VCL Workbook (High School)

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page i
PREN TIC E HALL
Virtual ChemLab Record Sheets
Needham, Massachusetts Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page ii
Copyright by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. This publication is protected by copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise. Student worksheets may be reproduced for classroom use, the number not to exceed the number of students in each class. Notice of copyright must appear on all copies. For information regarding permission(s), write to: Rights and Permissions Department.
ISBN 0-13-166227-9 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 07 06 05 04 03
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv
8/12/04
2:00 PM
Page iii
Contents
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v Installing Virtual ChemLab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Lab 1: Flame Tests for Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Lab 2: Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Lab 3: Counting by Measuring Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Lab 4: Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Lab 5: Millikan Oil Drop Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Lab 6: Atomic Structure: Rutherfords Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Lab 7: Atomic Emission Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Lab 8: Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Lab 9: Diffraction Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
Lab 10: Electronic State Energy Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Lab 11: Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Lab 12: Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Lab 13: Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Lab 14: Ideal vs Real Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Lab 15: Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Lab 16: The Specific Heat of a Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Lab 17: Heat of Fusion of Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Lab 18: Heats of Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Lab 19: Heat of Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Lab 20: Enthalpy and Entropy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Lab 21: Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 iii
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page iv
Lab 22: Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Lab 23: Identification of Cations in Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Lab 24: Qualitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Lab 25: Study of Acid-Base Titrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Lab 26: Acid-Base Titrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Lab 27: Ionization Constants of Weak Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 Lab 28: Analysis of Baking Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Lab 29: Molecular Weight Determination by Acid-Base Titration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Lab 30: Redox Titrations: Determination of Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
iv
Contents
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page v
Overview
Welcome to Virtual ChemLab for Prentice Hall Chemistry, a set of realistic and sophisticated simulations covering topics in general chemistry. In these laboratories, students are put into a virtual environment where they are free to make the choices and decisions that they would confront in an actual laboratory setting and, in turn, experience the resulting consequences. These laboratories include simulations of inorganic qualitative analysis, fundamental experiments in quantum chemistry, gas properties, titration experiments, and calorimetry. This version of Virtual ChemLab is intended to be used in conjunction with the Prentice Hall Chemistry Virtual ChemLab Record Sheets, which contains 30 laboratory assignments covering the topics of stoichiometry, atomic theory, gas properties, thermodynamics, chemical properties, acid-base chemistry, and electrochemistry. Many of these virtual laboratory assignments can also be found as real assignments in the Student Editior or accompanying Laboratory Manual, but there are also a significant number of new assignments, such as Thomsons cathode ray tube experiment and the Millikan oil drop experiment, which will provide students the opportunity to perform experiments not previously available to them. The general features of the inorganic simulation include 26 cations that can be added to test tubes in any combination, 11 reagents that can be added to the test tubes in any sequence and any number of times, necessary laboratory manipulations, a lab book for recording results and observations, and a stockroom for creating test tubes with known mixtures, generating practice unknowns, or retrieving instructor assigned unknowns. The simulation uses over 2,500 actual pictures to show the results of reactions and over 220 videos to show the different flame tests. In all, there are in excess of 1016 possible outcomes for these simulations. The purpose of the quantum laboratory is to allow students to explore and better understand the foundational experiments that led to the development of quantum mechanics. Because of the very sophisticated nature of most of these experiments, the quantum laboratory is the most virtual of the Virtual ChemLab laboratory simulations. In general, the laboratory consists of an optics table where a source, sample, modifier, and detector combination can be placed to perform different experiments. These devices are located in the stockroom and can be taken out of the stockroom and placed in various locations on the optics table. The emphasis here is to teach students to probe a sample (e.g., a gas, metal foil, two-slit screen, etc.) with a source (e.g., a laser, electron gun, alpha-particle source, etc.) and detect the outcome with a specific detector (e.g., a phosphor screen, spectrometer, etc.). Heat, electric fields, or magnetic fields can also be applied to modify an aspect of the experiment. As in all Virtual ChemLab laboratories, the focus is to allow students the ability to explore and discover, in a safe and level-appropriate setting, the concepts that are important in the various areas of chemistry. The gas experiments included in the Virtual ChemLab simulated laboratory allow students to explore and better understand the behavior of ideal gases, real gases, and van der Waals gases (a model real gas). The gases laboratory contains four experiments each of which includes the four variables used to describe a gas: pressure (P), temperature (T), volume (V), and the number of
Overview
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page vi
moles (n). The four experiments differ by allowing one of these variables to be the dependent variable while the others are independent. The four experiments include (1) V as a function of P, T, and n using a balloon to reflect the volume changes; (2) P as a function of V, T, and n using a motor driven piston; (3) T as a function of P, V, and n again using a motor driven piston; and (4) V as a function of P, T, and n but this time using a frictionless, massless piston to reflect volume changes and using weights to apply pressure. The gases that can be used in these experiments include an ideal gas; a van der Waals gas with parameters that can be changed to represent any real gas; real gases including N2, CO2, CH4, H2O, NH3, and He; and eight ideal gases with different molecular weights that can be added to the experiments to form gas mixtures. The virtual titration laboratory allows students to perform precise, quantitative titrations involving acid-base and electrochemical reactions. The available laboratory equipment consists of a 50 mL buret, 5, 10, and 25 mL pipets, graduated cylinders, beakers, a stir plate, a set of 8 acid-base indicators, a pH meter/voltmeter, a conductivity meter, and an analytical balance for weighing out solids. Acid-base titrations can be performed on any combination of mono-, di-, and tri-protic acids and mono-, di-, and tri-basic bases. The pH of these titrations can be monitored using a pH meter, an indicator, and a conductivity meter as a function of volume, and this data can be saved to an electronic lab book for later analysis. A smaller set of potentiometric titrations can also be performed. Systematic and random errors in the mass and volume measurements have been included in the simulation by introducing buoyancy errors in the mass weighings, volumetric errors in the glassware, and characteristic systematic and random errors in the pH/voltmeter and conductivity meter output. These errors can be ignored, which will produce results and errors typically found in high school-level laboratory work, or the buoyancy and volumetric errors can be measured and included in the calculations to produce results better than 0.1% in accuracy and reproducibility. The calorimetry laboratory provides students with three different calorimeters that allow them to measure various thermodynamic processes including heats of combustion, heats of solution, heats of reaction, the heat capacity, and the heat of fusion of ice. The calorimeters provided in the simulations are a classic coffee cup calorimeter, a dewar flask (a better version of a coffee cup), and a bomb calorimeter. The calorimetric method used in each calorimeter is based on measuring the temperature change associated with the different thermodynamic processes. Students can choose from a wide selection of organic materials to measure the heats of combustion; salts to measure the heats of solution; acids, bases, oxidants, and reductants for heats of reaction; metals and alloys for heat capacity measurements; and ice for a melting process. Temperature versus time data can be graphed during the measurements and saved to the electronic lab book for later analysis. Systematic and random errors in the mass and volume measurements have been included in the simulation by introducing buoyancy errors in the mass weighings, volumetric errors in the glassware, and characteristic systematic and random errors in the thermometer measurements.
vi
Overview
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page vii
Installing Virtual ChemLab

