QAM

Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) is a modulation scheme in which two sinusoidal car-
riers, one exactly 90 degrees out of phase with respect to the other, are used to transmit data over
a given physical channel. One signal is called the I signal, and the other is called the Q signal.
Because the orthogonal carriers occupy the same frequency band and differ by a 90 degree pha-
se shift, each can be modulated independently, transmitted over the same frequency band, and
separated by demodulation at the receiver. For a given available bandwidth, QAM enables data
transmission at twice the rate of standard pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) without any de-
gradation in the bit error ratio (BER).
Mathematically two independent signals and , each bandlimited by are trans-
mitted. One signal is modulated by a cosine the other signal by a sinus carrier. Thus the signal
(1)
is transmitted. For simplicity back to back transmission is concerned. Thus the received signal
is equal to (1). The in-phase part of the signal can be demodulated by multiplication of
(2)
and lowpass filtering
. (3)
* is the convolution operator and an ideal lowpass filter with cut-off frequency .
Equation (3) only holds for .
Task 1
Show, that the quadrature part of the received signal (1) can be demodulated by multipli-
cation of . (click for solution)
With complex notation equation (1) can be written as
. (4)
In case of transmission of digital information
x
I
t ( ) x
Q
t ( )
g
x
I
t ( )
0
t ( ) cos x
Q
t ( )
0
t ( ) sin
x
I
t ( )

0
t ( ) cos
x
I
t ( )
0
t ( ) cos x
Q
t ( )
0
t ( ) sin [ ]
0
t ( ) cos
x
I
t ( ) cos
2

0
t ( ) x
Q
t ( )
0
t ( ) sin
0
t ( ) cos =
x
I
t ( )
2
----------- 1 2
0
t ( ) cos + [ ]
x
Q
t ( )
2
------------- 2
0
t ( ) sin =
x
I
t ( )
2
----------- 1 2
0
t ( ) cos + [ ]
x
Q
t ( )
2
------------- 2
0
t ( ) sin * r

g
t ( )
x
I
t ( )
2
----------- =
r

g
t ( )
g
2
g

0
<
q t ( )

0
t ( ) sin
Re x
I
t ( ) j x
Q
t ( ) + [ ]e
j
0
t

' ;

x
I
t ( ) a
I n ,
g t nT ( )
n =

=
x
Q
t ( ) a
Q n ,
g t nT ( )
n =

=
. (5)
is the complex symbol sequence at the output of the mapper. Thus equation (4) can be writ-
ten as
. (6)
Task 2
Show, that with complex notation the in-pase and quadrature component of the modulated si-
gnal (6) can be demodulated by multiplication of and low-pass filtering. (click for solu-
tion)
In the following is assumed to be a Nyquist impulse with equidistant zero crossings at
, thus
(7)
is the received signal (6) after sampling. Now additive white gaussian noise (AWGN) is added.
This is depicted in Fig. 1. As sampling and demodulation with ideal low-pass filtering are linear
processes, this will lead to the received sequence
(8)
with discrete additive gaussian noise .
In the following the impulse is chosen suchlike, that the average signal energy
(9)
and the average noise energy
. (10)
The decision device has to estimate out of . should be the same sequence as . The
influence of noise should be as low as possible. and are assumed to be statistically
independent. Thus the decision problem can be separated. In case of AWGN the noise and
follows the probability density function (pdf)
, (11)
respectively. Thus the noise process is normally distributed with zero-mean and variance .
In total because real and imaginary part are statistically independent in complex notation
a
n
a
I n ,
ja
Q n ,
+ =
a
n
Re a
n
g t nT ( )e
j
0
t
n =

' ;

e
j
0
t
g t ( )
t nT =
g 0 ( ) Re a
n
e
j
0
nT
n =

' ;

e
j
0
t
e
j
0
t
+
n t ( )
' ' '
transmitter tx AWGN receiver rx
b
m
a
n
a
n
b

m
mapper
Re{ }
demapper

sampler
low-pass
filter
Fig. 1: principle communication system
decision

device
g t ( )
a

n
a

n
g 0 ( )
2
-----------a
n
r
n
+ =
r
n
r
I n ,
jr
Q n ,
+ =
g t ( )
S
1
M
----- A
k
2
k 1 =
M

