HKDSE Chemistry Bridging Programe 1B

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First published July, 2009
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Part II
Microscopic World I
Chapter 5
Atomic structure
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11
What is an element? Classification of elements based on physical states Classification of elements into metals and non-metals Chemical symbols for elements Atoms Structure of atoms Atomic number and mass number Isotopes Relative masses of atoms Arrangement of electrons Stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements
1 1 1 5 7 8 10 13 15 18 21 23 24
Key terms Summary
Chapter 6
The Periodic Table
26
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5
Elements with similar chemical properties The Periodic Table Patterns in the Periodic Table Groups similarities and trends Predicting chemical properties of an unfamiliar element
26 27 30 32 35 35 36
Key terms Summary
Chapter 7
Chemical bonding: ionic bonding
37
7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8
Formation of ions from atoms Colours and migration of ions Formulae of ions Elements and ions Chemical bonds Ionic bond and ionic substances Structures of solid ionic compounds Formulae and names of ionic compounds
37 38 41 45 47 47 49 50 55 56
Key terms Summary
Chapter 8
Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
58
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4
Covalent bonding and covalent substances Prediction of formulae for covalent compounds Particles that make up matter a summary Relative molecular mass and formula mass
58 67 67 69 72 73
Key terms Summary
Chapter 9
Structures and properties of substances
75
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 9.10
Structure of substances Simple molecular structures Macromolecules Giant ionic structures Giant covalent structures Giant metallic structures Comparison of structures and properties of substances Predicting structure from physical properties Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure Applications of substances according to their structures
75 77 79 80 82 86 88 90 91 93 94 94
Key terms Summary
Chapter 5 Atomic structure
5.1
What is an element?
5.1
In Chapter 1, we have defined that an element is a pure substance which cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical methods.
5.2
Classification of elements based on physical states
5.2
The simplest way of classifying elements is based on physical states. At room temperature and pressure, 11 elements are gases, 2 are liquids and the rest are solids. 11 2
5.3
Classification of elements into metals and non-metals
5.3
Metals and non-metals

Another important way of classifying elements is to group them into metals and non-metals.
If the element is a gas, it must be a non-metal. If the element is a liquid, we have to look at its colour:
Silvery colour indicates the metal mercury (mercury is the only liquid metal). Dark red colour indicates the non-metal bromine (bromine is the only liquid non-metal).
( ) ( ) ( ( ( ) )
1
) (
If the element is a solid, we have to test its electrical

conductivity. (This will be further discussed on p.5.) Good conductivity indicates a metal in general. Nil (or poor) conductivity indicates a non-metal (except graphite).
) (
Part II Microscopic World I
Metals are usually shiny when freshly cut. They are silvery white in colour, with only a few exceptions (such as copper and gold). Solid non-metals usually have a dull appearance. Unlike metals, they show a variety of colours (e.g. sulphur is yellow, phosphorus is red or yellow, while carbon is black). Metals and non-metals differ not only in appearance and electrical conductivity. They also differ in other ways. See Table 5.1. 5.1 ) ( ) (
Property
State at room temperature and pressure Appearance
Metals
solids (except mercury a liquid)
Non-metals
gases or solids (except bromine a liquid)
shiny; mostly silvery white in colour (except copper and gold)
usually dull in appearance (when solid); in various colours
Melting point and boiling point
usually high
usually low
Hardness and strength
hard and strong
not uniform in hardness and strength
Malleability and ductility
malleable and ductile
brittle i.e. easily broken when hit (when solid); not malleable and not ductile
Density Thermal conductivity and
usually high good conductors of heat and electricity
low poor conductors of heat; non-conductors of electricity
electrical conductivity
Table 5.1 Some typical differences in physical properties of metals and non-metals.
Note that there are exceptions. Sodium is so soft that it can be easily cut with a knife; so low-melting that it melts below 100C; so light that it floats on water. Another example is the non-metal carbon (in the form of graphite). It is a good electrical conductor, shiny, and has a very high melting point (3730C). (3730C) ( ) 100C
Example 5.1 Metal or non-metal?

A reddish brown solid element X conducts electricity well. Is X a metal or non-metal? Give reasons. Solution X is a metal. All metals conduct electricity while non-metals cannot. (An exception to this rule is the non-metal graphite (a form of carbon), but its colour is black, not reddish brown.)
5.1
X X
X ( ( ) )
Class practice 5.1

What characteristics do the two elements mercury and bromine have in common?
5.1
Check your concept
All elements can be classified as metals or non-metals. Many, but not all elements, can be classified as metals or nonmetals. A few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals they are classified as semi-metals.
The in-between elements the semi-metals

A few elements, called semi-metals (or metalloids), have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. Examples of semi-metals include boron and silicon. ) Most semi-metals have important uses in industry. An example is silicon, a semi-conductor. It is widely used in making transistors and silicon chips. ( ) (
Example 5.2 Statements about graphite

This question consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. Graphite can be considered as a semi-metal. Graphite conducts electricity as metals do. Solution The first statement is false. Graphite (one form of carbon) is a non-metal. The second statement is true. )
5.2
Class practice 5.2

1. Would you classify the following elements/compounds as a metal or non-metal? Why? (a) Water (b) Graphite (c) Mercury 2. Decide which is the odd one in each of the following groups of elements. Give reason(s) for your choice in each case. (a) Iron, copper, mercury, silver (b) Magnesium, sulphur, lead, tin (c) Iodine, oxygen, nitrogen, argon (d) Phosphorus, bromine, helium, carbon (in the form of graphite) 4 (a) (b) (c) (d) 2. ( ) 1. (a) (b) (c)
5.2
Finding whether an element is a metal or non-metal

To find whether an element is a metal or non-metal, a simple but effective way is to test whether it conducts electricity. We can use the set-up shown in Figure 5.1. If the element under test is a metal, the bulb will light up. When non-metals are tested, the bulb will not light up. All non-metals (except graphite) are non-conductors of electricity. ) ( 5.1
6 V battery 6V carbon (graphite) rods ( )
light bulb
crucible solid piece under test crocodile clip solid powder (or liquid) under test ( )
(a) Figure 5.1 Testing electrical conductivity of substances (a) in form of solid piece and (b) in form of solid powder or liquid.
(b)
(a) (b)
5.4
Chemical symbols for elements
5.4
5.2
It is useful to give each element a chemical symbol. Chemical symbols of some common metals, non-metals and semi-metals are given in Table 5.2.
Metal Element [Latin name]

Aluminium ( Barium (
Semi-metal Chemical Symbol

Al Ba Be Ca Cr Co Cu Au Fe Pb Li Mg Mn Hg Ni Pt K Ag Na Sn Zn
Non-metal Chemical Symbol

B
Element
Boron ( Silicon (
Element
Argon ( Bromine ( Carbon ( Chlorine (
Chemical Symbol
Ar
)
)( )
) ) )
) Beryllium ( ) Calcium ( ) Chromium ( ) Cobalt ( ) Copper ( ) [Cuprum] Gold ( ) [Aurum] Iron ( ) [Ferrum] Lead ( ) [Plumbum] Lithium ( ) Magnesium ( ) Manganese ( ) Mercury ( ) [Hydrargyrum] Nickel ( ) Platinum ( ) Potassium ( ) [Kalium] Silver ( ) [Argentum] Sodium ( ) [Natrium] Tin ( ) [Stannum] Zinc ( )
Si
Br C Cl F He H I Ne N O P S
) Fluorine ( ) Helium ( ) Hydrogen ( ) Iodine ( ) Neon ( ) Nitrogen ( ) Oxygen ( ) Phosphorus ( ) Sulphur ( )
Table 5.2 Chemical symbols of some common elements (classified into metals, semi-metals and non-metals). ( )
Each chemical symbol shown in the table consists of one or two letters. The first (or the only) letter is a capital letter; the second one (if any) is a small letter.
Class practice 5.3

Referring to Table 5.2, (a) Give the chemical symbols for (i) magnesium, (ii) silver and (iii) sodium. (b) Give the chemical symbols for the noble gases (i) argon, (ii) helium and (iii) neon. (c) Write the names of (i) F, (ii) Br and (iii) Hg. 6
5.3
5.2 (a) (b) (c) (i) (i) (ii) (ii) (i) F (ii) Br (iii) (iii) (iii) Hg
5.5
Atoms
5.5
What are atoms?

Everything consists of a basic type of particles called atoms.
An atom is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical properties of that element.
Size and mass of an atom

If atoms are taken to be spherical, they have diameters of about 10 cm. They have masses of around 10
8 23
10 cm 10
23
g.
Elements and atoms

An element is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atoms.
Different elements have different properties because they consist of different kinds of atoms. Until January 2008, 118 kinds of atoms have been discovered or reported, corresponding to the 118 different elements. 2008 1 118 118
Symbols for atoms

You have learnt chemical symbols of some elements on p.6 these are also the atomic symbols for their atoms. Thus the letter C is the chemical symbol for the element carbon; it is also the atomic symbol for a carbon atom. C 6
Class practice 5.4

(a) What is the total number of atomic symbols at present? (b) What is the chemical symbol for the element bromine? (c) What is the atomic symbol for a nitrogen atom? (d) What does Cu stand for?
5.4
(a) (b) (c) (d) Cu
7
5.6
Structure of atoms
5.6
Experiments have shown that atoms are in fact made up of even smaller and simpler particles.
What are atoms made up of?

Atoms are made up of three fundamental sub-atomic particles protons, neutrons and electrons. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons. The protons (positively charged) and neutrons (neutral) are concentrated in the very tiny nucleus. The electrons (negatively charged) move around the nucleus. ) ( ) ( ) (
More about protons, neutrons and electrons

Table 5.3 summarizes some data of the three fundamental subatomic particles. 5.3
Sub-atomic particle
Symbol
Mass (in g) (g)
Relative mass
Electric charge (relative to that on a proton)
Position within the atom
Proton Neutron
p n
1.6725 1.6748
10 10
24
1 1 negligible
+1 0
inside nucleus inside nucleus
24
Electron
9.109
10
28
1 ( ) 1837
space outside nucleus
Table 5.3 Data on the three fundamental sub-atomic particles.
Building up different atoms from protons, neutrons and electrons

Different atoms have different numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms. The commonest type of hydrogen atoms consists of 1 proton and 1 electron (with no neutron). The next simplest one is helium atom, with 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons (Figure 5.2). 2 ( 2 ) 2 ( 5.2) 1 1
neutron
electron
}
proton
Figure 5.2 Diagrammatic representations of a hydrogen atom and a helium atom. hydrogen atom helium atom
nucleus
Table 5.4 gives the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the 20 simplest atoms.
Atom Hydrogen ( Helium ( Lithium ( Beryllium ( Boron ( Carbon ( Nitrogen ( Oxygen ( Fluorine ( Neon ( Sodium ( Symbol protons
5.4
20
Number of neutrons 0 2 4 5 6 6 7 8 10 10 12 12 14 14 16 16 18 22 20 20 electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

9
) ) )
H He Li Be B C
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) ) )
N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Magnesium ( Aluminium ( Silicon ( Sulphur (

Table 5.4 Number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the 20 simplest atoms. 20
) ) ) ) ) )
Phosphorus ( Chlorine ( Argon ( Calcium ( Potassium (
K Ca
Atoms are electrically neutral

Although an atom contains electrically charged particles, the atom itself has no overall charge. That is, an atom is electrically neutral. This is because in an atom, the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. On the other hand, the number of neutrons may not be equal to the number of protons (look at Table 5.4 again). 5.4
Class practice 5.5

(a) All atoms (except one) are made up of protons, electrons and neutrons. Which atom does not contain any neutron at all? (b) A certain atom contains 91 protons. How many electrons and neutrons does it have? (c) A certain particle has 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 10 electrons. Is it an atom? Why? (c) 10 (b) (a)
5.5
91 8 8
5.7
Atomic number and mass number
5.7
Atomic number
The atomic number of an atom is the number of protons in the atom.
For example, a silver atom contains 47 protons. The atomic number of silver is therefore 47. 47
47
Class practice 5.6

Refer to Table 5.4. What would happen if an atom with 12 protons were changed to one with 17 protons? 5.4 12
5.6
17
10
Mass number
The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the atom. For example, a sodium atom (with 11 protons and 12 neutrons) has a mass number of 11 + 12 = 23.
Learning tip The electrons in an atom have almost no mass. So the mass of an atom is nearly all due to protons and neutrons. For this reason, the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in an atom is called the mass number.
( 12 )
11 11 + 12 = 23
The atomic number (Z) and mass number (A) of an atom are usually shown in a full atomic symbol as follows:
mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
(Z)
(A)
EXAMPLE
mass number atomic number
A Z
Atomic symbol
4 2
He
atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons of a neutral atom
= =
Example 5.3 Working out the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in an atom
Consider Solution Atomic number (Z) = 17, so number of protons = 17 (by definition) As an atom is electrically neutral, number of electrons = number of protons = 17 Mass number (A) = 35, number of neutrons = mass number number of protons = 35 17 = 18
35 17 Cl.
5.3
Work out the number of protons, electrons
35 17
Cl
and neutrons in the atom.
(Z) = 17 ) = = 17 (A) = 35 = = 35 17 = 18
= 17
11
Example 5.4 Statements about oxygen atom

This question consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. The atomic number of An
16 8O 16 8O
5.4
is 8.
16 8O 16 8O
8 8
atom contains 8 neutrons.
Solution Both statements are true, but the second statement does not explain the first one. A correct explanation would be: An 16 8 O atom contains 8 protons.
16 8O
Class practice 5.7

1. Fill in the following blanks: A (a) atom has 47 protons. This is what makes it different from atoms of all other elements. Only (b) atoms have 47 protons, and any atom with 47 protons must be a (c) atom. 2. A particular atom of an element (atomic number = 13) has a mass number of 27. (a) Name the element. (b) Write the full atomic symbol for the atom, showing the mass number and atomic number. (c) Give the number of (i) protons (ii) electrons (iii) neutrons in the atom. 2. (a) (b) ( 27 1. (a) 47
5.7
(b) 47 47 (c)
= 13)
(c) (iii)
(i)
(ii)
12
5.8
Isotopes
5.8
What are isotopes?