Locate and run the program Setup ChemLab (which is located in the appropriate operating system folderMac or Windows) on the CD-ROM drive then follow the prompts. The CD is not needed to run the program.
Important Installation Notes and Issues

1. The graphics used in the simulations require the monitor to be set to 24-bit true color (millions of colors). Lower color resolutions can be used, but the graphics will not be as sharp. 2. In the directory where Virtual ChemLab is installed, the user must always have read/write/erase privileges to that directory and all directories underneath. This condition is initially set by the installer, but this may have to be reset manually if the system crashes hard while running Virtual ChemLab. This is generally only a problem with the OSX operating system if multiple users login to the same OSX machine. This can also be a problem with advanced Windows operating systems if the user is not a Power User or higher. 3. When multiple users access the same installed software on a given computer, file ownership and read/write privileges becomes a serious issue since Virtual ChemLab shares some files among users to a certain degree depending on the installation. (a) In a direct access installation or when multiple users on a network drive share the database, all users must have complete read/write/erase privileges to the directory (and all directories underneath) where the database is stored. (b) In a web connectivity installation, either (i) the same computer login must be used for all ChemLab users (so file ownership is the same for all database files) or (ii) each user who creates a local ChemLab account (or new ChemLab user) must use the same computer login as when the account was created in order to maintain file ownership consistency. This will only be a problem with OSX machines and Windows operating systems using Restricted Users. 4. When using Virtual ChemLab under the Windows 2000 Professional or higher operating systems, users must be, at a minimum, a Power User in order for the program to have sufficient rights to run properly. The program will run as a Restricted User but the fonts will be incorrect along with other minor annoyances. In a server environment where a Restricted User is necessary, we suggest that a separate ChemLab Account be setup, which gives the user Power User Status but only gives the user access to the ChemLab software. This is a Macromedia Director limitation.
Installing Virtual ChemLab
vii
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page viii
5. Occasionally on all Windows platforms, the Virtual ChemLab installer will fail to load and execute. This can be corrected by going to www.javasoft.com and downloading and then installing the most recent version of the java runtime software. The Virtual ChemLab installation software is a java based application. 6. QuickTime 5.0 or later is required for the software to run properly. The most recent version of QuickTime can be obtained at http://www.apple.com/quicktime/ 7. When the simulation software has been installed on a Windows 2000 Professional operating system, there is better performance and better system stability when the Windows 2000 Support Pack 2 has been installed. 8. For unknown reasons, on some machines the QuickTime videos will not play properly if the system QuickTime settings are in their default state. This can be corrected by changing the Video Settings in QuickTime to Normal Mode. 9. Printing in Virtual ChemLab does not work inside the OSX operating system. 10. There are occasional spontaneous shutdowns of the software in OSX. There are no known causes for this, but it appears to be a Macromedia Director issue.
viii Getting Started
4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page ix
Getting Started
Virtual ChemLab is launched by clicking on the VCL icon located on the desktop or in the Start Menu for Windows operating systems or on the Dock for the Macintosh OS X operating system. After the startup, students will be brought to a hallway containing three doors and a workbook sitting on a table. Clicking on the electronic workbook opens and zooms into the workbook pages where students can select preset assignments that correspond to the assignments in the Prentice Hall Chemistry Virtual ChemLab Record Sheets. The Previous and Next buttons are used to page through the set of assignments, and the different assignments can also be accessed by clicking on the section titles located on the left page of the workbook. Clicking on the Enter Laboratory button will allow the students to enter the general chemistry laboratory (see below), and the Exit button is used to leave Virtual ChemLab. From the hallway, students can also enter the general chemistry laboratory by clicking on the General Chemistry door. Once in the laboratory, students will find five different laboratory benches that represent the five different general chemistry laboratories. Rolling the mouse over each of these laboratory benches pops up the name of the selected laboratory. To access a specific laboratory, click on the appropriate laboratory bench. While in the general chemistry laboratory, the full functionality of the simulation is available, and students can explore and perform experiments as dictated by their instructors or by their own curiosity. The Exit signs in the general chemistry laboratory are used to return to the hallway. Detailed instructions on how to use each of the five laboratory simulations can be found in the user guides located in the Virtual ChemLab installation directory. These same user guides can also be accessed inside each laboratory by clicking on the Pull-Down TV and clicking on the Help button.
Contents
ix
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab01_pp001-003 8/11/04 12:24 PM Page 1
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 1: Flame Tests for Metals

Purpose
To observe and identify metallic ions using flame tests.
Flame Tests for Metals
Background
The characteristic yellow of a candle flame comes from the glow of burning carbon fragments. The carbon fragments are produced by the incomplete combustion reaction of the wick and candle wax. When elements, such as carbon, are heated to high temperatures, some of their electrons are excited to higher energy levels. When these excited electrons fall back to lower energy levels, they release excess energy in packages of light called photons, or light quanta. The color of the emitted light depends on its energy. Blue light is more energetic than red light, for example. When heated, each element emits a characteristic pattern of light energies, which is useful for identifying the element. The characteristic colors of light produced when substances are heated in the flame of a gas burner are the basis of flame tests for several elements. In this experiment, you will perform the flame tests used to identify several metallic elements.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Flame Tests for Metals from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Inorganic laboratory.
2. Enter the stockroom by clicking inside the Stockroom window. Once inside the stockroom, drag a test tube from the box and place it on the metal test tube stand. You can then click on a bottle of metal ion solution on the shelf to add it to the test tube. When you have added one metal ion, click Done to send the test tube back to the lab. Continue doing this until you have sent one test tube for each the following metal ions to the lab: Na , K , Ca2 , Ba2 , Sr2 , and Cu2 . 3. On the right end of the supply shelf is a button labeled Unknowns. Click on the Unknowns button to create a test tube with an unknown. Now click on each of the following bottles on the shelf: Na , K , Ca2 , Ba2 , Sr2 , and Cu2 . Do not change the maximum and minimum on the left side. Click Save. An unknown test tube titled Practice will show in the blue rack. Drag the practice unknown test tube from the blue rack to place it in the metal stand and click Done. Now click on the Return to Lab arrow.
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
4. When you return to the lab you should note that you have seven test tubes. You will use two of the buttons across the bottom, Flame and Flame w/ Cobalt (blue glass held in front of the flame.) A test tube must be moved from the blue test tube rack to the metal test tube stand in order to perform the flame test. You can drag a test tube from the blue rack to the metal test tube stand to switch places with a test tube in the metal test tube stand. Just above the periodic table there is a handle. Click on the handle to pull down the TV monitor. With the monitor down you can mouse-over each test tube and it will identify what metal ion the test tube contains. As you mouse over each test tube, you will also see a picture of what it contains in the lower left corner. One of your test tubes is labeled Practice and when you mouse over it, the TV monitor tells you it is an unknown. 5. Select the test tube containing Na and place it on the metal stand. Click the Flame button. Record your observations in the data table below. Click the Flame w/Cobalt button and record your observations in the same table. 6. Drag the K test tube to the metal stand to exchange it with the Na . Flame test K with and without cobalt glass. Record your observations in the table below. 7. For the other four ions, Flame test them only. Do not use cobalt glass. Record your observations in the table below.
Ion sodium, Na sodium, Na (cobalt glass) potassium, K potassium, K (cobalt glass) calcium, Ca2 barium, Ba2 strontium, Sr2 copper, Cu2 unknown #1 unknown #2 unknown #3 unknown #4 Flame Color
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
8. Flame test the practice unknown. Determine which of the six metal ions it most closely matches. You may repeat the flame test on any of the six metal ions if necessary. When you are confident that you have identified the unknown, open the Lab Book by clicking on it. On the left page, click the Report button. On the right page, click on the metal ion that you think is in the practice unknown. Click Submit and then OK. If all of the ion buttons turn green you have successfully identified the unknown. If any turn red then you were incorrect. Flame test the practice unknown again to correctly identify your metal ion. Click on the red disposal bucket to clear all of your samples.
Analysis and Conclusions