=
N E r
I n ,
2
{ } E r
Q n ,
2
{ }
2
= = =
a
n
a

n
a
n
a
n
r
n
r
I n ,
r
Q n ,
r
I n ,
r
Q n ,
p
I
r ( ) p
Q
r ( )
1
2
--------------e
1
2
---
r
2

2
-----
= =

2
(12)
is the pdf of .
For example a four quadrature pulse shift keying (4-QPSK) system is analyzed. Thus
. Fig. 2 shows this signal constellati-
on.
Task 3
Calculate the average signal energy of the 4-QPSK. (click for solution)
To this symbols AWGNis added. All four signal points are assumed to occure with the same
probability. For simplicity is assumed to be 2.
Task 4
Calculate the pdf for . (click for solution)
Fig. 3 shows in a 3-dimensional sketch. This is similar to the frequency of occurence in
the 16-QAM animation, where the 3rd dimension is equivalent to the density of received signal
points, which are plotted in green and red colour. Green stands for correct decision and red for
symbol error.
The decision device has to choose the most probable signal point, wich may be sent. If the a-
priori probability for the signal points is equal as mentioned, the decision thresholds consist of
perpendicular bisectors of the sides of adjacent signal points. That means the signal point, which
is most close to the received point will be decided to. In this example the axes in Fig. 2 are also
the decision thresholds.
The probability of symbol errors (SER) can be calculated by integration of (eq. (23); eg.
Fig. 4) over the region in the complex -plane where received symbols would not be deci-
ded to the appropriate sent symbol , respectively. This has to be done for all signal
points. The SER is the arithmetic average over all.
p r ( ) p
I
r
I
( ) p
Q
r
Q
( )
1
2
2
-------------e
1
2
---
r
2

2
-------
= =
r
n
a
n
A
1
1 j + = A
2
1 j = A
3
1 j + = A
4
1 j = , , , { }
Re A
k
[ ]
Im A
k
[ ]
1
1
Fig. 2: 4-QPSK constellation
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
S
4-QPSK
a
n
g 0 ( )
p
a

n
r ( ) a

n
p
a

n
r ( )
p
A
k
r ( )
r a

n
a
n
A
k
= k
(13)
0.15
0.1
0.0432
0.02
0.01
-2
-1
0
1
2
-2
-1
0
1
2
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
p
a
n
r ( )
p
a
n
r ( )
Re r [ ]
Im r [ ]
Fig. 3: probability density function of for a

n
0.5 =
-2
-1
0
1
2
-2
-1
0
1
2
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Im r [ ]
Re r [ ]
P
A
1
r ( )
Fig. 4: probability density function of if for a

n
a
n
A
1
= 0.5 =
P
A
1
r ( )
P
4-QPSK
1
4
-- - p
A
1
r ( )

dr
Q
dr
I
p
A
1
r ( )

0

dr
Q
dr
I
p
A
2
r ( )

dr
Q
dr
I
+ + =
p
A
2
r ( )
0

dr
Q
dr
I
p
A
3
r ( )

dr
Q
dr
I
p
A
3
r ( )