Isotopes are different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons (and electrons) but different numbers of neutrons. ( )
Let us take hydrogen as an example. Not all of the atoms of hydrogen are identical. Actually, there are three types of hydrogen atoms, as shown in Figure 5.3 and Table 5.5. They all have the same number of protons (same atomic number) and electrons but different numbers of neutrons. Therefore, hydrogen has 3 isotopes:
1 2 1 H, 1 H
5.3 (
3 1H
5.5
)
1 1
2 1
and
3 1 H.
electron proton
neutron
Figure 5.3 The three isotopes of hydrogen.
1 1H
2 1H
3 1H
Isotope
p
1 1
Number of
e
n 0 1 2
H H H
1 1 1
1 1 1
Table 5.5 Number of protons, electrons and neutrons in the three isotopes of hydrogen.
2 1 3 1
Relative abundance of isotopes

Most elements consist of more than one isotope. In most cases, one of the isotopes is present in a much higher percentage than the others in Nature (see Table 5.6). ( 5.6)
13
Element
Isotopes
Atomic number
1 1 1
Mass number
1 2 3
% abundance of isotopes in Nature
1 1 2 1 3 1
H H H
99.984 0.016 very small percentage
Hydrogen
12 6 13 6 14 6
C C C
6 6 6
12 13 14
98.892 1.108 very small percentage
Carbon
16 8
O O O Na Cl Cl
8 8 8 11 17 17
16 17 18 23 35 37
99.76 0.04 0.20 100 75.4 24.6
Oxygen
17 8 18 8
Table 5.6 Isotopes of some elements in Nature.
Sodium Chlorine
23 11 35 17 37 17
Class practice 5.8

Refer to Table 5.6. (a) How many natural isotopes does oxygen have? (b) Which is the most abundant isotope of oxygen?
5.8
5.6 (a) (b)
Comparing properties of different isotopes

Isotopes of the same element have the same number of protons and electrons in their atoms. They therefore have the same chemical properties. However, since they have different numbers of neutrons, they have different masses and hence slightly different physical properties.
14
5.9
Relative masses of atoms
5.9
Relative isotopic mass

The carbon-12 scale
Scientists choose a carbon-12 isotope, which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, to be the standard atom. Then they fixed it as exactly 12.000 units (atomic mass unit, a.m.u.). Masses of all other atoms are compared with this reference standard to give their relative masses. On the C = 12.000 00 scale, the relative masses of a proton and a neutron are both very close to 1; the relative mass of an electron is nearly 0. Thus the relative isotopic mass of an isotope is roughly equal to its mass number. 0
12 12
-12
-12 6 a.m.u.) ) 12.000 ( ( 6
C = 12.000 00 1
Learning tip Relative isotopic mass and relative atomic mass are both relative values; they carry no units.
Relative isotopic mass mass number
Class practice 5.9

What is the relative isotopic mass of (a)
37 17 Cl
5.9
(b)
35 17 Cl
(c)
He
(d)
238
(e)
19 K?
(a) (d)
37 17 Cl 238
(b) (e)
35 17 Cl 19 K
(c)
He
15
Relative atomic mass

In general, if an element consists of n isotopes, there would be n different relative isotopic masses, one for each of the isotopes. However, for the element as a whole, there is only one relative atomic mass. Hence the relative atomic mass of an element is determined by: (1) the relative isotopic masses and (2) the relative abundance of the natural isotopes present in the element. (1) (2)
The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the relative isotopic masses of its natural isotopes on the C = 12.000 00 scale.
12 12
( C = 12.000 00 )
For example, for an element consisting of three isotopes A, B and C: A B C
Relative atomic mass = a%
MA + b%
MB + c%
MC
= a% + c%
MA + b% MC
MB
where a%, b%, c% = percentage abundance of isotopes A, B and C respectively MA, MB, MC = relative isotopic masses of isotopes A, B and C respectively
a%
b%
c% =
MA
MB
MC =
16
Example 5.5 Calculating relative atomic mass and percentage abundance of isotopes
(a) Chlorine consists of two natural isotopes, 35Cl and 37Cl, with percentage abundance of 75.4% and 24.6% respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine. (b) Naturally occurring bromine (relative atomic mass = 79.9) consists of a mixture of two isotopes: 79Br and 81Br. Calculate the percentage abundance of each of the two isotopes in natural bromine. Solution (a) By approximation, relative isotopic mass of 35Cl isotope = its mass no. = 35 relative isotopic mass of 37Cl isotope = its mass no. = 37 Relative atomic mass of chlorine = average mass of 1 chlorine atom on the 12C = 12.000 00 scale = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses = 75.4 100 35 + 24.6 100 37 = 35.5 (a) (a)
37
5.5
Cl 24.6% (b)
81
Cl 75.4%
35
79
Br
Br ( = 79.9 )
35 35
Cl = 35 Cl = 37
12
= =
Cl
37
37
Cl
=1 = 75.4 100
C = 12.000 00
(Note: The relative atomic mass of 35.5 is not the relative mass of any one chlorine atom, but the weighted average of all the chlorine atoms present.) (b) Let the percentage abundance of and (100 y)% respectively.
79
Br and
81
Br be y%
35 +
24.6 100
37 = 35.5
Relative atomic mass of bromine = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses 79.9 = 79y + 81(100 y) 100 (b)
( 35.5
35.5 Br 81 Br y% (100 y) % =
79
7990 = 79y + 8100 81y y = 55 Thus the percentage abundance of 79Br is 55% and that of 81Br is 45%.
79.9 =
79y + 81(100 y) 100
7990 = 79y + 8100 81y y = 55 Br 55%

79
Br 45%
81
17
Class practice 5.10

1. There is only one kind of sodium atoms in nature, i.e. What is the relative atomic mass of sodium? 2. Neon in air contains 90% of
20 10 Ne 22 10 Ne. 23 11 Na.
5.10
1.
23 11 Na
and 10% of
2. 10%
22 10 Ne
90%
20 10
Ne
Calculate the relative atomic mass of neon.
The accurate relative atomic masses of elements are very seldom whole numbers (why?). ( )
Check your concept
The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 g. The relative atomic mass is a relative value. It carries no unit. The relative atomic mass of chlorine should be 35.5.

35.5
35.5 g
5.10 Arrangement of electrons

Electronic arrangement
Scientists think that electrons in an atom exist in a number of regions (called electron shells) surrounding the central nucleus. Each electron shell is given a number 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on, starting from the one closest to the nucleus (i.e. the innermost shell). Each shell can hold up to a certain maximum number of electrons (Table 5.7). The arrangement of electrons in a sodium atom can be shown by Figure 5.4.
Shell number, n 1 2 3 4 . . .
5.10
( )
2 (
4 ) ( 5.7)
5.4
Maximum number of electrons (= 2n ) 2 8 18 32 . . .
Table 5.7 Maximum number of electrons the first four shells can hold.
18
1st shell (innermost shell) ( ) nucleus
2nd shell
electron
Figure 5.4 Arrangement of electrons in a sodium atom.
3rd shell (outermost shell in sodium atom) ( )
Electrons in an atom are arranged in shells. The distribution of electrons in the various shells is called electronic arrangement (or electronic configuration). ( )
Rules for finding electronic arrangement

To find the electronic arrangement of an atom, we use the following rules: 1. The atomic number of the element is first found. This is equal to the number of protons, and hence the number of electrons present in an atom of the element. 2. Electrons go into the shells one by one, starting from the innermost shell. When a certain shell is full (refer to Table 5.7 again), any remaining electrons would go into the next outer shell and so on, until all are placed. 2. ( 5.7) 1.
Ways of representing electronic arrangement

Electronic arrangement by numbering
Electronic arrangement may be shown by numbering. The number of electrons in each shell is listed, starting from the first shell (innermost shell); the numbers are separated by commas. For example, the electronic arrangement of a sodium atom is 2, 8, 1 (Figure 5.5). ( 5.5)
19
) 2, 8, 1
Electronic arrangement of sodium atom:
2, 8, 1
Figure 5.5 Showing the electronic arrangement of a sodium atom by numbering.
Number of electrons in:
1st shell
2nd shell
3rd shell
Electronic arrangement by diagram

Besides numbering, electronic arrangement can also be represented by an electron diagram. In such diagrams, the nucleus is often represented by the symbol of the atom. Electron shells are shown by circles around the nucleus. Electrons are shown by dots or crosses. Figure 5.6 is the electron diagram of a sodium atom. 5.6
Na
Figure 5.6 The electron diagram of a sodium atom.
Class practice 5.11

Draw electron diagrams for the following atoms: (a) Helium (b) Oxygen (c) Silicon (d) Calcium (a) (c)
5.11
(b) (d)
Electronic arrangements of the first 20 elements

Following the above rules, we can find the electronic arrangements of the elements with atomic numbers 1 20 (Table 5.8). 20 ( 5.8) 1
20
Element
Symbol
Atomic Number of number electrons

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
No. of electrons in electron shells 1st

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 8 1 2
2nd
3rd
4th
Electronic arrangement
1 2 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8 2, 8, 1 2, 8, 2 2, 8, 3 2, 8, 4 2, 8, 5 2, 8, 6 2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 8, 1 2, 8, 8, 2
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Sulphur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium ( ) Phosphorus
H He Li Be B C N O F Ne Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar K Ca
Table 5.8 The electronic arrangements (by numbering) of the elements with atomic numbers 1 20. 1 20 ( )
Class practice 5.12

(a) What is the atomic number of chlorine? (See Table 5.8) (b) Show the electronic arrangement of a chlorine atom by (i) numbering (ii) an electron diagram. (b) (a) 5.8 (i) )
5.12
( (ii)
5.11 Stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements

The term noble gases is a collective name for Group 0 elements, which are very unreactive.
5.11
0
21
The exceptional stability of noble gases is related to their electronic arrangements: Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Radon (He) (Ne) (Ar) (Kr) (Xe) (Rn) 2 2, 8 2,8, 8 2,8,18, 8 2,8,18,18, 8 2,8,18,32,18, 8 (He) (Ne) (Ar) (Kr) (Xe) (Rn) 2 2, 8 2, 8, 8 2, 8, 18, 8 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8 ( 2 ) 8
All noble gases (except helium) have 8 outermost shell electrons in their atoms. Helium atom has 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell. This suggests that a particle has great stability if it has an octet of electrons (i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell) or a duplet of electrons (i.e. 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell). Atoms of elements other than noble gases are usually not stable. They will become stable if they attain an octet or a duplet. ) )
( 2
22
Key terms
Page 1. atom 2. atomic number 3. chemical symbol 4. duplet 5. electron diagram 6. electron shell ( ) 7 10 5 22 20 18 19 19 1 13 11 1 1 22 13 16 15 / 4
7. electronic arrangement 8. electronic configuration 9. element 10. isotope 11. mass number 12. metal 13. non-metal 14. octet 15. relative abundance 16. relative atomic mass 17. relative isotopic mass 18. semi-metal/metalloid
23
Summary
5.1 1. What is an element? An chemical methods. is a pure substance which cannot be broken down into anything simpler by
5.2 2.
Classification of elements based on physical states Elements can be classified based on solids, liquids or gases. metal) are the only two liquid elements. states, that is, whether the elements are (a silvery metal) and (a dark red non-
5.3 3. 4.
Classification of elements into metals and non-metals Elements can be classified into , and .
All metals conduct . All non-metals (except carbon in the form of graphite) do not conduct . To tell whether an element is a metal or non-metal, a simple but effective way is to test whether it conducts . (Refer to Table 5.1 on p.2 for some typical differences in physical properties between metals and non-metals.)
5.4 5.
Chemical symbols for elements Chemists use chemical to represent elements. Chemical symbols of most elements come from their English names. (Refer to Table 5.2 on p.6 for chemical symbols of some common metals, non-metals and semimetals.)
5.5 6. 7.
Atoms An element. is the smallest part of an element which has the chemical properties of that
An is a substance that is made up of only one kind of atoms. Different elements have different properties because they consist of different kinds of atoms. Structure of atoms (a) An atom consists of three types of sub-atomic particles and . (b) ,
5.6 8.
Sub-atomic particle
Proton (p) Neutron (n) Electron (e)
Relative mass
1 1 negligible (
1 ) 1837
Relative charge
+1 0 1
24
(c) An atom has an extremely small centre called are in the nucleus. (d) Electrons move around the nucleus in (e) An atom is electrically 5.7 9. Atomic number and mass number . .
. The protons and neutrons
of an atom = number of protons in the atom of an element = number of protons in an atom of the element
10. atom 11. Full atomic symbol

mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
of an atom = number of protons + number of neutrons in the
EXAMPLE
A Z
Atomic symbol
mass number atomic number
4 2
He
atomic number = number of protons = number of electrons of a neutral atom
5.8 12.
Isotopes are different atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons (and electrons) but different numbers of neutrons. Different isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties but slightly different physical properties. Relative masses of atoms mass number of an element = weighted average of the relative isotopic masses 12 of its natural isotopes on the C = 12.000 00 scale.
5.9 13. 14.
5.10 Arrangement of electrons 15. The of an atom is the distribution of electrons in the various shells of the atom. (Refer to Table 5.8 on p.21.)
5.11 Stability of noble gases related to their electronic arrangements 16. Noble gases have great stability because their atoms have either an of electrons (8 electrons in the outermost shell), or a of electrons (2 electrons in the only one occupied shell) as in helium.
25
6.1
Elements with similar chemical properties
6.1
Grouping elements
There are 92 naturally occurring elements. If we can find a way to group these elements, we can study them more easily and systematically. 92
A. Action of water on potassium, sodium and iron