1. The energy of colored light increases in the order red, yellow, green, blue, violet. List the metallic elements used in the flame tests in increasing order of the energy of the light emitted.
2. What is the purpose of using the cobalt glass in the identification of sodium and potassium?
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 2: Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Purpose
To observe the formation of compounds and write their names and formulas.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Inorganic laboratory. 2. Enter the stockroom by clicking inside the Stockroom window. Once inside the stockroom, drag a test tube from the box and place it on the metal test tube stand. You can then click on the bottle of Ag+ ion solution on the shelf to add it to the test tube. Click Done to send the test tube back to the lab. Click on the Return to Lab arrow. 3. Place the test tube containing the Ag+ solution in the metal test tube stand. Click on the Divide button on the bottom (with the large red arrow) four times to make four additional test tubes containing Ag+. With one test tube in the metal stand and four others in the blue rack, click on the Na2S bottle located on the lab bench. You will be able to observe what happens in the window at the bottom left. Record your observation in the table below and write a correct chemical formula and name for the product of the reaction. If the solution remains clear, record NR, for no reaction. Drag this test tube to the red disposal bucket on the right. 4. Place a second tube from the blue rack on the metal stand. Add Na2SO4. Record your observations and discard the tube. Use the next tube but add NaCl, and record your observations. Use the next tube but add NaOH, and record your observations. With the last tube add Na2CO3 and record your observations. When you are completely finished, click on the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. 5. Return to the stockroom and repeat steps 24 for Pb2 , Ca2 , Fe3 , and Cu2 . Complete the table below.
Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds
Analyze
Each cell should include a description of what you observed when the reagents were mixed and a correct chemical formula and name for all solutions which turned cloudy and NR for all solutions which remained clear. Remember to include roman numerals where appropriate.
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Ag
Pb2
Ca2
Fe3
Cu2
Na2S (S2 )
Na2SO4 (SO42 )
NaCl (Cl )
NaOH (OH )
Na2CO3 (CO32 )
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 3: Counting by Measuring Mass

Purpose
Determine the mass of several samples of chemical elements and compounds and use the data to count atoms.
Procedure
Start Virtual ChemLab and select Counting by Measuring Mass from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Calorimetry laboratory.
Part 1, Measuring Metal

1. Click on the Stockroom. Click on the Metals sample cabinet. Open the top drawer by clicking on it. When you open the drawer, a petri dish will show up on the counter. Place the sample of gold (Au) in the sample dish by double-clicking on it. Zoom Out. Double-click on the petri dish to move it to the stockroom counter. Click the green arrow to Return to Lab. 2. Drag the petri dish to the spotlight near the balance. Click on the Balance area to zoom in. Drag the gold sample to the balance pan and record the mass in Table 1. 3. Click on the red disposal bucket to clear the lab after each sample. Repeat for lead (Pb), uranium (U), sodium (Na) and a metal of your choosing. Table 1
gold (Au) lead (Pb) uranium (U) sodium (Na) Your Choice Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
Counting by Measuring Mass
Mass (grams) Molar Mass (g/mol) Moles of each element Atoms of each element
Counting Arthropods, and Echinoderms Mollusks, by Measuring Mass
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
1. Calculate the moles of Au contained in the sample and enter into Table 1.
2. Calculate the atoms of Au contained in the sample and enter into Table 1.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the other metals and fill in the table. Clear the laboratory when you are finished by clicking on the disposal bucket.
Part 2, Measuring Compounds

1. Click on the Stockroom. Double-click on sodium chloride (NaCl) on the Salts shelf. The right and left arrows allow you to see additional bottles. 2. Return to Lab. Move the sample bottle to the spotlight near the balance area. Click on the Balance area to zoom in and open the bottle by clicking on the lid (Remove Lid). Drag a piece of weigh paper to the balance pan and Tare the balance. 3. Pick up the Scoop and scoop out some sample; as you drag your cursor and the scoop down the face of the bottle it picks up more. Select the largest sample possible and drag the scoop to the weigh paper until it snaps in place which will place the sample on the paper. Record the mass of the sample in Table 2.
4. Repeat steps 1-3 for table sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11), NH4Cl, C6H5OH (phenol), and a compound of your choice. Record the mass of each sample in Table 2.
Table 2
NaCl C12H22O11 NH4Cl C6H5OH Your Choice
Mass (grams) Molar Mass (g/mol) Moles of each element Atoms of each element
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Counting by Measuring Mass
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
1. Calculate the moles of C12H22O11 contained in the sample and record your results in Table 2.
2. Calculate the moles of each element in C12H22O11 and record your results in Table 2.
3. Calculate the atoms of each element in C12H22O11 and record your results in Table 2.
4. Repeat steps 13 for the other compounds and record your results in Table 2. 5. Which of the compounds contains the most total atoms?
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 4: Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