0

dr
Q
dr
I
+ + +
p
A
4
r ( )

dr
Q
dr
I
p
A
4
r ( )
0

dr
Q
dr
I
+ +
,

_
(14)
The simplification in (14) can be done because of symmetry. To calculate this integral, the se-
paration of (12) can be used.
(15)
In equation (15) the substitutions
and (16)
are used. With some routine the notation with the Q-function is very efficient. The Gaussian er-
ror function is defined as
. (17)
Task 5
Calculate as a function of SNR (average symbol energy per average noise energy) and
as a function of (SNR in decibel).
Hint: Scale the signal points by ( ). adapt the result in (15). Normalize adequa-
tely. (click for solution)
Task 6
In Fig. 5 the constellation diagram of a 16-QAM is depicted. All signal points occure with the
same probability. Calculate as a function of .
Calculate the numerical values of for .
Compare your results with the calculated values in the 16-QAM animation.
Hint: There are three types of signal points with different error rate. (click for solution)
Task 7
Give the limit of SER of the 16-QAM for very low . (click for solution)
Task 8
Fig. 6 shows a screenshot of the 16-QAM animation. Only one symbol error occured (red
point). Which signal point was most probably sent? (click for solution)
P
4-QPSK
p
A
1
r ( )

dr
Q
dr
I
p
A
1
r ( )dr
Q
dr
I

0

+ = 1 p
A
1
r ( )
0

dr
Q
dr
I
= =
P
4-QPSK
1
1
2
2
-------------e
1
2
---
r A
1

2
-------------------
0

dr
Q
dr
I
=
1
1
2
--------------e
1
2
---
r
I
A
I 1 ,
( )
2

2
--------------------------
dr
I
0

1
2
--------------e
1
2
-- -
r
Q
A
Q 1 ,
( )
2

2
-----------------------------
dr
Q
0

=
1
1

------- e
t
2

dt
1
2
-----------

2
= 1
1
2
---erf
1
2
-----------
,
_
1
2
--- +
2
2Q
1

---
,
_
Q
2
1

---
,
_
= =
t
r
I/Q
1
2
----------------- = Q x ( )
1
2
-- - 1 erf
x
2
-------
,
_
= erf x ( ) 1 2Q 2x ( ) =
erf x ( )
2

------- e
x
2

dx
0
x

=
P
4-QPSK
SNR
dB
a A
k
2a =
P
16-QAM
SNR
dB
P
16-QAM
SNR
dB
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 , , , , , , , , , , , =
SNR
Task 9
Start the 16-QAManimation with . Wait until more than 10 errors (red points)
occured. Make sure, they agglomerate at the decision thresholds.
Gray coding is a coding scheme where adjacent signal points differ only by one bit in coding.
Why is this coding scheme useful for QAM modulation?
What about low ? (click for solution)
Im A
k
[ ]
Re A
k
[ ]
a
a
3a
3a
Fig. 5: 16-QAM constellation
A
1
A
2
A
3
A
4
A
5
A
6
A
7
A
8
A
9
A
10
A
11
A
12
A
13
A
14
A
15
A
16
Fig. 6: Screenshot of the 16-QAM animation
SNR
dB
20dB
SNR
Solution 1 (click to go back)
(18)
After lowpass filtering (* is the convolution operator):
(19)
(click to go back)
x
I
t ( )
0
t ( ) cos x
Q
t ( )
0
t ( ) sin [ ]
0
t ( ) sin
x
I
t ( )
0
t ( ) sin
0
t ( ) cos x
Q
t ( ) sin
2

0
t ( ) + =
x
I
t ( )
2
----------- 2
0
t ( ) sin
x
Q
t ( )
2
------------- 1 2
0
t ( ) cos [ ] + =
x
I
t ( )
2
----------- 2
0
t ( ) sin
x
Q
t ( )
2
------------- 1 2
0
t ( ) cos [ ] + * r

g
t ( )
x
Q
t ( )
2
------------- =
Solution 2 (click to go back)
With , whereby is the conjugate complex number of , after mutliplication
of
(20)
and after lowpass filtering (20) gets
(21)
(click to go back)
Re z { }
1
2
--- z z + ( ) = z z
e
j
0
t
Re a
n
g t nT ( )e
j
0
t
n =