Both potassium and sodium react vigorously with water. Iron has no immediate reaction with water. Thus potassium and sodium behave similarly.
A.
B. Action of dilute hydrochloric acid on calcium, magnesium and copper

Both calcium and magnesium react with dilute hydrochloric acid to give a colourless gas. Copper has no reaction with the acid. Thus calcium and magnesium behave similarly.
B.
C. C. Action of sodium sulphite solution on aqueous chlorine solution, aqueous bromine solution, aqueous iodine solution and sulphur
On adding sodium sulphite solution, aqueous solutions of chlorine, bromine and iodine all turn colourless; sulphur has no reaction. Thus chlorine, bromine and iodine behave similarly.
26
Chapter 6 The Periodic Table
6.2
The Periodic Table
6.2
Development of the Periodic Table

In 1869, the Russian chemist Mendeleev arranged the 63 elements known at that time in a table form. He put elements with similar chemical properties in the same vertical column of the table. He called his table the Periodic Table of Elements. This table has been much modified over the years, to become the modern Periodic Table. 1869 63
The modern Periodic Table

( In the modern Periodic Table (Table 6.1), elements are arranged in ascending order of atomic number. For example, hydrogen (atomic number 1) comes first. Helium (atomic number 2) comes second and so on. 6.1)
GROUPS
atomic number
relative atomic mass
electronic arrangement
Transition elements
PERIODS
Alkaline earth metals
Alkali metals
Keys:
metal
semi-metal
non-metal
gas
liquid
solid
main groups
Table 6.1 Part of the modern Periodic Table. (A complete Periodic Table is shown on the inside front cover.) ( )
Halogens
Noble gases
27
The elements are arranged in periods and groups of the Periodic Table.
Periods
A horizontal row of elements is called a period. Each period has a number: from 1 to 7. Period 1 contains only two elements. Period 2 and Period 3 each contains eight elements. Other periods are longer. We should note that Period 1 elements have one occupied electron shell, Period 2 elements have two occupied electron shells, and so on.
Period number = number of occupied electron shells
Groups
A vertical column of elements is called a group. There are altogether eight main groups. Each group has a number (I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII or 0). We should note that Group I elements have one outermost shell electron, Group VII elements have seven outermost shell electrons, and so on. I II III IV I VII V VI VII 0
Group number = number of electrons in the outermost shell
Learning tip There are exceptions to this rule: (1) Hydrogen does not belong to any group. (2) For Group 0 elements, helium has two electrons in the outermost shell, while all the others have eight. (1) (2) 0 8 2
28
Figure 6.1 illustrates the above two rules for period number and group number. Some of the groups have special names: Group I Group II Group VII Group 0 : : : : Alkali metals Alkaline earth metals Halogens Noble gases
6.1
I II VII 0
Electronic arrangement of a chlorine atom:
2, 8, 7
Figure 6.1 The relation among electronic arrangement, period number and group number.
no. of occupied electron shells = 3 = period no. = 3 = no. of electrons in the outermost shell = 7 = group no. (VII) =7= (VII)
Example 6.1 Identifying an unknown element based on its atomic number

X Element X has an atomic number of 15. (a) Deduce the electronic arrangement of an atom of X. (b) In which (i) group (ii) period of the Periodic Table should X be placed? (c) Is X a metal or a non-metal? (a) (b) (c) (a) (b) X (c) X
6.1
15 X (i) (ii)
Solution (a) 2,8,5 (c) Non-metal (b) (i) Group V (ii) Period 3
2,8,5 V (i)
(ii)
29
Class practice 6.1

Element W has the electronic arrangement of 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8, 2. (a) To which period and group of the Periodic Table does W belong? What is the special name of the group? (b) By referring to the Periodic Table, name element W. (c) Predict whether W can conduct electricity. Give your reason. 8, 2 (a) W W (b) (c) W W
6.1
2, 8, 18, 32, 18,
The elements in between Group II and Group III are called the transition elements (or transition metals). Many common metals such as iron (Fe) and copper (Cu) are transition elements.
II (
III ) (Fe) (Cu)
6.3
Patterns in the Periodic Table
6.3
Changing from metals to non-metals across a period

Across a period, the elements change from metals through semi-metals to non-metals. For example, across Period 2, there is a gradual change from a reactive metal (lithium), through a less reactive metal (beryllium), a semi-metal (boron), less reactive non-metals (carbon, nitrogen), to reactive non-metals (oxygen, fluorine), and finally to a noble gas (neon). See Figure 6.2.
more metallic
( ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) ) ( 6.2 )
Group Period 2 3
I
Li Na
II
Be Mg
III
B Al
IV
C Si
V
N P
VI
O S
VII
F Cl
0
Ne Ar
Figure 6.2 Elements change from metals to non-metals across Period 2 and Period 3 of the Periodic Table.
reactive metals
less reactive metals
semi-metals
less reactive non-metals
reactive non-metals
noble gases
more non-metallic
30
Class practice 6.2

Element X belongs to Group II of the Periodic Table. Element Y is a Group 0 element. Element Z is a Group IV element. Try to classify X, Y and Z as a metal or a non-metal. X X Y Z Y Z
6.2
II 0 IV
Electronic arrangement and chemical properties

Electronic arrangements of some elements in the Periodic Table are given below:
Group I Period 2 Period 3 Period 4 Period 5 Period 6

Li Na K Rb Cs
Group VII
F Cl Br I At
VII
Group 0
Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn
2, 1 2,8, 1 2,8,8, 1 2,8,18,8, 1 2,8,18,18,8, 1
2, 7 2,8, 7 2,8,18, 7 2,8,18,18, 7 2,8,18,32,18, 7
2, 8 2,8, 8 2,8,18, 8 2,8,18,18, 8 2,8,18,32,18, 8
Let us take Group I as an example. All Group I elements have one outermost shell electron. They have similar chemical properties. This suggests the following relationship:
Chemical properties of an element depend mainly on the number of outermost shell electrons.
Check your concept
Elements in the same group have the same chemical properties. Elements in the same group have similar chemical properties.
31
Example 6.2 Deciding which elements show similar chemical properties

Which of the following pairs of atoms would have similar chemical properties? Explain your answer. A. C.
6X 9X
6.2
and and
15 Y 16 Y
B. D.
4X 7X
and and
20 Y 17 Y
A. C.
6X 9X
15 Y 16 Y
B. D.
4X 7X
20 Y 17 Y
Solution The subscripts stand for atomic numbers. Electronic arrangements of the atoms: A. B. C. D. In B,
6X
(2, 4) and
15 Y
(2, 8, 5) A. B. C. D. (2, 8, 6) (2, 8, 7)

6X 4X 9X 7X
(2, 4) (2, 2) (2, 7) (2, 5)

4
4 X (2, 2) and 9X 7X 4
20 Y (2, 8, 8, 2) 16 Y 17 Y
15 Y 20 Y 16 Y 17 Y
(2, 8, 5) (2, 8, 8, 2) (2, 8, 6) (2, 8, 7)

20 Y
(2, 7) and (2, 5) and

20 Y
X and
have the same number of outermost shell
electrons, so they should have similar chemical properties.
Class practice 6.3

The atomic number of an element P is 20. (a) What is the electronic arrangement of a P atom? (b) Would P conduct electricity? Why? (c) Which of the following atoms would have chemical properties similar to P? (i)
8Q
6.3
P (a) (b) P (c) (i)
8Q
20 P
P (ii)
12 R
(ii)
12 R
6.4
Groups similarities and trends
6.4
Elements within the same group of the Periodic Table have similar chemical properties. Yet there is also a gradual change in chemical properties down a group. Let us take Group I, Group VII and Group 0 as examples. I VII 0
32
Group I: The alkali metals

Figure 6.3 shows the elements in Group I.
I
6.3
lithium sodium potassium rubidium
Li Na K Rb Cs Fr
Figure 6.3 Group I elements (the alkali metals). I ( )
caesium francium
silvery solids
Similarities of Group I elements

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All are soft metals. All are silvery solids (when freshly cut). All are reactive. All have similar chemical properties. All react with water, giving off hydrogen to form an alkaline solution. That is why we call them alkali metals. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Difference in reactivity of Group I elements

Although all alkali metals are reactive, they differ in reactivities.
Reactivity of Group I elements increases down the group.
In fact, this rule also applies to Group II elements (the alkaline earth metals). ( )
II
Group VII: The halogens

Figure 6.4 shows the elements in Group VII.
VII
6.4 VII
33
fluorine chlorine bromine iodine Figure 6.4 Group VII elements (the halogens). VII ( ) astatine
F Cl Br I At
(pale yellow gas) (greenish yellow gas) (dark red liquid) (black solid) (black solid)
Similarities of Group VII elements

1. 2. 3. All are poisonous non-metals. All are reactive. All have similar chemical properties. For example, their aqueous solutions are turned colourless by sodium sulphite solution (p.26). 1. 2. 3.
VII
26
Difference in reactivity of Group VII elements

Reactivity of Group VII elements decreases down the group.
VII
VII
Group 0: The noble gases

Figure 6.5 shows the elements in Group 0.
helium neon argon krypton Figure 6.5 Elements in Group 0 (the noble gases). 0 ( ) xenon radon
He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn
0
6.5 0
colourless gases
Similarities of Group 0 elements

1. 2. All are colourless gases. All are very stable. They have little or no reaction with other elements. 1. 2.
34
6.5
Predicting chemical properties of an unfamiliar element
6.5
We can predict the chemical properties of an element from its position in the Periodic Table.
Class practice 6.4

1. 2. Can the chemical properties of an unfamiliar element be deduced from its electronic arrangement? Why? Which of the following correctly describes the elements astatine (electronic arrangement 2,8,18,32,18,7) and strontium (2,8,18,8,2) respectively? A. B. C. A metal more reactive than magnesium A metal less reactive than magnesium A non-metal more reactive than chlorine 1.
6.4
2. 18, 32, 18, 7) 18, 8, 2) A. B. C. D.
( (
2, 8, 2, 8,
D. A non-metal less reactive than chlorine
Key terms
Page 1. group 2. main group 3. period 4. Periodic Table of Elements 5. reactivity 6. transition element 7. transition metal 28 28 28 27 33 30 30
35
Summary
6.1 1. 6.2 2. 3. Elements with similar chemical properties Some elements show The Periodic Table In the modern Periodic Table, all elements are arranged in increasing order of . (a) The Periodic Table consists of periods and groups. (b) A horizontal row of elements is called a (c) A vertical column of elements is called a (d) For elements in the main groups: (1) Period number of an element = number of (2) Group number of an element = number of 6.3 4. 5. Patterns in the Periodic Table Across a period from left to right, there is a change from metals, to to . Elements within the same group of the Periodic Table have the outermost shell electrons in their atoms, therefore they have properties. However, there is a gradual change in reactivity down a group. Groups similarities and trends Group I elements are called the Group II elements are called the Reactivity of Group I and II elements 7. Group VII elements are called the Reactivity of Group VII elements 8. 6.5 9. Group 0 elements are called the Predicting chemical properties of an unfamiliar element Chemical properties of an unfamiliar element can be predicted from its Periodic Table. in the . down the group. . They are all very unreactive. . . down the group. and finally number of chemical electrons in an atom of the element electron shells in an atom of the element . . chemical properties.
6.4 6.
36
Chapter 7 Chemical bonding: ionic bonding
7.1
Formation of ions from atoms
7.1
Stability of noble gases

All noble gases (except helium) have 8 outermost shell electrons in their atoms. Helium atom has 2 electrons in the only one occupied shell. This suggests that a particle has great stability if it attains ( )
an octet of electrons (i.e. 8 electrons in the outermost shell)

or
a duplet of electrons (i.e. 2 electrons in the only one

occupied shell).
( )
What is an ion?
An ion is an atom or a group of atoms having an overall electric charge.
A simple ion is derived from a single atom. A polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms. Examples of simple ions are sodium ion, lead(II) ion, copper(II) ion, chloride ion and bromide ion. Examples of polyatomic ions are ammonium ion, hydroxide ion, sulphate ion, nitrate ion and permanganate ion. (II) (II)
Cations and anions

There are two kinds of ions: positively charged ions and negatively charged ions. Positive ions are called cations they are attracted towards the cathode (negatively charged electrode in electrolysis). Negative ions are called anions they are attracted towards the anode (positively charged electrode in electrolysis). See Figure 7.1. ) 7.1
37
) (
electron flow
anode
cathode electrolyte
Figure 7.1 Movement of cations and anions in electrolysis.