Purpose
To duplicate the Thomson cathode ray tube experiment and calculate from collected data the charge to mass ratio (q/me) of an electron.
Background
As scientists began to examine atoms, their first discovery was that they could extract negatively charged particles from atoms. They called these particles electrons. In order to understand the nature of these particles, they wanted to know how much charge they carried and how much they weighed. In 1897, John J. Thomson showed that if you could measure how much a beam of electrons were bent in an electric field and in a magnetic field, you could determine the charge to mass ratio (q/me) for the particles (electrons). Knowing the charge to mass ratio (q/me) and either the charge on the electron or the mass of the electron would allow you to calculate the other. Thomson could not obtain either in his cathode ray tube experiments and had to be satisfied with just the charge to mass ratio.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Quantum laboratory.
2. What source is used in this experiment? (The source is on the left. Drag your cursor over it to identify it.) What type of charge do electrons have? What detector is used in this experiment? 3. Turn on the Phosphor Screen. What do you observe? 4. Drag the lab window down and left and the phosphor screen window up and right in order to be able to minimize overlap. Push the Grid button on the phosphor screen, and set the Magnetic Field to 30 T. (Click the button above the tens place three times.) What happens to the spot from the electron gun on the phosphor screen?
Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
5. Set the Magnetic Field back to zero and set the Electric Field to 10 V. What happens to the spot from the electron gun on the phosphor screen? Where should the signal on the phosphor screen be if the electric and magnetic forces are balanced? 6. Increase the voltage of the Electric Field to move the spot several centimeters from the center. To make your measurements more accurate, move the spot until it aligns with a grid marking. What is the voltage? What is the distance from the center that the spot has moved (in cm)? 7. Increase the magnetic field strength until the spot reaches the center of the screen. What magnetic field creates a magnetic force that balances the electric force? Summarize your data.
deflected distance (d) electric field (V) magnetic field (B)
8. In a simplified and reduced form, the charge to mass ratio (q/me) can be calculated as follows: q>me (5.0826 1012) # V # d>B2
where V the electric field in volts, d the deflected distance from center in cm, and B magnetic field in T. What is your calculated value for the charge to mass ratio for an electron (q/me)? The modern accepted value is 1.76 as follows: % Error 1011. Calculate your percent error
0 your value accepted value 0 accepted value
100
10
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 5: Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Purpose
If you want to know either the charge or the mass of an electron, you need to have a way of measuring one or the other independently. In 1909, Robert Millikan showed that he could make very small oil drops and deposit electrons on these drops (1 to 10 electrons per drop). He would then measure the total charge on the oil drops by deflecting the drops with an electric field. You will get a chance to repeat his experiments, and, using the results from Lab 4, be able to experimentally calculate the mass of an electron.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Millikan Oil Drop Experiment from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Quantum laboratory. 2. What source is used in this experiment? How does this source affect the oil droplets in the oil mist chamber? 3. The detector in this experiment is a video camera with a microscopic eyepiece attached to view the oil droplets. Click the On/Off switch (red/green light) to turn the video camera on. What do you observe on the video camera screen? What force causes the drops to fall? The oil drops fall at their terminal velocity, which is the maximum velocity possible due to frictional forces such as air resistance. The terminal velocity is a function of the radius of the drop. By measuring the terminal velocity (vt) of a droplet, the radius (r) can be calculated. Then the mass (m) of the drop can be calculated from its radius and the density of the oil. Knowing the mass of the oil droplet will allow you to calculate the charge (q) on the droplet. 4. Measure the terminal velocity of a drop. Select a small drop that is falling near the center scale and Click the Slow Motion button on the video camera window when the drop appears at the top of the window. Wait until the drop is at a tick mark and start the timer. Let the drop fall for at least two or more tick marks and stop the timer. Do not let the drop fall off the end of the viewing scope. Each tick mark is 0.125 mm. Record the distance and the time in the data table below.
11
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
5. Measure the voltage required to stop the fall of the drop. You now need to stop the fall of the drop by applying an electric field between the two voltage plates. Click on the buttons on the top or bottom of the Electric Field until the voltage is adjusted and the drop stops falling. This should be done while in slow motion. When the drop appears stopped, turn slow motion off and do some final adjustments until the drop has not moved for at least one minute. Record the voltage, V, indicated on the voltage controller.
Drop Voltage (V, in volts) Time (t, in seconds) Distance (d, in meters)
1 2 3
6. Calculate the terminal velocity and record the value. Calculate the terminal velocity, vt, in units of m s using this equation: d t , where d is the distance the drop fell in meters and t is the elapsed time in seconds. vt Each of the equations in steps 79 are shown with units and without. You will find it easier to use the equation without units for your calculations. 7. Calculate the radius (r) of the drop and record the value. With the terminal velocity, you can calculate the radius of the using this equation: r (9.0407 10 5m1>2 # s1>2) "vt (9.0407 10 5"vt, without units)
8. Calculate the mass of the drop and record the value. You can use the answer from your previous answer for r to calculate the mass of the drop given the density of the oil. The final equation to calculate the mass is m Voil # roil 4p>3 # r 3 # 821kg # m (3439.0kg # m 3) # r 3
3
(3439.0 r 3 , without units)
9. The force due to gravity must be the same as the force due to the electric field acting on the electrons stuck to the drop: qE mg. Using this equation, calculate the total charge (Qtot) on the oil drop due to the electrons using the equation: Qtot Q(n) # e without units) (9.810 10 2C # kg
1
# J 1 # m>V
(9.81
10
m/V,
12
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
where Q(n) is the number of electrons on the drop, e is the fundamental electric charge of an electron, m is the mass calculated in #9, and V is the voltage. This answer will provide the total charge on the drop (Qtot). The fundamental electric charge of an electron (e) is 1.6 10 19 C (coulombs). Divide your total charge (Qtot) by e and round your answer to the nearest whole number. This is the number of electrons (Q(n)) that adhered to your drop. Now divide your total charge (Qtot) by Q(n) and you will obtain your experimental value for the charge on one electron. 10. Complete the experiment and calculations for at least three drops and summarize your results in the data table.
Total charge on drop (Qtot, in Coulombs) Millikan Oil Drop Experiment
Drop #
Terminal Velocity (v t, in m/s)
Radius (r, in meters)
Mass (m, in kg)
Charge on one electron (C)
1 2 3
11. Average your results for the charge on one electron. Calculate the percent error by: % Error 0 your answer 1.6 1.6 10 19 10
19 0
100%
What is your average charge for an electron? What is your percent error? 12. You will recall that in the Thomson experiment you were able to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio (q/me) as 1.7 1011. Using this value for q/me and your average charge on an electron, calculate the mass of an electron in kg. What is your calculated value for the mass of an electron in kg?
13
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 6: Atomic Structure: Rutherfords Experiment