' ;

e
j
0
t

1
2
--- a
n
e
j
0
t
a
n
e
j
0
t
+ ( )g t nT ( ) e
j
0
t

n =

=
1
2
--- a
n
a
n
e
j2
0
t
+ ( )g t nT ( )
n =

=
1
2
-- - a
n
a
n
e
j2
0
t
+ ( )g t nT ( )
n =

* r

g
t ( )
1
2
--- a
n
g t nT ( )
n =

=
Solution 3 (click to go back)
. (22)
The signal and noise power do not have units, because of standardization!
(click to go back)
S
4-QPSK
1
4
--- A
k
2
k 1 =
4

1
4
-- - 1 j +
2
1 j
2
1 j +
2
1 j
2
+ + + ( ) 2 = = =
Solution 4 (click to go back)
(23)
(click to go back)
p
a

n
r ( )
1
4
--- p
A
k
r ( )
k 1 =
4

1
4
-- -
1
2
2
-------------e
1
2
---
r A
k

2
-------------------
k 1 =
4

= =
Solution 5 (click to go back)
With the new signal points ; ; ; the
average signal energy
. (24)
Thus the SER gets
.
(click to go back)
A
1
a ja + = A
2
a ja = A
3
a ja + = A
4
a ja =
S
4-QPSK
2a
2
=
P
4-QPSK
2Q
a

---
,
_
Q
2
a

---
,
_
2Q
1
2
-------
2a
2

2
--------
,
_
Q
2
1
2
-------
2a
2

2
--------
,
_
= =
2Q
SNR
2
-----------
,
_
Q
2
SNR
2
-----------
,
_
= 2Q
10
SNR
dB
10
----------------
2
------------------
,


_
Q
2
10
SNR
dB
10
----------------
2
------------------
,


_
=
Solution 6 (click to go back)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(click to go back)
0 0.80979256 12 0.28773651
1 0.79027909 13 0.22268236
2 0.76759250 14 0.16230454
3 0.74125244 15 0.10984263
4 0.71074913 16 0.067830428
5 0.67557021 17 0.037404624
6 0.63524598 18 0.017932041
7 0.58941918 19 0.0072268271
8 0.53794439 20 0.0023467250
9 0.48101796 21 0.00058187175
10 0.41932991 22 0.00010290522
11 0.35421249 23 0.000011907710
S
16-QAM
10a
2
=
P
16-QAM
4
16
----- - 2Q
a

---
,
_
Q
2
a

---
,
_

8
16
----- - Q
a

---
,
_
1 Q
a

---
,
_

' ;

Q
a

---
,
_
Q
a

---
,
_
+

' ;

+ + =
4
16
----- - 2Q
a

---
,
_
1 2Q
a

---
,
_

' ;

2Q
a

---
,
_
+ +
3Q
a

---
,
_
9
4
---Q
2
a

---
,
_
= 3Q
SNR
10
-----------
,
_
9
4
-- -Q
2
SNR
10
-----------
,
_
=
3Q
10
SNR
dB
10
----------------
10
------------------
,


_
9
4
-- -Q
2
10
SNR
dB
10
----------------
10
------------------
,


_
=
'
'
'
A
1
A
4
A
13
A
16
, , ,
A
2
A
3
A
5
A
8
A
9
A
12
A
14
A
15
, , , , , , ,
A
6
A
7
A
10
A
11
, , ,
SNR
dB
P
16-QAM
SNR
dB
P
16-QAM
Solution 7 (click to go back)
In case of very low all signal points are equal probable. Thus
(click to go back)
SNR P
16-QAM
15
16
----- - 0.9375 =
Solution 8 (click to go back)
Signal point was most probably sent, because it is the second most close signal point to the
received signal point (red point).
(click to go back)
A
13
Solution 9 (click to go back)
In case of gray coding most symbol errors lead to only one bit error, because most wrong deci-
ded symbols come from adjacent signal points and the coding of them differ only by one bit.
Thus approximately if bits are transmitted per symbol the bit error ratio (BER) is equal to
. (28)
This only holds for high . In case of low a lot of wrong decided symbols come from
signal points far away. The advatage of gray coding vanishs.
(click to go back)
M
P
BER
P
SER
M
------------
SNR SNR