anion
+ +
cation
Class practice 7.1

Referring to the above discussion on cations and anions, delete (cross out) the unsuitable words in the following statements: (a) Cations are ions that usually come from metals/non-metals. (b) Anions are ions that usually come from metals/non-metals. (a) (b)
7.1
/ /
7.2
Colours and migration of ions
7.2
Colour of ions
Many ions are colourless. However, some ions are coloured. We should notice that transition metals usually form coloured ions; most of these are cations (e.g. copper(II) ion), but a few are polyatomic anions (e.g. permanganate ion). On the other hand, elements in the main groups in the Periodic Table form colourless ions (not listed in Table 7.1). (II) ( 7.1 ) ) ( ) (
Name
(a) Copper(II) ion (b) Iron(II) ion (c) Iron(III) ion (d) Cobalt(II) ion (e) Nickel(II) ion (f) Chromium(III) ion (g) Chromate ion Table 7.1 The colours of some ions in aqueous solution. 38 (h) Dichromate ion (i) Manganese(II) ion (j) Permanganate ion (II) (II) (II) (III) (II) (II) (III)
Colour
blue or green pale green yellow or brown pink green green yellow orange very pale pink purple
Class practice 7.2

Predict the colour (if any) of each of the following solutions: (a) Magnesium nitrate solution (b) Sodium permanganate solution (c) Ammonium chromate solution (d) Iron(II) sulphate solution (a) (b) (c) (d) (II)
7.2
( )
Gemstones and ions

Colours of gemstones
Gemstones are very rare minerals, usually coloured.
Coloured ions in gemstones

Colours of gemstones are due to traces of coloured ions. Some examples are given in Table 7.2.
7.2
Gemstone
Amethyst Emerald Jade Peridot Topaz Turquoise
Colour
purple green green light green yellow bluish green
Ion responsible for colour

manganese(III) ion chromium(III) ion chromium(III) ion iron(II) ion iron(III) ion copper(II) ion (II) (III) (II) (III) (III) (III)
Table 7.2 Coloured ions in some gemstones.
Migration of ions
We can observe the migration (movement) of coloured ions during electrolysis, using the set-up as shown in Figure 7.2. 7.2
39
20 V d. c. supply 20 V carbon anode carbon cathode
dilute hydrochloric acid dilute hydrochloric acid this region slowly becomes orange due to the migration of negative dichromate ions towards the positive anode this region slowly becomes blue due to the migration of positive copper(II) ions towards the negative cathode (II)
a gel containing copper(II) ions and dichromate ions (II)
Figure 7.2 To show the migration of coloured ions during electrolysis (using a U-tube). ( U )
A simpler way of investigating the migration of coloured ions under the influence of an electric field is shown in Figure 7.3.
7.3
small potassium permanganate crystal small potassium permanganate crystal purple spot anode anode microscope slide 20 V d.c. supply 20 V cathode cathode filter paper moistened with sodium sulphate solution purple spot microscope slide filter paper moistened with sodium sulphate solution
Figure 7.3 To show the migration of purple permanganate ions under the influence of an electric field (using a strip of filter paper on a microscope slide). ( )
Class practice 7.3

Refer to Figure 7.3 again. (a) Towards which electrode are potassium ions migrating? Why? (b) Can we see the movement of potassium ions? Why? (c) If a chromium(III) sulphate crystal was used instead of a potassium permanganate crystal, what would be observed? Why? 40 (a) (b) (c) 7.3
7.3
(III)
7.3
Formulae of ions
7.3
Formation of ions
An atom is overall electrically neutral, because it has the same number of protons and electrons. But if the number of electrons in an atom is increased or decreased, an ion is formed. Example 7.1 Understanding how an ion is formed
Explain, in terms of electronic arrangement and number of protons and electrons, the formation of (a) a lithium ion Solution (a) Consider a lithium atom, Li. Electronic arrangement: 2,1 Number of protons = 3; number of electrons = 3 Charge of the atom = (+1) 3 + (1) 3 = 0 (i.e. the atom carries no charge) To get the electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas (helium) 2 (which is a duplet), one electron has to be removed. An ion is formed. Number of electrons = 3 1 = 2 Charge of the ion = (+1) 3 + (1) as 1+ or +) 2 = +1 (written (b) an oxide ion. (a) Li 2,1 =3 = (+1) =0 ( ( 2( =31=2 = (+1) = +1 ( Li ( Li (b)
1+ +
7.1
(a)
(b)
=3 3 + (1) ) ) ) 3
3 + (1) 2 1+ +)
The resulting positive ion is called lithium ion, + represented by Li . (Note that 1 is usually dropped out in writing the + 1+ charge on an ion. Thus we write Li instead of Li .) (b) Consider an oxygen atom, O. Electronic arrangement: 2,6 Number of protons = 8; number of electrons = 8 Charge of the atom = (+1) 8 + (1) 8 = 0 (i.e. the atom carries no charge) To get the electronic arrangement of the nearest noble gas neon 2,8 (which is an octet), two electrons have to be gained. An ion is formed. Number of electrons = 8 + 2 = 10 Charge of the ion = (+1) 8 + (1) as 2) 10 = 2 (written
1 ) O 2,6 =8 = (+1) =0 (
Li
=8 8 + (1) ) ( ) ) 8
2,8 (
The resulting negative ion is called oxide ion (not 2 oxygen ion), represented by O .
= 8 + 2 = 10 = (+1) 8 + (1) 10 = 2 ( 2) O
2
41
Polyatomic ions are formed from a group of atoms. However, their formation is not discussed here.
Class practice 7.4

1. Write down the electronic arrangements of (a) aluminium atom and aluminium ion (b) chlorine atom and chloride ion 2. Put down the charge of each ion in Question 1. 2. 1. (a) (b)
7.4
What is a formula?
We can refer to an element, a compound or an ion by its name. Alternatively, we can refer to it by its formula (plural: formulae).
Class practice 7.5

State which of the following formulae stand for simple ions and polyatomic ions respectively. (a) H2 (e) CCl4 (i) OH
7.5
+
(b) H (f) (j)
(c) H (g) H
2+
(d) NH4 (h) NH2
(a) H2 + (d) NH4 (g) H 2+ (j) Mn
(b) H (e) CCl4 (h) NH2
(c) H (f) NH3 (i) OH
NH3 Mn
Names and formulae of common ions

Table 7.3 gives the names of some common ions with their formulae. 7.3
42
Cations Cations Charge Charge Formula Formula

Na K
+ + + + +
Anions
Name Name
sodium ion potassium ion copper(I) ion (I) silver ion mercury(I) ion (I) hydrogen ion
Charge
Formula
H

Name
hydride ion chloride ion bromide ion iodide ion
Cl
Cu
Br I
Ag
Hg H
+
OH
hydroxide ion nitrate ion nitrite ion hydrogencarbonate ion hydrogensulphate ion cyanide ion
NO3
1+
NH4
ammonium ion
NO2
HCO3 HSO4 CN
MnO4 ClO3 ClO Mg Ca Ba

2+
permanganate ion chlorate ion hypochlorite ion oxide ion sulphide ion
magnesium ion calcium ion barium ion lead(II) ion (II) iron(II) ion (II) cobalt(II) ion (II) nickel(II) ion (II) manganese(II) ion (II) copper(II) ion (II) zinc ion mercury(II) ion (II) aluminium ion iron(III) ion (III) chromium(III) ion (III)
O S
2+
2 2 2 2
2+ 2+
SO4 SO3
sulphate ion sulphite ion silicate ion carbonate ion chromate ion dichromate ion
Pb Fe
2+ 2+
SiO3
2+
Co Ni
CO3
2 2 2
2+ 2+
CrO4
Mn Cu Zn
Cr2O7
2+
2+ 2+
Hg Al
3+
nitride ion phosphide ion

3
3+
Fe
3+ 3+
Cr
PO4
phosphate ion
Table 7.3 The names and formulae of some common ions. 43
Refer to Table 7.3. You should pay special attention to the following points: 1. 2. All simple metal ions (e.g. Na , Mg ) are cations. All simple non-metal ions (except H ) and most polyatomic ions (e.g. OH , HCO3 ) are anions (except NH4 ). 3. 4. There is only one common polyatomic cation NH4 . Polyatomic ions usually consist of non-metals only (e.g. NO3 , CO3 , SO4 ), but some consist of a metal and a nonmetal (e.g. MnO4 , CrO4 , Cr2O7 ). 5. When a metal forms only one cation, the ion has the same name as the metal, e.g. sodium metal (Na) forms sodium ion (Na ). 6. Transition metals can form more than one simple cation with different charges. To name each ion, a Roman numeral indicating the charge is written in brackets after the name of the metal. For example, iron metal (Fe) can form iron(II) ion Fe and iron(III) ion Fe . 7. Simple anions have names ending in -ide, e.g. an oxygen atom (O) forms an oxide ion (O ); a sulphur atom (S) forms a sulphide ion (S ). 8. The polyatomic anion with more oxygen is named as -ate, and that with less oxygen as -ite, e.g. SO4
2 2 2 2 2+ 3+ + 2 2 2 2 + + + + 2+
7.3 1. ( Na
+ +
Mg )
2+
2. ( (NH4 3. NH4 4. ( MnO4 5. (Na) 6.

+ +
(H )
) HCO3 )
OH
NO3
CO3
SO4 ) (
2
CrO4
Cr2O7 )
(Na )
(II) 7.
(III)
2
sulphate ion,
SO3 sulphite ion; NO3 nitrate ion, NO2 nitrite ion. 9. Ions with 4+ or 4 charges are uncommon. They are not listed in the table.
CO 3
SO 4 SO 3 NO3 NO2 8.
2
4+
44
7.4
Elements and ions
7.4
Which elements form ions?

A metal atom has few outermost shell electrons (usually 1 to 3). To get a noble gas electronic arrangement, the easiest way is to lose these electrons, forming a cation (positively charged). For example, a Mg atom (2,8,2) forms a Mg 7.4a. A non-metal atom has more outermost shell electrons. To get a noble gas electronic arrangement, it is easier for the atom to gain rather than to lose electrons. It thus gains electrons, forming an anion (negatively charged). For example, an O atom (2,6) forms an O ion (2,8). See Figure 7.4b. (2,8)
( 3 ) ( Mg
2+
2+
ion (2,8). See Figure
) (2,8)
Mg 7.4a
(2,8,2)
( ) O 7.4b
gains 2e 2e
O O
(2,6)
loses 2e 2e
Mg Mg
2+
magnesium atom
magnesium ion
oxygen atom
oxide ion
Figure 7.4 Formation of ions.
(a) Formation of a magnesium ion.
(b) Formation of an oxide ion.
All metals form ions: they usually form cations. Some nonmetals form ions most of these are anions.
Relation between ionic charge and group number of an element

I Metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of positive charges on an ion is equal to its group number. V For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, however, the number of negative charges on an ion is usually equal to 8 minus group number . For example, an atom of oxygen (a Group VI element) gains (8 6) or 2 electrons to get an octet, forming an O ion.
45
2
II
III
VI
VII ( VI )
(8 6) O
2
Class practice 7.6

1. Some elements are shown in the incomplete Periodic Table below. Write the formulae of the corresponding ions. 1.
7.6
Group Period 2 3 4
I Li Na K
II Be Mg Ca
III
IV
V N
VI O S
VII F Cl Br
Al
2.
The atomic numbers of strontium and astatine are 38 and 85 respectively. Write the formula of (a) strontium ion (b) astatide ion. (Refer to the Periodic Table for atomic symbols and group numbers.)
2. (a) ( (b)
38
85 )
Comparing properties of an atom and its ion

An atom and its ion have different physical and chemical properties. This is because they have different numbers of electrons and therefore different electronic arrangements.
Example 7.2 Statements about atom and ion

This question consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. A neon atom and an oxide ion have similar chemical properties. A neon atom and an oxide ion have the same electronic arrangement. Solution The first statement is false, while the second statement is true. In fact, a neon atom and an oxide ion behave differently because they have different numbers of protons.
7.2
46
7.5
Chemical bonds
7.5
Atoms can join together, by chemical bonds, to form millions of different compounds.
Types of chemical bonds

There are three main types of chemical bonds: 1. 2. 3. Ionic (or electrovalent) bond Covalent bond (to be discussed in Chapter 8) Metallic bond (to be discussed in Chapter 9) 1. 2. 3. ( ( ( ) ) )
7.6
Ionic bond and ionic substances
7.6
Ionic bond
Formation of ionic bond between sodium and chlorine
A sodium atom Na has the electronic arrangement 2,8,1. It can + lose one electron to get the stable octet 2,8, forming a Na ion. On the other hand, a chlorine atom Cl has the electronic arrangement 2,8,7. It can gain one electron to get the stable octet 2,8,8, forming a Cl ion. Thus when a sodium atom and a chlorine atom react, the sodium atom loses one electron to the chlorine atom. As a result of this transfer of electron, two ions are formed. See Figure 7.5. 7.5 2,8 + Na 2,8,7 Na
2,8,1
2,8,8 Cl Cl
electron
Na
Cl
transfer
Na
Cl
sodium atom (Na) (loses one electron)
chlorine atom (Cl) (gains one electron)
sodium ion (Na )
chloride ion (Cl )
(both unstable, therefore reactive)
(both stable)
Figure 7.5 Electron dot/cross diagrams showing the transfer of an electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom in the formation of sodium chloride, NaCl. / NaCl 47
In the electron dot/cross diagrams (or simply electron diagrams) given here, ions are put inside square brackets with the charge written at the top right-hand corner. )
Ionic bond is the strong non-directional electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. An ionic bond can be formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom (or group of atoms) to another. ( )
In the above reaction between sodium and chlorine, only the outermost shell electrons are involved. This is true for most chemical reactions. So for electron diagrams in the rest of the book, only the outermost shell will be drawn. Thus Figure 7.5 can be simplified as: 7.5
electron Na
+
Na Cl
Cl transfer
2,8,1
2,8,7
2,8
2,8,8
or even more simply,
Na
Cl
Na +
Cl
Formation of ionic bond between magnesium and fluorine