Purpose
To discover how the physical properties, such as size and shape, of an object can be measured by indirect means and to duplicate the gold foil experiment of Ernest Rutherford.
Background
A key experiment in understanding the nature of atomic structure was completed by Ernest Rutherford in 1911. He set up an experiment that directed a beam of alpha particles (helium nuclei) through a gold foil and then onto a detector screen. According to the plum pudding atomic model, scientists thought electrons floated around inside a cloud of positive charge. Based on this model, Rutherford expected that almost all the alpha particles should pass through the gold foil and not be deflected. A few of the alpha particles would experience a slight deflection due to the attraction to the negative electrons (alpha particles have a charge of 2). Imagine his surprise when a few alpha particles deflected at all angles, even nearly straight backwards. According to the plum pudding model there was nothing in the atom massive enough to deflect the alpha particles. About this he said . . . almost as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit you. He suggested the experimental data could only be explained if the majority of the mass of an atom was concentrated in a small, positively charged central nucleus. This experiment provided the evidence needed to prove this nuclear model of the atom. In this experiment, you will make observations similar to those of Professor Rutherford.
Atomic Structure: Rutherfords Experiment
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Atomic Structure: Rutherfords Experiment from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Quantum laboratory. 2. The experiment will be set up on the lab table. Point the cursor arrow to the gray box on the left side. What particles are emitted from this source?
What are alpha particles? 3. Point the cursor arrow at the base of the metal sample stand (in the center) and squeeze the mouse. What metal foil is used?
14
Atomic Structure: Rutherfords Experiment Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
4. Point the cursor arrow to the detector (on the right). What detector is used in this experiment? 5. Turn on the detector by clicking on the red/green light switch. What does the signal in the middle of the screen represent?
What other signals do you see on the phosphor detection screen? What do these signals represent?
Click the Persist button (the dotted arrow) on the phosphor detector screen. According to the plum pudding model, what is causing the deflection of the alpha particles?
Make an observation of the number of alpha particles hitting the phosphor detection screen.
6. Now, you will make observations at different angles of deflection. Click on the gray lab table window to bring it to the front. Grab the phosphor detection screen by its base and move it to the spotlight in the top right corner. The Persist button should still be on. Describe the number of hits in this spotlight position as compared to the first detector position.
7. Move the detector to the top center spotlight position at a 90-degree angle to the foil stand. Describe the number of hits in this spotlight position as compared to the first detector position.
15
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
8. Move the detector to the top left spotlight position. Describe the number of hits in this spotlight position as compared to the first detector position. What causes the alpha particles to deflect backwards? How do these results disprove the plum pudding model? Keep in mind that there are 1,000,000 alpha particles passing through the gold foil at any given second.
Are the gold atoms composed mostly of matter or empty space? How does the Gold Foil Experiment show that almost all of the mass of an atom is concentrated in a small positively charged central atom?
Further Investigation
Students often ask, Why did Rutherford use gold foil? The most common response is that gold is soft and malleable and can be made into very thin sheets of foil. There is another reason, which you can discover for yourself. 1. Turn off the phosphor detection screen. Double-click the base of the metal foil sample holder. It will move the holder to the stockroom window. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Click on the metal sample box on the top shelf. Click on Na to select sodium. Return to Lab. 2. Move the metal foil sample holder from the stockroom window back to the center spotlight. Turn on the phosphor detection screen. Click Persist. Observe the number of hits with sodium compared to the number of hits with a gold sample. Why would Rutherford choose gold foil instead of sodium foil? Explain.
16
Atomic Structure: Rutherfords Experiment Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 7: Atomic Emission Spectra

Purpose
To view atomic emission spectra and use a spectrometer to measure the wavelength. The wavelength will be used to calculate frequency and energy.
Procedure
Start Virtual ChemLab and select Atomic Emission Spectra from the list of assignments.The lab will open in the Quantum laboratory. The Spectrometer is on the right of the lab table. The emission spectra is in the detector window in the upper right corner with a graph of the Intensity vs (wavelength).
Analyze
1. How many distinct lines do you see and what are their colors? Draw what you see. 2. Click on the Visible/Full switch to magnify only the visible spectrum. You will see four peaks in the spectrum. If you drag your cursor over a peak, it will identify the wavelength (in nm) in the x-coordinate field in the bottom right corner of the window. Record the wavelength in the table below for the four peaks in the hydrogen spectrum. (Round to whole numbers.) 3. Each wavelength corresponds to another property of light called its frequency. Use the wavelength value of each of the lines to calculate its c frequency given that n l where c 2.998 1017 nm/s (2.998 108 m/s). The energy (E) of a quantum of light an atom emits is related to its frequency ( ) by E h . Use the frequency value for each line and h 6.63 10 34 J.s to calculate its corresponding energy.
Wavelength (nm) Frequency (1/s) Energy (J) Atomic Emission Spectra
Line #1 (left) Line #2 Line #3 Line #4 (right)
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Atomic Emission Spectra
17
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
4. Now, investigate the emission spectra for a different element, helium. Helium is the next element after hydrogen on the periodic table and has two electrons. Do you think the emission spectra for an atom with two electrons instead of one will be much different than hydrogen? 5. To exchange gas samples, turn off the Spectrometer with the On/Off switch in the top right corner. Double-click on the Electric Field to place it on the stockroom shelf. Double-click on the Gas (H2) sample tube to place it on the stockroom shelf. 6. Click in the Stockroom. Click on the Gases samples on the top shelf. Click on the cylinder labeled He to select helium as the gas and it will fill the gas sample tube. If you point to the gas sample tube it should read He. 7. Return to lab. Drag the gas sample tube off the stockroom shelf. When you select it, a white spotlight will appear indicating where you can place the gas sample tubeplace it there. Drag the Electric Field and place it on the gas sample tube. Carefully click the button just above the left zero on the volt meter and change the voltage to 300 V. Turn on the Spectrometer. Click the Visible/Full switch to convert to only the visible spectrum. 8. Draw the visible spectrum for helium. Is it different from hydrogen?
9. Determine the wavelength (in nm), the frequency (in 1/s) and the energy (in J) for the peak on the far right.
Atomic Emission Spectra Wavelength (nm) Frequency (1/s) Energy (J)
Line (far right)
18
Atomic Emission Spectra Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 8: Photoelectric Effect

