetition is a major component of the effectiveness of his oratory. It adds an
element that sticks in one’s memory and commands attention to his message.

SARCASM

Sarcasm: A caustic expression of strong disapproval. Sarcasm is harsher than irony.

Example: “Mrs. Cullinan was right about one thing. My name wasn’t Mary” (Angelou, 37).

Function: Angelou concludes her narrative with a concise example of sarcasm that brings
together the entire passage. By stating that Cullinan was finally correct about her name, the
narrator subtly criticizes the white woman and also signifies Angelou’s victory over her boss.
The reminder that her name was Margaret, not Mary, is a scathing remark towards Cullinan
and implies the risk in disrespecting others. Angelou condemns the actions of her superior
through sarcasm.

SATIRE

Satire: A blending of a censorious attitude with humor and wit for improving human
institutions of humanity. The ridiculing of social vice or folly with a desire to inspire change.
Example: “I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London,
that a young healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and
wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled, and I make no doubt that it will
equally serve in a fricassee, or a ragout” (Swift, 386).

Function: Swift’s idea, selling poor children born into poverty as food for rich Englishmen, is
not a serious proposal, but has a purpose nonetheless. His satirical presentation of
cannibalism enables him to express his contempt for materialism and landlords, whom he says
“already have devoured most of the parents.” The satire also attacks England by mentioning
that it would be happy to eat up Ireland. Swift’s mocking argument is almost believable, but
this only adds to his credibility in his desire for social and economic progress in his country.
He makes a powerful statement on the plight of the poor through the essay.

SIMILE

Simile: A figure of speech in which a similarity between to objects is directly expressed using
some overt indicator of resemblance such as like or as (or even such a word as compare, liken
or resemble.) An expressed analogy.

Example: “It looks like the typesetter typed it with frostbitten feet, drunk” (Lamott, 212).

Function: An example of supreme hyperbole, this simile manages to put a humorous spin on
the writer’s reaction to seeing his/her work in print for the second time. In Lamott’s scenario,
not only is the typesetter using feet instead of hands, the feet have lost all feeling, and the
typesetter is intoxicated. The extended, fantastical simile is a prime example of Lamott’s
humorous style, as she piles on the hypothetical writer’s sense of despair. Her colorful
imagination manages to paint a worsening situation until the reader understands how the pain
the writer feels.

SYMBOL

Symbol: A symbol is something that is itself and also stands for something else. An image
that evokes an objective, concrete reality and prompts that reality to suggest another level of
meaning.

Example: “I didn’t want my friends seeing my white mother out there riding a bicycle. She
was already white, that was bad enough, but to go out and ride an old bike that went out of
style a hundred years ago? And a grown-up no less? I couldn’t handle it” (McBride, 8).

Function: Ruth’s bicycle is an example of multi-faceted symbolism. First, it emphasizes her

force of character. Just like it took much will power for her to marry a black man, found a
church, and put twelve kids through college, the bicycle requires a great deal of exertion from
its rider. She could have driven the old car, but refused, out of inner strength or stubbornness
(or both). This makes her character clear to the reader, as does another aspect of the bicycle as
a symbol. Ruth is oblivious to what the world thinks of her and her bicycle, and so many parts
of her life follow this trend. She is independent from society’s opinion of her life, who to love,
how to raise her children, and how important race really is. As she pedals her bicycle she keeps
moving forward in life, her method of transportation representing her most admirable traits.

SYNECDOCHE

Synecdoche: A figure of speech in which a part signifies the whole, such as “hired hand” for
hired laborer.

Example: “He and his black antagonist looked at each other in the rearview mirror; in a
second the windbreaker and porkpie hat were gone” (Mebane, 43).

Function: Mary Mebane’s account of a memorable bus ride features synecdoche near the end
of the passage. The conclusion of the conflict between the resolute black man and the white
bus driver is coming to an end, much to the relief of the narrator. In writing about the event,
she describes the articles of clothing as being gone, instead of stating that the black man
himself had left. By using his jacket and hat to represent the entire character, Mebane
generalizes the situation, reducing the importance of the individual wearing the attire. This
simplification of detail underlines her assertion of universality—what she witnessed could have
occurred in many different places and involved many different men.

SYNTAX

Syntax: The rule governed arrangement of words in a sentence.

Example: “However” (Lamott, 219).

Function: Lamott places the word “however” by itself, confined in its own private sentence, to
make an abrupt interruption in her writing. The rhythm of her prose is instantly disrupted by
her unusual arrangement, breaking the rules of grammar. Like a sudden u-turn, she reverses
from her positive feeling of getting invited to the charity event, and quickly jumps to the
seemingly minor hiccup in the plans. The placement of the transition word is significant in
that separating the word by a period, instead of a comma, the seriousness of this perceived
slight to the writer’s ego, however immature and insignificant it may be, is made quite clear.
TONE

Tone: The attitudes toward the subject and toward the audience implied in a literary work.

Example: “I think about the most seriously disadvantaged, not simply Mexican-Americans,
but of all those who do not ever imagine themselves going to college or becoming doctors:
white, black, brown. Always poor. Silent. They are not plaintiffs before the court or against
the misdirection of Affirmative Action” (Rodriguez, 51).

Function: At first, Rodriguez’s tone towards Affirmative Action would appear puzzling to an
outsider. He is a Chicano that actually holds clear disdain for a system that was devised to
benefit him (or at least, people of his race). The contrast between the expected and the reality,
that a minority himself is acknowledging the failings of such a misguided program, is what
makes the piece so effective. The details of his guilt-ridden, embarrassed attitude towards
affirmative action indicate that he believes it is unfair to whites, but more importantly, does
not give aid to the ones who truly need it. In the final paragraphs the intensity of the tone
increases, making his point even stronger.

TRIPLETS/TRIADs

Triplets/triads: Three-part parallelism.

Example: He fired the torpedoes, primed the laser beam, and shifted into hyper drive.

UNDERSTATEMENT

Understatement: A figure of speech in which the literal sense of what is said falls detectably
short of the magnitude of what is being expressed, which creates emphasis.

Example: “It was a tiny incident in itself; but it gave me a better glimpse than I had had
before of the real nature of imperialism” (Orwell, 70).

Function: Orwell uses the word “tiny” to great effect here; the incident may have been tiny in
the sense that it was short, and it could have happened on any day in Burma, but the event was
certainly gigantic in significance. To the average reader, shooting and killing an elephant
would definitely be out of the ordinary, certainly remarkable at least. The inclusion of the
diminutive word serves a couple of purposes here, for it helps to introduce the story of the
elephant without being overly dramatic, and it also emphasizes the contrast in size between the
duration of the incident, and the considerable meaning behind it. The revealed lesson about
imperialism was significant for such a minute incident.