In the reaction between magnesium and fluorine, a magnesium atom loses 2 electrons, while a fluorine atom gains 1 electron. Therefore, each magnesium atom must combine with two fluorine atoms.
48
electron F
F Mg
2+
F
Mg
F transfer
fluorine atom 2,7
magnesium atom 2,8,2 (unstable atoms)
fluorine atom 2,7
fluoride ion 2,8
magnesium ion 2,8 (stable ions)
fluoride ion 2,8
Class practice 7.7

Draw electron diagrams (showing electrons in the outermost shell only) to show the bond formation in (a) potassium sulphide and (b) calcium bromide. ) (a)
7.7
( (b)
7.7
Structures of solid ionic compounds

+
7.7
(Na ) (Cl ) ( 7.6)
+
In sodium chloride, cations (Na ) and anions (Cl ) are attracted together by ionic bonds. They are packed regularly, so that each ion is surrounded by six ions of the opposite charge (Figure 7.6). This packing continues until a continuous, threedimensional structure called giant ionic structure is formed.
centre of Cl ion
+ +
+ + + +
chloride ion
+ +
sodium ion
centre of Na ion
+
Sodium chloride crystals

+
Figure 7.6 Sodium chloride has a giant ionic structure. It consists of Na and Cl ions held together by ionic bonds. + Na Cl
49
Sodium chloride consists of ions, so it is called an ionic compound. Magnesium fluoride is another ionic compound.
An ionic compound (or ionic substance) is a compound which consists of ions.
7.8
Formulae and names of ionic compounds
7.8
Formulae of ionic compounds

The formula of an ionic compound is a symbol indicating the types and numbers of atoms present in the compound. Let us take sodium chloride as an example. When sodium atom (Na) loses an electron and becomes an ion, it has a positive charge. The symbol for sodium ion is Na . On the other hand, the symbol for a chlorine atom is Cl. When it accepts an electron, it becomes a chloride ion (Cl ). The overall charge of the sodium chloride compound should be zero because the positive charge on the sodium ion balances the negative charge on the chloride ion. See Figure 7.7. To work out the formula, the symbol of positive ion should be written down first, followed by the negative ion. So the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. The formula does not show the charges on the sodium or chloride ions as the charges cancel each other when they combine.
Charge: +1 : +1 Na
+
(Na) Na Cl (Cl ) 7.7

+
Cl
Na
Cl
Figure 7.7 The overall charge of sodium chloride is zero.
50
Example 7.3 Writing the formulae of some ionic compounds

Give the formulae of the following ionic compounds. (a) potassium oxide (c) (e) sodium hydroxide iron(III) sulphate (b) magnesium nitrate (d) calcium hydroxide (a) (c) (e)
7.3
(b) (d) (III)
Solution (a) Potassium oxide K ion carries 1 positive charge; O ion carries 2 negative charges. To have electrical neutrality, the ratio + 2 of K ions: O ions must be 2 : 1. Thus the ionic formula of potassium oxide is as shown below:
+ 2
(a) K
+
O K 2 1
+
(K )
+
2
one oxide ion this number written after the brackets shows the number of potassium ions present
(K )
O
+
two potassium ions

2 2+
(not K O , K O , (K )2(O )) The formula is K2O, not KO, K2O. (b) Magnesium nitrate Mg ion carries 2 positive charges; NO3 ion carries 1 negative charge. To have electrical neutrality, the ratio 2+ of Mg ions: NO3 ions must be 1 : 2. Thus the ionic formula of magnesium nitrate is as shown below:
2+
( K O + 2 (K )2(O )) K2O (b) Mg

2+
2+
K 2O
KO
NO 3 Mg
2+
NO 3 2
Mg (NO3 )
one magnesium ion
2+ 2+
2+
this number written after the brackets shows the number of nitrate ions present
two nitrate ions
Mg (NO3 )
( Mg NO3
2+
2+
(not Mg NO3 , Mg NO3 2) The formula is Mg(NO 3 ) 2 , not MgNO 3 , Mg2(NO 3 ), MgNO32. (c) Sodium hydroxide The ionic formula is Na OH , not Na (OH )2, Na (OH ), + Na (OH) . The formula is NaOH, not Na(OH)2, Na(OH).
cont'd
+ + +
Mg NO3 2)
2+
MgNO 3 MgNO32 (c)
Mg(NO 3 ) 2 Mg2(NO 3 )
Na OH + Na (OH )2 Na (OH ) + Na (OH)

+
Na(OH)2
NaOH Na(OH)
51
(d) Calcium hydroxide The ionic formula is Ca (OH ) 2 , not Ca OH , 2+ 2+ Ca OH 2, Ca (OH) 2. The formula is Ca(OH)2, not Ca2(OH), CaOH2. (e) Iron(III) sulphate The ionic formula is (Fe ) 2 (SO 4 ) 3 , not Fe SO 4 , 2 3+ Fe 2(SO4 )3. The formula is Fe2(SO4)3, not FeSO4, (Fe)2(SO4)3.
3+ 2 3+ 2 2+ 2+
(d) Ca (OH ) 2 2+ Ca OH Ca OH 2 2+ Ca (OH) 2

2+ 2+
Ca2(OH) (e)
Ca(OH) 2 CaOH2 (Fe )2(SO4 )3 2 3+ Fe 2(SO4 )3

3+ 2
Try Chapter Exercise Q20

Class practice 7.8
Write the chemical formula of each of the following compounds: (a) Copper(II) chloride (c) Aluminium hydroxide (b) Calcium sulphide (d) Ammonium carbonate (a) (c)
Fe SO4 FeSO4
3+
Fe2(SO4)3 (Fe)2(SO4)3 20
7.8
(II)
(b) (d)
A short cut to predict formulae of ionic compounds

There is a short cut to predict the formula of an ionic compound. Let us take the example of magnesium fluoride.
Problem-solving strategy
Predicting the formulae of ionic compounds Step 1 Write the formulae of the two ions involved side by side. Mg
2+
1 Mg 2
2 + 1 2+
Step 2 Highlight the number of the charge on each ion. Mg

2 +
Step 3 Take the number of the charge on each ion across to the other. Mg = Mg1
2 +
Mg 3
F F2
Step 4 Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio. MgF2 (Omit the number 1 for Mg) 4 =
Mg Mg1
2 +
F F2
MgF2
52
Mg
Study more examples: Aluminium oxide Al Iron(III) sulphate Fe Calcium oxide Ca

2 + 3+ 3+
Al2O3
Al
3+
Al2O3
SO4
Fe2(SO4)3
Fe
3+
SO4
Fe2(SO4)3
Ca2O2
CaO
Ca
2 +
Ca2O2
CaO
(Note: The formula of calcium oxide is CaO but not Ca2O2. This is because the formula of an ionic compound expresses the simplest whole number ratio of the ions present. Therefore, the ratio of 2 : 2 must be simplified to 1 : 1.)
( C a 2O 2 2 2 1
CaO
Class practice 7.9

Using the short-cut method, predict the chemical formula of each of the following compounds: (a) Magnesium hydroxide (c) Lead(II) sulphate (b) Sodium oxide (d) Potassium dichromate (a) (c) (II)
7.9
(b) (d)
Naming ionic compounds

We can name ionic compounds based on the following two rules: 1. The cation is named first, followed by the anion. The word ion is omitted. For example, 1.
(Na ) (CO3 ) (Na 2 CO 3 )

2
53
Cation
Al
3+ +
Anion
SO4
2 2
Formula of compound
Al2(SO4)3 (NH4)2CO3 Ca(NO3)2 Cu2O CuO PbBr2
Name of compound
aluminium sulphate ammonium carbonate calcium nitrate copper(I) oxide copper(II) oxide lead(II) bromide (I) (II) (II)
NH4 Ca
CO3
2+ +
NO3 O O
2 2
Cu Cu Pb
2+
2+
Br
2.
Some ionic compounds contain water of crystallization. The number of molecules of water of crystallization (n) has to be added at the end of the name as: -n-water. For example, Na2CO3 10H2O is called sodium carbonate-10water.
2. (n) Na 2 CO 3 10H2O
Class practice 7.10

Name the following compounds: (a) Ca(NO3)2 (c) ZnSO4 7H2O (b) FeCl3 (d) Cu(OH)2 (a) Ca(NO3)2
7.10
(b) (d)
FeCl3 Cu(OH)2
(c) ZnSO4 7H2O
54
Key terms
Page 1. anion 2. cation 3. chemical bond 4. electron dot/cross diagram 5. formula 6. giant ionic structure 7. ionic bond 8. ionic compound 9. migration of ion 10. polyatomic ion 11. simple ion 12. transfer of electron 13. water of crystallization / 37 37 47 48 41 49 48 50 39 37 37 47 54
55
Summary
7.1 1. Formation of ions from atoms Noble gases have great stability because their atoms have either an of electrons (8 electrons in the outermost shell), or a of electrons (2 electrons in the only one occupied shell) as in helium. Other atoms can also gain great stability if they can get an octet (or duplet). An A A + NH4 ) are called is an atom or a group of atoms having an overall electric charge. is derived from a single atom. + is derived from a group of atoms. Positive ions (e.g. Na , ; negative ions (e.g. Cl , MnO4 ) are called .
2.
7.2 3. 4.
Colours and migration of ions Colours of some ions in aqueous solution are listed in Table 7.1 on p.38. Colours of some gemstones are due to traces of ions. Refer to Table 7.2 on p.39.
7.3 5. 6.
Formulae of ions A represents the smallest unit (using chemical symbols and numbers) of a substance or species under some specified conditions. Names and formulae of common ions are listed in Table 7.3 on p.43.
7.4 7. 8.
Elements and ions All metals form ions: they usually form these are . . Some non-metals form ions most of
For metals in Groups I, II and III, the number of charges on an ion is equal to its group number. For non-metals in Groups V, VI and VII, the number of charges on an ion is usually equal to 8 minus group number.
7.5 9.
Chemical bonds Atoms can join together by chemical bonds to form different compounds. There are three main types of chemical bonds, namely, bonds, bonds and bonds.
56
7.6 10.
Ionic bond and ionic substances is the strong non-directional electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. When a metal (which tends to electrons) and a non-metal (which tends to electrons) combine, they do so by the transfer of electrons, forming ions. The ions are held together by ionic bonds. For example,
+
electron Na
11.
Cl
Cl transfer
Na
2,8,1
2,8,7
2,8 2,8,8 Electron diagram of sodium chloride
7.7 12.
Structures of solid ionic compounds An (or ionic substance) is a compound which consists of ions.
7.8 13.
Formulae and names of ionic compounds The formulae of ionic compounds can often be predicted using a short-cut method: X
a
XbYa
(where a, b = ionic charge) e.g. Zn

2 +
NO3
Zn(NO3)2
57
8.1
Covalent bonding and covalent substances
8.1
Molecules in compounds and elements

Molecules in compounds
Compounds made up of non-metals only usually consist of neutral particles called molecules. Notice that a molecule of a compound consists of atoms of different kinds. For example, carbon dioxide molecules consist of two kinds of atoms (carbon and oxygen). Carbon dioxide CO2, ammonia NH3, methane CH4 and hydrogen chloride HCl are all molecules (Figure 8.1). ( NH3 ( 8.1)
H O C O H N H carbon dioxide ammonia H
H
) CH4 HCl
CO 2
C H methane
Cl
Figure 8.1 Molecules of some compounds.
hydrogen chloride
Molecules in elements
Elements consist of either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of atoms. All non-metals (except carbon) consist of discrete (separate) molecules. For example, chlorine gas consists of discrete chlorine molecules. The number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity. In gaseous elements, the atomicity of chlorine (Cl2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), fluorine (F2) and hydrogen (H2) is 2; that of noble gases (e.g. Ar) is 1; that of ozone (O3) is 3. In solid elements, the atomicity of yellow phosphorus (P4) is 4; that of sulphur (S8) is 8. Thus argon (Ar) is monoatomic, oxygen (O2) is diatomic, ozone (O3) triatomic and so on. We can now define molecule. 8 (O2) (N2) 2 (O 3 ) (P4) (O2) ( (F2) Ar) 3 4 (Ar) (O3) (S8) (Cl2) (H2) 1 ( ) ( )
58
Chapter 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its own under ordinary conditions.
Class practice 8.1