Purpose
To duplicate photoelectric effect experiments.
Background
Though Albert Einstein is most famous for E mc2 and his work in describing relativity in mechanics, his Nobel Prize was for understanding a very simple experiment. It was long understood that if you directed light of a certain wavelength at a piece of metal, it would emit electrons. In classical theory, the energy of the light was thought to be based on its intensity and not its frequency. However, the results of the photoelectric effect contradicted classical theory. These inconsistencies led Einstein to suggest that we need to think of light as being comprised of particles (photons) and not just as waves. Each wavelength corresponds to another property of light called frequency. You will use the wavelength ( ) value in the experiment to c calculate the frequency ( ) given that n l where c 2.998 1017 nm/s (2.998 108 m/s). The energy (E) of a quantum of light an atom emits is related to its frequency (n) by E h where h (Plancks constant) 6.63 10 34J-s.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Photoelectric Effect from the list of assignments. The experiment opens in the Quantum laboratory.
2. What source is used in this experiment and what does it do?
At what intensity is the laser set? At what wavelength is the laser set? Record the wavelength (in nm) in the data table. Calculate the frequency (in 1/s) and the energy (in J) using the equations given in the Background section of this lab. Determine the color of the light by clicking on the Spectrum Chart (just behind the laser); the markers indicate what color is represented by the wavelength selected. Which metal foil is used in this experiment?
Photoelectric Effect
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Photoelectric Effect
19
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
What detector is used in this experiment and what does it measure?
Turn on the detector by clicking on the red/green light switch. What does the signal on the phosphor screen indicate about the laser light shining on the sodium foil?
3. Decrease the Intensity to 1 photon/second. How does the signal change? Increase the Intensity to 1 kW. How does the signal change?
4. Change the Intensity back to 1 nW and increase the Wavelength to 600 nm. What do you observe? Record the wavelength in the data table. Determine the maximum wavelength at which emission of electrons occurs in the metal.
What is the difference between intensity and wavelength?
Which matters in the formation of photoelectrons: intensity or wavelength?
wavelength (nm)
frequency (1/s)
energy (J)
light color
400 600
450
20
Photoelectric Effect Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
5. Click in the Stockroom. Click on the clipboard and select Photoelectric Effect (2). Return to Lab. The intensity is set at 1 nW and the wavelength at 400 nm. The detector used in this experiment is a bolometer. Turn on the bolometer by clicking the red/green light switch. This instrument measures the kinetic energy of electrons emitted from the metal foil. You should see a green peak on the bolometer detection screen. The intensity or height of the signal corresponds to the number of electrons being emitted from the metal. The x-axis is the kinetic energy of the photoemitted electrons. Zoom in on the peak by clicking and dragging from half-way up the y-axis to the right past the peak and to the x-axis (it will draw an orange rectangle). 6. Increase and decrease the Intensity, what do you observe? Increase and decrease the Wavelength, what do you observe?
What is the maximum wavelength that ejects electrons from the sodium metal? From this experiment, explain why violet light causes photoemission of electrons but orange light does not.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Photoelectric Effect
21
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 9: Diffraction Experiments

Background
It has long been known that if you shine light through narrow slits that are spaced at small intervals, the light will form a diffraction pattern. A diffraction pattern is a series of light and dark patterns caused by wave interference. The wave interference can be either constructive (light patterns) or destructive (dark patterns). In this experiment, you will shine a laser through a device with two slits where the spacing can be adjusted and investigate the patterns that will be made at a distance from the slits.
Diffraction Experiments
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Diffraction Experiments from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Quantum laboratory. 2. What source is used in this experiment and for what reason? What is the wavelength of the Laser? What is the spacing of the two slits on the two slit device? Draw a picture of the pattern displayed on the video screen.
3. Change the Intensity of the Laser from 1 nW to 1W. Does the intensity of the light affect the diffraction pattern? Change the Slit Spacing to 1 m. Observe the pattern displayed on the video screen as you change the slit spacing from 1 m to 7 m by one-micrometer increments. What can you state about the relationship between slit spacing and diffraction pattern?
4. Increase the Wavelength of the Laser to 700 nm. What affect does an increase in the wavelength have on the diffraction pattern?
22
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
5. Decrease the Intensity on the Laser to 1000 photons/second. Click on the Persist button on the video camera to look at individual photons coming through the slits. Observe for one minute. What observation can you make about this pattern as compared to the pattern from the continuous beam of photons? Decrease the Intensity to 100 photons/second. Observe for another minute after clicking Persist. At these lower intensities (1,000 and 100 photons/second), there is never a time when two photons go through both slits at the same time. How can a single photon diffract?
From this experiment, what conclusions can you make about the nature of light?
6. Click in the Stockroom. Click on the clipboard and select Two-Slit DiffractionElectrons. Return to Lab. What source is used in this experiment? Draw a picture of the diffraction pattern shown on the Phosphor Screen. How does this diffraction pattern compare to the diffraction pattern for light? 7. Decrease the Intensity to 10 electrons/second. The pattern now builds one electron at a time. Click on the Persist button and observe for one minute. Has the diffraction pattern changed? Why or why not?
How can an electron diffract if there is only one?
23
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 10: Electronic State Energy Levels