1. Which of the following represent a molecule? Br2, K , Br, Zn(OH)2, C6H12O6, Ne, Na, NH3, CaO 2. Write the formulae for the following elements: (a) neon (d) nitrogen (b) hydrogen (e) fluorine (c) sodium (f) magnesium 2. (a) (d) (
+
8.1
1. Br
2 +
Br Ne Na
Zn(OH) NH3
C6H12O6
CaO
(b) (e)
(c) (f) )
(Refer to the Periodic Table if necessary.)
Covalent bonding
Covalent bond formation in a chlorine molecule
A molecule usually consists of a number of atoms chemically joined together. Take the example of chlorine gas. The chlorine atom, Cl, is very unstable. Its outermost shell contains only seven electrons one electron less than an octet. Electron transfer between chlorine atoms is impossible here. This is because they all tend to gain electrons, and no one would lose them. But by sharing of electrons (one electron from each chlorine atom) in the outermost shell, a chlorine molecule Cl 2 is formed. In the molecule, each chlorine atom has a stable octet (Figure 8.2). ( Cl2 ( 8.2) ) Cl
a shared pair of electrons forms a single covalent bond
Cl
Cl
electron sharing
Cl
Cl
chlorine atom (Cl) (Cl) 2,8,7
chlorine atom (Cl) (Cl) 2,8,7
chlorine molecule (Cl2) (Cl2) 2,8,8 2,8,8 (more stable) ( )
(both unstable) ( )
Figure 8.2 Electron diagrams showing the sharing of two electrons in the formation of a chlorine molecule (only the outermost shell electrons are shown). ( )
59
It should now be obvious that a chlorine molecule must be Cl2, and cannot possibly be Cl, Cl3 or Cl4. Cl Cl3 Cl4
Cl 2
Covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons (negatively charged) and the two nuclei (positively charged) of the bonded atoms. A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of outermost shell electrons between two atoms.
( (
) )
A shared pair of electrons (or bond pair) makes a single covalent bond. It is often represented by a stroke () between the atomic symbols. So a chlorine molecule Cl2 can be written as Cl Cl. (The also indicates the direction of the electrostatic attraction.) Cl 2 is the molecular formula of chlorine, while ClCl is the structural formula of chlorine. Cl Cl Cl2 Cl Cl
( ) Cl 2
The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows the actual number of each kind of atoms in one molecule of the substance. The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula which shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one molecule of the substance.
When we say the formula of a molecular substance, we usually mean its molecular formula.
Covalent bond formation in some molecules

Table 8.1 gives electron diagrams to show the covalent bond formation in some simple molecules. All of them are molecules of covalent substances. 8.1
A covalent substance is a non-ionic substance in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
60
Electron diagrams to show covalent bond formation
Molecular formula
Structural formula
H H2
2 hydrogen atoms 2
1 hydrogen molecule 1
a single covalent bond
Cl
H Cl HCl H Cl
1 hydrogen chloride molecule 1
1 hydrogen atom + 1 chlorine atom 1 +1
H H H C H
1 carbon atom + 4 hydrogen atoms 1 +4 1 methane molecule 1 a lone pair of electrons
C H
H CH4 H
H C H H
N H
N H
H NH3 H N H H
a bond pair of electrons 1 ammonia molecule 1
1 nitrogen atom + 3 hydrogen atoms 1 +3
H O
H2O
1 oxygen atom + 2 hydrogen atoms 1 +2
1 water molecule 1 a double covalent bond
O CO2 O C O
1 carbon atom + 2 oxygen atoms 1 +2
1 carbon dioxide molecule 1 a triple covalent bond
N N2 N N
2 nitrogen atoms 2
1 nitrogen molecule 1
Table 8.1 Electron diagrams to show the formation of some simple molecules (only the outermost shell electrons are shown). ( ) 61
When non-metal atoms combine with each other, there is usually a sharing of electrons, forming covalent bonds.
Rules for forming covalent bonds

Table 8.2 lists out some rules for forming covalent bonds, illustrated with a few examples. (Refer to Table 8.1 at the same time.) 8.2 ( 8.1 )
Rules
(1) An atom involved in covalent bond formation contributes n electron(s) for sharing. n For hydrogen atoms, n = 1 n=1 For other atoms, n = 8 group no. of the element n = 8
Examples
A hydrogen atom contributes 1 electron for sharing; a carbon atom (Group IV) contributes (8 4) or 4 electrons for sharing; ( IV ) (8 4) 4 a nitrogen atom (Group V) contributes (8 5) or 3 electrons for sharing; ( V ) (8 5) 3 an oxygen atom (Group VI) contributes 2 electrons for sharing; ( VI ) (8 6) 2 a fluorine atom (Group VII) contributes 1 electron for sharing ( VII ) (8 7) 1
Cl , a chlorine atom shares electrons with a hydrogen atom. Cl N , a nitrogen atom shares electrons with another nitrogen N H , a nitrogen atom shares electrons with 3 hydrogen
(2)
For hydrogen and Group VII In H elements, an atom shares electrons H with one other atom in covalent In N bond formation. atom. VII N
In H N For other elements, an atom may H share electrons with one or more atoms. other atoms.
H N H
(3)
2 atoms may share between them
or
or
1 electron pair (to form a H C H (CH4) contains 4 single covalent bonds; single covalent bond) H ( ) 2 electron pairs (to form a O=C=O contains 2 double covalent bonds; O=C=O double covalent bond) ( ) N N contains 1 triple covalent bond. 3 electron pairs (to form a N N triple covalent bond) ( )
62
Rules
(4)
Examples
A shared pair of electrons is known as The nitrogen atom in an NH3 molecule has 3 bond pairs and 1 lone a bond pair. pair. Some atoms in a molecule may have NH3 unshared pairs of outermost shell lone pair electrons known as lone pairs.
H N
XX
bond pair
In a H2O molecule, the oxygen atom has 2 bond pairs and 2 lone pairs. H2O
lone pair H lone pair O
XX XX
H bond pair
Table 8.2 Rules for forming covalent bonds.
Example 8.1 Identifying some common substances

Given the names and formulae of the following substances: tetrachloromethane (CCl4), silver (Ag), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), lithium hydroxide (LiOH), heptane (C7H16), iodine (I2) Which of them are (a) ionic compounds (b) covalent substances (c) covalent compounds? (a) (b) (c)
8.1
(CCl 4 ) (NH4NO3) (LiOH)
(Ag) (CH3COOH) (C7H16) (I2)
Solution (a) Ammonium nitrate, lithium hydroxide (b) Tetrachloromethane, ethanoic acid, heptane, iodine (c) Tetrachloromethane, ethanoic acid, heptane
(a) (b) (c)
63
Class practice 8.2

1. Fill in the blanks: Metals tend to metals tend to electrons in chemical reactions. 2. (a) (i) Draw an electron diagram (showing electrons in the outermost shell only) for a molecule of the compound formed between nitrogen and chlorine. (ii) Find the number of bond pairs and lone pairs on the nitrogen atom in this molecule. (b) Give the (i) (ii) molecular formula, structural formula of the molecule in (a). electrons, while nonor
8.2
1.
2.
(a) (i) ( ) (ii)
(b) (i) (ii)
(a)
Dative covalent bond
A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a bond formed between two atoms where both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by the same atom.
Atoms which have lone pairs of electrons may form dative covalent bonds. Let us consider the following examples.
Dative covalent bond in ammonium ion (NH4 )

When ammonia reacts with hydrogen chloride to form ammonium chloride, a dative covalent bond is formed between the lone pair of electrons on the N atom in NH3 and a H ion from HCl (Figure 8.3). The symbol the dative covalent bond. is used to represent (
+
(NH4 )
NH 3 HCl 8.3) H
+
64
H H N H H Cl H
H N H
ammonium ion
Cl
H or H N H H Cl H
H N H
dative covalent bond
Cl
Figure 8.3 Electron dot/cross diagram showing formation of ammonium chloride.
The ammonium ion (NH4 ) has an overall charge of +1 distributed all over the structure. Thus ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) contains ionic bond (between NH4 and Cl ions) and four covalent bonds (four N H bonds) three of the N H bonds are normal covalent bonds and one is dative covalent bond. It should be noticed that dative and normal covalent bonds differ only in the way they are formed. Once a dative covalent bond has formed, it cannot be distinguished from a normal covalent bond.
+
(NH 4 ) +1 ( ( NH 4
+
(NH 4 Cl) Cl
) N H
N H
Dative covalent bond in hydronium ion (H3O )

When an acid is dissolved in water, hydrogen ions H are formed. Take hydrochloric acid as an example. When hydrogen chloride gas is passed into water, hydrogen chloride molecules break down to give hydrogen ions H and chloride ions Cl . Each H ion is attracted to the unshared electrons of oxygen atom of a water molecule, forming a dative covalent bond. A more stable ion, hydronium ion H3O , is obtained as a result. See Figure 8.4.
+ + + +
(H3O )
H H Cl
+ +
H H3O
+
8.4
65
O H
Cl
O H
Cl
hydronium ion
or
O H
Cl
O H
Cl
dative covalent bond
Figure 8.4 Electron dot/cross diagram showing formation of hydronium ion.
Ionic bonding and covalent bonding in comparison

Ionic bonding and covalent bonding have many differences. For example, an ionic bond is non-directional, while a covalent bond is directional. However, the two types of bonding have some common features: the bonds are both strong, and the bonding forces are electrostatic in nature.
Check your concept
The constituents of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) are all nonmetals, so it is considered as a covalent compound. Although ammonium nitrate is made up of non-metals only, it is + an ionic compound. It consists of ammonium ion (NH4 ) and nitrate ion (NO3 ).

(NH4 )
+
(NH4NO3)
(NO3 )
66
8.2
Prediction of formulae for covalent compounds
8.2
We have used the noble gas approach to work out the electron diagrams of the molecules of a few covalent compounds. From the electron diagram of a compound, we can deduce its molecular formula and structural formula. Alternatively, we can use a short cut similar to the one used for ionic compounds. A few examples are shown in Table 8.3. Compound
Hydrogen sulphide
1
8.3
Molecular formula
H S
2
Structural formula
H 2S H S Cl H
H 2 S1
Tetrachloromethane
C Cl
C1Cl4
CCl4
Cl
C Cl
Cl
Ammonia Carbon dioxide
N H
4
N 1H 3
NH3
H H O N C H O
C O
C2O4
CO2
Table 8.3 Predicting formulae of hydrogen sulphide, tetrachloromethane, ammonia and carbon dioxide (using a short cut). ( )
Class practice 8.3

Using the short cut as shown in Table 8.3, predict the molecular formula for the compound formed between (a) carbon and fluorine (c) phosphorus and hydrogen (b) (d) hydrogen and oxygen silicon and chlorine. (a) (c) 8.3
8.3
(b) (d)
8.3
Particles that make up matter a summary
8.3
Three types of particles that make up matter

The different types of particles are atoms, molecules and ions. Molecules and ions, however, come from atoms. Study the following example.
67
Example 8.2 Identifying types of particles that make up substances

Complete the table below.
Substance/species Constituent particle(s) Formula
8.2
Remarks
nitrogen is an (a) ________________ . (a) magnesium is an (b) ________________ . (b) water is a (c) _________ made of (d) __________ . (c) (d) the formulae of some compounds can be guessed from their (e) _____________ : thus the formula of carbon monoxide is (f) _____________ ; that of carbon dioxide is (g) _____________ . (e) (f) (g)
Nitrogen
molecule
N2
Magnesium
atom
Mg
Water
molecule
H2O
Carbon monoxide
molecule
CO
Carbon dioxide
molecule
CO2
Sodium chloride
different types of ions
NaCl
there is no sodium chloride (h) ________________ to represent the compound sodium chloride. (h)
Hydroxide ion
ion different types of molecules
OH
OH is an ion OH
Air
not applicable
air has no formula because it is a (i) ____________ of many substances. (i)
Solution (a) element; (b) element; (c) compound; (d) molecules; (e) names; (f) CO; (g) CO2; (h) molecule; (i) mixture. (a) (d) (g) CO2 (b) (e) (h) NaCl (c) (f) CO (i)
Table 8.4 summarizes the constituent particles in various substances.
8.4
68
Constituent particles
metals atoms molecules (exception: carbon) (
Examples
copper (Cu) (Cu) argon (Ar) chlorine (Cl2) sulphur (S8) (Ar) (Cl2) (S8) water (H2O) ammonia (NH3) (H2O) (NH3)
elements
non-metals
PURE SUBSTANCES
compounds made up of non-metals only
usually molecules
compounds
compounds made up of metal(s) and non-metal(s) ions potassium oxide (K2O) sodium chloride (NaCl) (K2O) (NaCl)
Table 8.4 Constituent particles of various substances.
Class practice 8.4

Decide whether the following formulae stand for an atom, a molecule or an ion. (a) CHCl3 (e) S8 (b) (f) Ar Ba
2+
8.4
(c) (g)
Cr2O7 I2
(d) (h)
Mg P
(a) (c) (e) (g)
CHCl3 2 Cr2O7 S8 I2
(b) (d) (f) (h)
Ar Mg 2+ Ba P
8.4
Relative molecular mass and formula mass

12
8.4
-12 = 12.000 00
69
For elements and compounds consisting of molecules, relative molecular mass is the mass of one molecule of it on the C = 12.000 00 scale.
Learning tip Relative molecular mass can also be called molecular mass. Relative molecular mass carries no units.
Relative molecular mass of = Sum of relative atomic masses an element or a compound of all atoms present in a molecule of the substance
For example, water (H2O) would have a relative molecular mass of 1.0 2 + 16.0 = 18.0. 1.0
(H 2 O) 2 + 16.0 = 18.0
Some compounds (such as ionic compounds) do not consist of molecules. For these, we use formula mass. The formula mass of a substance (or species) is the mass of one formula unit of it on the C = 12.000 00 scale. 12.000 00
12
-12 =
Formula mass of a substance (or species)
Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a formula unit of the substance
Learning tip Formula mass carries no units.
Formula mass is a general term applicable to all substances (or species) with a formula. In comparison, relative molecular mass only applies to molecular substances. See Example 8.3. 8.3 ( )
70
Example 8.3 Determining the formula masses of some substances/ species

Calculate the formula mass of (a) C6H12O6 Solution C6 H12 O6 (a) Formula mass of = 12.0 6 + 1.0 12 + 16.0 6 C6H12O6 = 180.0 Note: We can regard the formula mass of C6H12O6 as the relative molecular mass because the compound actually consists of molecules. S O4 2 (b) Formula mass of SO4 = 32.1 + 16.0 4 = 96.1 (c) Al2 (SO4)3 Formula mass of = 27.0 2 + (32.1 + 16.0 4) Al2(SO4)3 = 342.3 3 (b) SO4
2
8.3
(c)
Al2(SO4)3
(a) C6H12O6 (c) Al2(SO4)3
(b) SO4
(a) C6H12O6 C6 H12 O6 = 12.0 6 + 1.0 12 + 16.0 6 = 180.0 C 6 H 12 O 6
(b) SO4
S O4 = 32.1 + 16.0 4 = 96.1
(c)
Al2 (SO4)3 Al2 (SO4)3 = 27.0 2 + (32.1 + 16.0 4) = 342.3
Class practice 8.5

1. What is the relative molecular mass of (a) CH4 2. (b) C2H6 (c) C12H22O11? (a) CH4 (c) CO3
2
8.5
1. (b) C2H6
Calculate the formula mass of (a) NaCl (b) C2H6 2.
(c) C12H22O11
(d) Cu(NO3)2 3H2O.
(a) NaCl (b) C2H6 2 (c) CO3 (d) Cu(NO3)2 3H2O
71
Key terms
Page 1. atomicity 2. bond pair 3. covalent bonding 4. covalent substance 5. double covalent bond 6. formula mass 7. formula unit 8. lone pair 9. molecular formula 10. relative molecular mass 11. sharing of electrons 12. single covalent bond 13. structural formula 14. triple covalent bond 58 60 60 60 62 70 70 63 60 69 59 60 60 62
72
Summary
8.1 1. 2. Covalent bonding and covalent substances A is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its own under ordinary conditions. Compounds made up of non-metals only usually consist of molecules. Elements are made up of either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of non-metals (except carbon) consist of discrete . 3. 4. Molecules can be represented by to show their shapes. . All
A is formed when one or more pairs of outermost shell electrons are shared between two atoms. For example,
Cl
H Cl
1 hydrogen chloride molecule
1 hydrogen atom + 1 chlorine atom
5. 6.
is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and the two nuclei of the bonded atoms. A shared pair of electrons ( bond, e.g. H Cl. 2 shared pairs of electrons make a ) makes a covalent bond, e.g. O = C = O.
a double covalent bond
covalent
3 shared pairs of electrons make a 7.
covalent bond, e.g. N N.
A (or coordinate bond) is a bond formed between two atoms where both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by the same atom.
8.2 8. 9.
Prediction of formulae for covalent compounds The of a molecular substance shows the actual number of each kind of atoms in one molecule of the substance, e.g. CH4. The of a molecular substance shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one molecule of the substance, e.g. H
C H
73
10.
Some atoms have unshared pairs of outermost shell electrons. These are known as e.g. a lone pair of electrons
H O
1 water molecule
11.
The formulae of covalent compounds can often be predicted using a short-cut method: X
a
XbYa SiH4
(where a, b e.g. Si
4
= number of electrons contributed for sharing)
8.3 12.
Particles that make up matter a summary All matter is made up of particles: atoms, molecules or .
8.4 13. 14. 15.
Relative molecular mass and formula mass The C = 12.000 00 scale is used for comparing
12
of atoms.
of an element or a compound = Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms present in a molecule of the substance of a substance (or species) = Sum of relative atomic masses of all atoms in a formula unit of the substance (or species)
74
Chapter 9 Structures and properties of substances
9.1
Structure of substances
9.1
Introduction
The structure of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and about how they are arranged or packed together.
The study of structures is important, since physical properties of a substance are closely related to its structure.
Classification of substances according to structure

Under ordinary conditions, all substances exist as either molecular structures or giant structures.
Molecular structures
There are two types of molecular structures, depending on the molecular size:
Simple molecular structures, which may be solids, liquids

or gases;
Macromolecules, which are all solids at room conditions.

Giant structures
In a giant structure, all particles (trillions of atoms or ions) are joined together by strong chemical bonds. A continuous giant lattice is formed, in which no discrete molecules exist. All substances having giant structures are solids at room conditions. A classification of substances according to structure, together with some examples, is shown in Figure 9.1.
( )
9.1 ( )
75
EXAMPLES Elements
Non-metals Simple molecular structures Metals
Compounds
Covalent water H2O carbon dioxide CO2 H2O CO2 polyethene (CH2CH2 ) n (CH2CH2 ) n Ionic
hydrogen H2 iodine I2 H2 I2
Molecular structures Macromolecules
SUBSTANCES
Giant ionic structures
sodium chloride NaCl NaCl

diamond, graphite (different forms of carbon) ( )
Giant structures
Giant covalent structures
silicon(IV) oxide SiO2 (IV) SiO2
Figure 9.1 Classification of substances according to structure.
Giant metallic structures
copper Cu iron Fe Cu Fe
Class practice 9.1

Name the structures possible for (a) non-metal elements (b) covalent compounds. (a)
9.1
(b)
Learning tip For polyethene, the formula is represented by (CH2CH2), where n n is a whole number from 100 to 30 000. Each molecule is very large (hence called macromolecule); it consists of many, usually thousands, of CH2CH2 groups joined together.
(CH 2CH 2) n ) CH2CH2
n (
100
30 000 ( )
76
9.2
Simple molecular structures
9.2
Most non-metals and covalent compounds are composed of simple, discrete molecules. These substances have a simple molecular structure. The atoms within a molecule are strongly bonded together (by covalent bonds). However, each molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules by weak intermolecular forces only.
Structure of carbon dioxide

Each carbon dioxide molecule consists of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms covalently bonded together. Under room conditions, carbon dioxide is a gas. Since weak intermolecular forces (called van der Waals forces) always exist between molecules, each CO2 molecule is attracted to neighbouring molecules. In general, the larger the molecular size, the greater will be the van der Waals forces between molecules. When carbon dioxide gas is placed under temperatures below 78.5C, it changes to solid called dry ice directly without going through the liquid state. The structure of dry ice is shown in Figure 9.2. 9.2 78.5C CO 2 ( ) 1 2
Figure 9.2 The structure of dry ice. The molecules are held by van der Waals' forces in the structure.
77
Structure of iodine
In an iodine crystal, I2 molecules are packed closely together, but they are still discrete molecules. The molecules are held by van der Waals forces. See Figure 9.3. 9.3 I2
Figure 9.3 The crystal structure of iodine. indicates the position of an I2 molecule. Here the molecules are packed in a regular pattern. Repetition of this pattern trillions of times would result in a crystal. I2
Class practice 9.2

Explain why iodine is a solid, bromine is a liquid, while chlorine and fluorine are gases at room conditions. (Hint: You may answer the question according to the van der Waals forces between the molecules.)
9.2
( )
Properties of simple molecular substances

1. Simple molecular substances have low melting points and boiling points. Because the molecules are held together only by weak intermolecular forces (such as van der Waals forces), little heat energy is needed to separate the molecules. ( ) 1.
Learning tip A volatile liquid evaporates quickly under room conditions.
78
2.
Simple molecular solids are soft. Intermolecular forces are weak. It is easy to separate molecules and break down the crystal structure.
2.
3.
They are usually insoluble in water, but soluble in non-aqueous solvents such as methylbenzene and heptane.
3. ( 4. )
4.
They are non-conductors of electricity, whether as solids, liquids or in aqueous solution. This is because they do not contain ions or freely moving electrons to conduct electricity. Note: The aqueous solutions of a few molecular substances conduct electricity and can be electrolysed. This is because mobile ions are formed during the dissolution process. Examples include sulphuric acid and ammonia.
Learning tip Solvents other than water are called non-aqueous solvents.
Class practice 9.3

Answer the following questions. (a) Is sulphur high-melting or low-melting? (b) Are sulphur crystals hard? (c) Does molten sulphur conduct electricity? (d) Is sulphur soluble in (i) water (ii) carbon disulphide, a nonaqueous solvent? (a) (b) (c) (d)
9.3
(i) )
(ii)
9.3
Macromolecules
9.3
Macromolecules are very large molecules, each containing thousands of atoms. Examples are plastics, proteins and some carbohydrates like starch. ( )
79
9.4
Giant ionic structures
9.4
An ionic compound is usually formed by combining a metal with a non-metal. Ionic crystals consist of positive and negative ions held together by strong non-directional electrostatic attractions (ionic bonds). The ions are regularly packed to form a continuous, three-dimensional giant ionic structure. (There are no discrete molecules.) ( ) ( )
Structure of caesium chloride

Since caesium ion is larger in size than the sodium ion, each caesium ion is surrounded by eight chloride ions and each chloride ion is in turn surrounded by eight caesium ions. Therefore, the structure of caesium chloride CsCl is different from that of sodium chloride. See Figure 9.4. 9.4 8 CsCl 8
Figure 9.4 Caesium chloride has a giant + ionic structure. It consists of Cs and Cl ions held together by ionic bonds.
or
Cs
Cs
Cl
Cl
Learning tip In the structure of sodium chloride, each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions. 6
Properties of ionic compounds

1. All ionic compounds are solids. The oppositely charged ions are attracted together by strong ionic bonds. 2. They usually have high melting points and boiling points. A lot of heat energy is required to overcome the strong attractive forces (ionic bonds) between ions in melting and boiling. ( ) 2. 1.
80
3.
Most of them are soluble in water, but insoluble in nonaqueous solvents such as heptane.
3.
4.
They conduct electricity when molten or in aqueous solution. They are non-conductors when solid. This is because in solid state, the ions present are not mobile; when molten or in aqueous solution, the ions become mobile and can conduct electricity. They are therefore electrolytes.
4.
Learning tip An electrolyte is a compound which, when molten or in aqueous solution, conducts electricity, and is decomposed at the same time.
Example 9.1 Statements about ionic bonds and covalent bonds

This question consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. Sodium chloride is a high-melting solid, whereas chlorine is a gas. Ionic bonds are strong while covalent bonds are weak. Solution The first statement is true. The second statement is false, because both ionic and covalent bonds are strong. Sodium chloride is an ionic compound. The strong ionic bonds between ions must be overcome before the compound can melt. This requires a lot of heat energy. Hence, sodium chloride is a high-melting solid. Chlorine is a molecular substance. To boil chlorine, only the weak van der Waals forces between chlorine molecules must be overcome; the strong covalent bond within each molecule is not broken. Thus chlorine is a gas.
9.1
81
9.5
Giant covalent structures
9.5
In a few elements and compounds, non-metal atoms are joined by covalent bonds to form a giant network, called a giant covalent structure. Covalent bonds extend throughout the whole structure. There are no discrete molecules. Carbon atoms can be joined in two different ways, to form diamond or graphite. Diamond and graphite have very different physical properties because of their different structures.
Structure and properties of diamond

Diamond is one form of carbon. It has a giant covalent structure. Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms, forming a three-dimensional giant network. See Figure 9.5. 9.5
carbon atoms
covalent bonds
Figure 9.5 The three-dimensional structure of diamond.
To break the structure, numerous very strong covalent bonds between carbon atoms must be broken. This explains the extreme hardness and very high melting and boiling points of diamond. Diamond cannot conduct electricity, because it contains no ions or freely moving electrons to carry electric charges.
82
Two main uses of diamond: (a) Jewellery (b) Diamond cutter (used for cutting glass) (a) (b) ( )
Structure and properties of graphite

In graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged in flat, parallel layers. Each layer contains many six-membered carbon rings (Figure 9.6). ( 9.6)
strong covalent bonds (within layers) ( )
Figure 9.6 The structure of graphite. (The lead pencil is graphite mixed with some clay.) ( )
weak van der Waals forces (between layers) ( )
Each carbon atom is covalently bonded to only three other carbon atoms in its layer, and one outer electron of each carbon atom is free. Those electrons are not attached to any particular atoms but belong to the whole structure (i.e. the electrons are delocalized). They are free to move from one six-membered carbon ring to the next within a layer. Thus, graphite can conduct electricity. Since only van der Waals forces exist between adjacent layers, these weak forces make the graphite crystal easy to cleave, and explain its softness and lubricating property. On the other hand, graphite has a very high melting point, since this involves the breaking of strong covalent bonds within the layers.
83
Some physical properties of diamond and graphite are summarized in Table 9.1.
9.1
Property
Appearance Hardness
Diamond
colourless hardest natural substance on the Earth
Graphite
black solid soft, brittle
Melting point (C) Electrical conductivity
3550 non-conductor
3730 conductor (conducts in the direction parallel to hexagonal planes) ( )
Table 9.1 Some properties of diamond and graphite.
Structure and properties of silicon(IV) oxide

Both elements and compounds may form giant covalent structures. An example of a compound having a giant covalent structure is silicon(IV) oxide (or silicon dioxide) SiO2. In the structure of silicon(IV) oxide, each silicon atom is covalently bonded to four oxygen atoms. Each oxygen atom is bonded to two silicon atoms (Figure 9.7). Silicon and oxygen atoms are joined together by covalent bonds throughout the whole structure. ( 9.7)
(IV)
(IV) (
) SiO 2
(IV)
silicon atom
oxygen atom
Figure 9.7 The giant covalent structure of silicon(IV) oxide. Note that this represents only a very small part of the lattice, which extends in all directions. (IV)
84
There are no discrete SiO2 molecules in silicon(IV) oxide. Thus SiO2 is only an empirical formula, not a molecular formula. This formula shows that the simplest whole number ratio of Si : O atoms in the compound is 1 : 2. Because of its structure, silicon(IV) oxide has a very high melting point (1610C) and boiling point. Also, it does not conduct electricity whether it is in the solid state or molten. (IV)
(IV) SiO 2
SiO 2 Si 1 2 O
(1610C)
Check your concept
Silicon(IV) oxide, with a formula SiO2, has a simple molecular structure. Silicon(IV) oxide has a giant covalent structure. The formula SiO2 only represents the composition of the elements in the lattice.
Properties of giant covalent structures

1. Giant covalent structures are all solids with very high melting points and boiling points. To break the lattice in melting or boiling the solid, a lot of heat energy must be supplied. This is because a great number of strong covalent bonds must be broken. 2. 3. 4. All (except graphite) are hard. They are insoluble in any solvent. All (except graphite) are non-conductors of electricity. 3. 2. ) ( ( ) 1.
4. )
85
Example 9.2 Statements about covalent substances

This question consists of two separate statements. Decide whether each of the two statements is true or false; if both are true, then decide whether or not the second statement is a correct explanation of the first statement. Covalent substances are all gases, liquids or low-melting solids. Covalent bonds are weak. Solution Both statements are false! 1st statement: This is true only for simple molecular structures; covalent substances with a giant covalent structure are solids with very high melting points. 2nd statement: Covalent bonds are strong forces of attraction.
9.2
Try Chapter Exercise Q17
9.4
(a) (i) (b) (
17
Class practice 9.4

(a) Is tridymite (a form of silicon(IV) oxide) soluble in (i) water (ii) heptane? (b) Does molten tridymite conduct electricity?
(IV) (ii)
9.6
9.6

A metal consists of atoms packed closely together. Take sodium as an example. A sodium atom has the electronic arrangement 2,8,1. This single outermost shell electron is far away from the nucleus, so it can escape easily to leave a positive sodium ion. The outermost shell electrons of all sodium atoms move freely and randomly in the sodium metal. These are delocalized electrons, since each electron no longer holds onto the nucleus of its original atom. What is formed is a giant metallic structure a giant lattice of metal ions surrounded by a sea of freely moving electrons.
86
2, 8, 1
Metallic bond
Metal atoms are joined to one another in a giant metallic structure by metallic bonds, which result from the attraction between a sea of delocalized electrons and metal ions.
Class practice 9.5

Calcium has the electronic arrangement 2,8,8,2. (a) How many outermost shell electrons does a calcium atom have? (b) How many delocalized electrons does each calcium atom in the metal contribute? (a) (b)
9.5
2,8,8,2
Properties of metals explained by structure and bonding

We can explain the common physical properties of metals by their special structure and bonding.
Metals are good conductors of electricity. In a piece of metal,

the delocalized electrons move freely in all directions. However, when both ends of the metal piece are connected to a battery, the delocalized electrons move towards the positive pole of the battery, leaving the metal. At the same time, an equal number of electrons move into the other end of the metal from the negative pole. An electrical circuit is complete.
Metals are good conductors of heat. When one end of a piece

of metal is heated, the delocalized electrons there get more energy. They move faster, colliding with the neighbouring electrons. Heat is transferred in the collisions.
87
Most metals are solids with high melting points and boiling
points. A lot of energy is required to break the strong metallic bonds in a giant metallic structure.
Most metals have high densities. This can be explained by

the close packing of metal atoms in a regular arrangement.
Metals are malleable (can be rolled into sheets and other

shapes) and ductile (can be pulled out into wires). The atoms in a metal are packed in layers. When we apply force to a piece of metal, the layers of atoms can slip over one another. As a result, atoms settle into new positions and the piece of metal takes up a new shape. The metal piece does not break. This is because the non-directional metallic bonds continue to hold the metal atoms together.
( )
9.7
Comparison of structures and properties of substances
9.7
9.2
The bonding, structures and properties of substances with simple molecular, giant ionic, giant covalent and giant metallic structures are summarized in Table 9.2.
Simple molecular structure

(1) Examples
H2, I2, H2O, NH3, CCl4
Giant ionic structure

NaCl, CaO, KOH
Giant covalent structure

C (diamond), C (graphite), SiO2 C( ), ), SiO2 C( giant lattice of atoms e.g. C (diamond) C ( )
Giant metallic structure

All metals
(2) Structure
small discrete molecules e.g. H2 H2
giant lattice of ions e.g. NaCl NaCl
metal ions, surrounded by a sea of freely moving electrons
88

(3) Bonds holding constituent particles
strong covalent bonds bind atoms together within a molecule; separate molecules are attracted by weak intermolecular forces (e.g. van der Waals forces)

ionic bonds link oppositely charged ions throughout the structure
Giant covalent structure

covalent bonds link atoms throughout the network structure
Giant metallic structure

metallic bonds link the metal ions (positively charged) and the sea of electrons (negatively charged) ( ) ( )
( )
(4) Physical properties (a) State at room conditions

gases, volatile liquids, or solids of low melting points solids solids solids (except mercury) (
(b) M.p. and b.p. (c) Hardness of solid form (d) Solubility in
low
high
very high
usually high
soft
hard
usually high
usually high
(i) most are insoluble
(i) most are soluble (ii) insoluble
(i) insoluble (ii) insoluble
(i) insoluble (ii) insoluble
(i) water
(ii) generally soluble
(ii) non-aqueous solvents (e.g. heptane) ( (e) Conduction of electricity )

non-conductors Note: A few (e.g. sulphuric acid) react with water to form a solution which conducts electricity ( ( ) ) non-conductors when solid; good conductors when molten or in aqueous solution non-conductors (except graphite) ( ) good conductors
Table 9.2 Comparison of different structures and properties.
89
9.8
Predicting structure from physical properties
9.8
9.8
The flow chart as shown in Figure 9.8 may help us to predict structures other than the metallic structure.
Physical properties
Is the substance a gas or liquid at room conditions? yes
Structure
no Does the solid have a low melting point? yes
no Does the substance conduct electricity when molten and in aqueous solution?
yes
no Does the substance have a very high melting point? yes Giant covalent structure
Figure 9.8 Predicting the structure of a substance from its physical properties.
Learning tip Metals have a giant metallic structure. Usually we can tell whether a substance is a metal from its electrical conductivity and appearance. At room temperature and pressure, mercury is the only liquid with a giant metallic structure.
90
Class practice 9.6

The following table gives information about some properties of substances A to D.
Substance M.p. (C) 70 375 98 1610 Electrical conductivity solid poor poor good poor molten poor good good poor
9.6
A D
A B C D
Answer the following questions, and explain your answers. (a) Which substance has a giant metallic structure? (b) Which substance has a giant ionic structure? (c) Which substance has a simple molecular structure? (d) Which substance has a giant covalent structure? (e) Which substance is likely to be soluble in heptane? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
9.9
Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure
9.9
Suppose we know what elements make up a given compound. From the group number of the elements, we can predict the bonding and structure of the compound. We can then predict its physical properties. See Example 9.3. 9.3
91
Example 9.3 Predicting physical properties of compounds from their bonding

Predict the (i) formula (ii) structure (iii) physical properties (melting point, boiling point, hardness, solubility behaviour and electrical conductivity) of the compound formed between (a) potassium and sulphur (b) nitrogen and fluorine. Solution (a) (i) The compound formed between a metal (potassium) and a non-metal (sulphur) is an ionic compound. Potassium (Group I) forms K ions; sulphur (Group VI) forms S ions. The formula of the compound is thus K2S. (ii) It has a giant ionic structure. (iii) Its physical properties: (1) A solid with a high melting point and boiling point. (2) Hard. (3) Soluble in water, insoluble in most nonaqueous solvents. (4) Non-conductor of electricity when solid; conductor when molten and in aqueous solution. (b) (i) The compound formed between non-metals (nitrogen and fluorine) is a molecular compound. Nitrogen (Group V) contributes 3 electrons for sharing; fluorine (Group VII) contributes 1 electron for sharing. (See p.62 for explanations.) Using the short-cut method to predict its molecular formula:
3 1
2 +
9.3
(i) ) (a) (b)
(ii)
(iii)
(a) (i) ( ( K2S (ii) (iii) (1) (2) (3) (4) I
( )
) K )
+ 2
VI
(b) (i) ( ( ( V VII )
( 3 ) 62 1
N1F3
NF3
The formula of the compound is thus NF3.

cont'd
3 N NF3
1 F N1F3 NF3
92
(ii) (iii)
It has a simple molecular structure. Its physical properties: (1) A substance with a low melting point and boiling point. (2) In solid state, the compound is soft. (3) Insoluble in water, soluble in non-aqueous solvents. (4) Non-conductor of electricity no matter solid or liquid.
(ii) (iii) (1) (2) (3) (4)
Class practice 9.7

Using Example 9.3 as reference, predict the (a) formula, (b) structure and (c) physical properties of a compound formed between two elements X and Y. (X belongs to Group II; Y belongs to Group VII.)
9.7
9.3 (a) (c) VII ) (X X Y (b) II
9.10 Applications of substances according to their structures

Substances of different properties are used in our daily life for different purposes. For example, graphite is a covalent substance with high melting point and boiling point. On the other hand, it can conduct electricity. Because of these properties, it is widely used as electrodes in many cases.
9.10
93
Key terms
Page 1. delocalized electron 2. giant covalent structure 3. giant metallic structure 4. giant network 5. giant structure 6. intermolecular forces 7. macromolecule 8. metallic bond 9. molecular structure 10. non-directional 11. simple molecular structure 12. van der Waals forces 86 82 86 82 75 77 75 87 75 80 75 77
Summary
9.1 1. Structure of substances The of a substance is a description of what its constituent particles are, and about how they are arranged or packed together. Simple molecular structures In some substances, atoms within a molecule are bound together by strong covalent bonds and each molecule is attracted to other neighbouring molecules by weak .
9.2 2.
94
9.3 3.
Macromolecules are very large molecules, each containing thousands of atoms. Examples include plastics, proteins and some carbohydrates. Giant ionic structures In ionic compounds, crystals consisting of positive and negative ions are held together by strong non-directional electrostatic attractions. The ions are regularly packed to form a continuous, three-dimensional . Giant covalent structures In a few elements and compounds, the non-metal atoms join together by covalent bonds to form a giant network called . Giant metallic structures Metal atoms are joined to one another in a by , which result from the attraction between a sea of and metal ions. Comparison of structures and properties of substances The structure, bonding and physical properties of simple molecular structure, giant ionic structure, giant covalent structure and giant metallic structure are summarized in Table 9.2 on p.88. Predicting structure from physical properties It is possible to predict the structure of a substance from its (Refer to the flow chart in Figure 9.8 on p.90.) properties.
9.4 4.
9.5 5.
9.6 6.
9.7 7.
9.8 8.
9.9 9.
Predicting physical properties from bonding and structure It is possible to predict the physical properties of a substance from its bonding and . (Refer to Example 9.3 on p.92.)
9.10 Applications of substances according to their structures 10. Some specialized new materials have been created on the basis of the findings of research on the structure, chemical bonding, and other properties of matter.
95

HKDSE Chemistry Bridging Programe 1B

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2009 Aristo Educational Press Ltd.

First published July, 2009

A teachers book is available for use by teachers.

Key terms Summary

The Periodic Table

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5

Key terms Summary

Chemical bonding: ionic bonding

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8

Key terms Summary

Chemical bonding: covalent bonding

8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4

Key terms Summary

Structures and properties of substances

Key terms Summary

Chapter 5 Atomic structure

Classification of elements based on physical states

Classification of elements into metals and non-metals

Metals and non-metals

If the element is a solid, we have to test its electrical

Part II Microscopic World I

shiny; mostly silvery white in colour (except copper and gold)

usually dull in appearance (when solid); in various colours

Melting point and boiling point

Hardness and strength

hard and strong

not uniform in hardness and strength

Malleability and ductility

malleable and ductile

Density Thermal conductivity and

usually high good conductors of heat and electricity

low poor conductors of heat; non-conductors of electricity

Chapter 5 Atomic structure

Example 5.1 Metal or non-metal?

Class practice 5.1

Check your concept

Part II Microscopic World I

The in-between elements the semi-metals

Example 5.2 Statements about graphite

Class practice 5.2

Chapter 5 Atomic structure

Finding whether an element is a metal or non-metal

6 V battery 6V carbon (graphite) rods ( )

Chemical symbols for elements

Part II Microscopic World I

Metal Element [Latin name]

Semi-metal Chemical Symbol

Non-metal Chemical Symbol

) Fluorine ( ) Helium ( ) Hydrogen ( ) Iodine ( ) Neon ( ) Nitrogen ( ) Oxygen ( ) Phosphorus ( ) Sulphur ( )

Class practice 5.3

Chapter 5 Atomic structure

What are atoms?

Size and mass of an atom

Elements and atoms

Symbols for atoms

Class practice 5.4

Part II Microscopic World I

What are atoms made up of?

More about protons, neutrons and electrons

Mass (in g) (g)

Electric charge (relative to that on a proton)

Position within the atom