Purpose
To understand the origins of Quantum Theory by using a spectrometer to observe the emission spectrum of several gases.
Background
The classical picture of atoms would allow electrons to be at any energy level. According to this classical model, when electrons are excited and then fall back down to the ground state, they emit light at all wavelengths and the emission spectrum would be continuous. In the 1800s scientists found that when a sample of gas is excited by an alternating electric current, it emits light only at certain discrete wavelengths. This allowed for the development of spectroscopy, which is used in the identification and analysis of elements and compounds. Even though scientists found spectroscopy very useful, they could not explain why the spectrum was not continuous. The explanation of this was left to Niels Bohr, a Danish physicist. Bohr proposed that energy levels of electrons are not continuous but quantized. The electrons only exist in specific energy levels. Because of this quantization of energy, excited electrons can only fall to discrete energy levels. This assignment illustrates the measurements that helped Bohr develop his quantum model, now known as Quantum Theory. It also illustrates some practical uses for this science. Mercury vapor is used in fluorescent lights and sodium vapor in street lighting. You can separate the lines in the full region of an emission spectrum by using an optical prism or a diffraction grating. A spectrometer is an instrument designed to separate the emitted light into its component wavelengths and plots the intensity of the light as a function of wavelength.
Electronic State Energy Levels
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Electronic State Energy Levels from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Quantum laboratory. 2. The lab table will be set up with four items. What is the detector on the right? What is the metal sample? A heat source is used to heat the metal sample to high temperatures. What is the temperature of the heat source? 3. Turn on the Spectrometer by clicking on the red/green light switch. Click on the Visible/Full switch to change the view to the visible spectrum.
24
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Click on the Lab Book to open it. If any students in a previous class have saved spectra, highlight and delete them. Click on the Record button (red dot on the spectrometer window) to record this spectrum in the lab book. Click just after the spectra file name and type tungsten metal. What observations can you make about the emission spectrum for heated tungsten metal?
4. Turn the Spectrometer off with the On/Off switch. Click on the Stockroom. Click the clipboard on the right. Click on the preset lab #9 Photoemission H2 and return to the lab by clicking on the Return to Lab arrow. Click on the Visible/Full switch to change the view to the visible spectrum. Record this spectrum in the Lab Book. Click just after the spectra file name and type hydrogen gas. What observations can you make about the emission spectrum for hydrogen gas?
5. To exchange gas samples, turn off the Spectrometer. Double-click on the Electric Field to place it on the stockroom shelf. Double-click on the Gas (H2) sample tube to place it on the stockroom shelf.
6. Click in the Stockroom. Click on the Gases sample on the top shelf. Click on the cylinder labeled Ne to select neon as the gas and it will fill the gas sample tube. If you point to the gas sample tube it should read Ne. 7. Return to Lab. Drag the gas sample tube off the stockroom shelf. When you select it, a white spotlight will appear indicating where you can place the gas sample tubeplace it there. Drag the Electric Field and place it on the gas sample tube. Carefully click the button just above the far left zero on the volt meter and change the voltage to 300 V. Turn on the Spectrometer. Click the Visible/Full switch to convert to only the visible spectrum. Record this spectrum in the lab book and identify this link with the name of the element typed after the blue link. 8. Continue with this same process until you have completed the following gas samples: H2, He, Ne, Na, and Hg. You should have five spectra saved in the lab book in addition to tungsten metal. Record your observations for each element. You can return to the lab book and click on any of the spectra to view them again. Include in your observations a comparison for each element to the spectrum for heated tungsten metal.
25
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
9. How do your observations of these gas emission spectra help confirm Quantum Theory?
Application
1. Load the spectrum for heated tungsten metal. Tungsten metal is used in incandescent light bulbs as the heated filament. 2. Load the spectrum for mercury from the lab book into the spectrometer. Examine the visible spectrum. Click the switch to change to full spectrum. What differences do you see when changing between visible and full spectrum for mercury?
Mercury vapor is used in the fluorescent light tubes that you see at school and home. The emitted light is not very bright for just the mercury vapor, but when scientists examined the full spectrum for mercury they saw what you observed and recorded. There is an enormous emission in the ultraviolet range (UV). This light is sometimes called black light. You may have seen it with glow-in-the-dark displays. Scientists coat the inside of the glass tube of fluorescent light tubes with a compound that will absorb UV and emit the energy as visible light with all the colors of the rainbow. All colors together create white light which is why fluorescent light tubes emit very white light. 3. Load the spectrum for sodium. What distinct feature do you see in the sodium spectrum? Astronomers are excited about cities changing from normal street lights to sodium vapor street lights because astronomers can easily filter out the peak at 589 nm and minimize light pollution.
26
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab11_pp027-029
8/12/04
2:01 PM
Page 27
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 11: Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases

Purpose
Investigate the relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas.
Background
Robert Boyle studied the properties of gases in the 17th century. He noticed that gases behave similarly to springs; when compressed or expanded, they tend to spring back to their original volume. You will make observations similar to those of Robert Boyle. The purpose of this experiment is to learn about the relationship between pressure and volume of an ideal gas. In order to do this, you will change the pressure or volume while the other is kept constant, and then you will observe what happens.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Gases laboratory. 2. Note that the cylinder contains an ideal gas with a molecular weight of 4 g/mol. There is 0.3 mol of gas at a temperature of 298 K, a pressure of 1 atm, and a volume of 7.336 L. To the left of the pressure meter is a lever that will decrease and increase the pressure as it is moved up or down; the digit is changed depending on how far the lever is moved. Digits may also be clicked directly to reach the desired number. You may want to practice adjusting the lever so that you can decrease and increase the pressure accurately. Make sure the moles, temperature, and pressure are returned to their original values before proceeding. 3. Click on the Lab Book to open it. If data from a previous student appears, delete it. Once back in the lab, click the Save button to start recording your data. Increase the pressure from 1 atm to 10 atm one atmosphere at a time. Click Stop. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. To keep track of your data links, enter Ideal Gas 1 next to the link. Reset the lab. 4. Zoom Out by clicking the green arrow next to the Save button. Click Return Tank on the gas cylinder. Click switch to change from Real Gases to Ideal Gases. Choose Ideal 8 (Ideal 8 MW 222 g/mol). Click on the balloon chamber to Zoom In. Set parameters to 0.3 mol of gas at a temperature of 298 K and a pressure of 1 atm (the volume should be 7.336 L). Repeat the experiment with this gas labeling the data link as Ideal Gas 8.
Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases
27
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
5. Zoom Out by clicking on the green arrow next to the Save button. Click on the Stockroom and then on the Clipboard and select Balloon Experiment N2. Set the parameters to 0.3 mol of gas at a temperature of 298 K, and a pressure of 1 atm (the volume should be 7.334 L). You may have to click on the Units button for some of the variables to change it to the correct unit. Repeat the experiment with this gas labeling the data link Real Gas N2.
Analyze
1. Click the data link for Ideal Gas 1. Click the Select All button in the Data Viewer window that will pop up. If you are using Windows use CTRL-C, or on a Macintosh CMD-C to copy the data. Paste the data into a spreadsheet and create a graph with volume on the x-axis and pressure on the y-axis. Also create a graph for your data from Ideal Gas 8 and Real Gas N2. 2. Based on your data, what relationship exists between the pressure and volume of a gas (assuming a constant temperature)? 3. Look up a statement of Boyles Law in your textbook. Do your results further prove this?) 4. Complete the tables from the data saved in your lab book. Use only a sampling of the data for pressure at 1, 3, 6, and 9 atm. Ideal Gas 1 MW
Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases Volume (L)
4 g/mol
Pressure (atm) PV Product (P V)
Ideal Gas 8 MW
Volume (L)
222 g/mol
Pressure (atm) PV Product (P V)
28
Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Real Gas N2
Volume (L) Pressure (atm) PV Product (P V)
5. What conclusions can you make about the PV product with Ideal Gas 1, MW 4 g/mol? How is the PV product affected using an ideal gas with a different molecular weight (Ideal Gas 8)? 6. How are your results affected using a Real Gas (N2)?
Going Further
Based on the results of this lab, develop a hypothesis to explain why weather balloons are only partially filled before they are released into the atmosphere. (These balloons can reach altitudes of 40,000 ft.)
Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Pressure-Volume Relationship for Gases
29
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 12: Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases

Purpose
Investigate the relationship between the temperature and volume of a gas.
Background
Charles Law was discovered by Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1802, based on unpublished work done by Jacques Charles in about 1787. Charles had found that a number of gases expand to the same extent over the same 80 degree temperature interval. You will be observing properties similar to those that Charles studied. The purpose of this experiment is to learn about the relationship between temperature and volume of an ideal gas. You will do this by keeping all variables constant except temperature and volume to observe what happens. According to the kinetic theory of gases, the average kinetic energy of the gas increases with the temperature. When gas is in a rigid container, the pressure (exerted by the gas on the walls of the container) increases as the temperature increases.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Gases laboratory. 2. Note that you are using an Ideal gas with a molecular weight of 4 g/mol. There is 0.05 mol of gas at a temperature of 100C, a pressure of 1 atm, and a volume of 1.531 L. To the left of the temperature meter is a lever that will decrease and increase the temperature as it is moved up or down; the digit is changed depending on how far the lever is moved. Digits may also be clicked directly to type in the desired number, or they can be rounded by clicking on the R button. You may want to practice adjusting the lever so that you can decrease and increase the temperature accurately. Make sure the moles, temperature, and pressure are returned to their original values before proceeding. 3. Click on the Lab Book to open it. If data from a previous student appears, delete it. Once back in the lab, click the Save button to start recording your data. Increase the temperature from 100C to 1000C 100 degrees at a time. Click Stop. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. To help keep track of your data links, enter Ideal Gas 1 next to the link.
Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases
Analyze
1. Click the data link for Ideal Gas 1. Click the Select All button in the Data Viewer window. If you are using Windows, use CTRL-C or on a Macintosh CMD-C to copy the data. Paste your data into a spreadsheet and create a graph with volume on the x-axis and temperature on the y-axis.
30
Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
2. Based on your data, what relationship exists between the pressure and volume of a gas (assuming constant temperature)?
3. Look up a statement of Charles Law in your textbook. Do your results further prove this? 4. Using the spreadsheet, fit the data to a curve (linear fit). The lowest possible temperature is reached when an Ideal Gas has zero volume. This temperature is the y-intercept for the plotted line. What is this temperature? 5. Zoom Out by clicking on the green arrow next to the Save button. Click on the Stockroom and then on the Clipboard and select Balloon Experiment N2. Set the parameters to 0.05 mol of gas at a temperature of 100C, and a pressure of 1 atm (the volume should be 1.531 L). You may have to change the units for some of the variables. Repeat the experiment that was performed on the ideal gas by increasing the temperature from 100C to 900C by increments of 100C saving the data to the lab book and label the link as Real Gas N2. Plot the data and fit it to a linear curve.
6. What lowest temperature did you find for the Real Gas (N2)?
Going Further
Interpret the results of this lab in terms of the kinetic theory of matter as it applies to gases.
Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases
Temperature-Volume Relationship for Gases Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
31
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab13_pp032-033
8/12/04
2:01 PM
Page 32
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 13: Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law

Purpose
Derivation of Ideal Gas Law
Derive the Ideal Gas Law from experimental procedures and determine the value of the Universal Gas Constant (R).
Background
An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose pressure, volume, and temperature follow the relationship PV nRT. No ideal gases actually exist, although all real gases behave similarly to ideal gases near room temperature and pressure. All gases can be described to some extent using the Ideal Gas Law, which is important in our understanding of how all gases behave. You will be deriving the Ideal Gas Law. The state of any gas can be described using the four variables: pressure (P), volume (V), temperature (T), and the number of moles of gas (n). Each experiment in the Gases Simulation allows three of these variables (the independent variables) to be manipulated or changed and then shows the effect on the remaining variable (the dependent variable).
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Derivation of the Ideal Gas Law from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Gases laboratory. 2. Use the balloon experiment to describe the relationship between pressure (P) and volume (V). Increase and decrease the pressure using the lever to the left of the pressure to determine the effect on volume. What can you conclude about the effect of pressure on volume? Write a mathematical relationship. 3. Use this same experiment to describe the relationship between temperature (T) and volume, by increasing and decreasing the temperature. What can you conclude about the effect of temperature on volume? Write a mathematical relationship. 4. Use this same experiment to describe the relationship between moles of gas and volume, by increasing and decreasing the number of moles (n). What can you conclude about the effect of moles on volume? Write a mathematical relationship.
32
Derivation of Ideal Gas Law Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
5. Since volume is proportional to inverse pressure, temperature and moles we can combine these three proportions into one proportion showing V proportional to 1/P, T, and n. Write one combined proportion to show the relationship of volume to pressure, temperature and moles. 6. This proportional relationship can be converted into a mathematical equation by inserting a proportionality constant (R) into the numerator on the right side. Write this mathematical equation and rearrange with P on the left side with V. 7. This equation is known as the Ideal Gas Law. Using data for volume, temperature, pressure and moles from one gas apparatus experiment, L# calculate the value for R with the units K # atm . (Show all work and mol round to three significant digits). 8. Using the relationship between atmospheres and mm Hg of 1 atm 760 mm Hg, calculate the value for R with the units L # atm K # mol. (Show all work and round to three significant digits). 9. Using the relationship between atmospheres and L# kPa of 1 atm 101.3 kPa, calculate the value for R with the units K # atm . mol (Show all work and round to three significant digits).
Derivation of Ideal Gas Law
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Derivation of Ideal Gas Law
33
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 14: Ideal vs Real Gases

Purpose
Investigate how temperature and pressure changes affect ideal and real gases.
Background
In the Ideal Gas Law lab previously completed, you learned how to derive the Ideal Gas Law (PV nRT) from observations about the relationships between volume, temperature, pressure and moles. You calculated the value for the Universal Gas Constant (R) for an ideal gas. In this experiment you will also calculate the Universal Gas Constant (R), but with both ideal and real gases and at high and low temperatures and pressures.
Procedure
Ideal vs Real Gases
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Ideal vs Real Gases from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Gases laboratory with Ideal Gas 1. 2. Click on the Units buttons to change the units to L or mL for volume, atm for pressure, and K for temperature. To change the value of pressure, temperature or moles, the lever to the left of each number can be used. The value will decrease and increase as the lever is moved up or down; the digit is changed depending on how far the lever is moved. Digits may also be clicked directly to reach the desired number. Clicking to the left of the farthest left digit will add the next place; for example, if you have 1.7 atm you can click left of the 1 and enter 2 to make it 21.7 atm or click left of the 2 and enter 5 to make it 521.7 atm. The small R button in the upper left corner rounds the number. Clicking several times will round from ones to tens to hundreds. The green arrow to the left of the Save button will Zoom Out. Clicking Return Tank on the gas cylinder will return the tank to the rack and allow you to select a different gas. Clicking the gas chamber will Zoom In to allow you to change parameters. Be careful not to make the balloon so large that it bursts. If it does, click the red Reset button in the top right and then reset your units and values for each parameter. Remember that volume must be in L. If mL appears, you must convert to L in your calculations.
34
Ideal vs Real Gases Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
3. Complete the Data Table for the following gases and conditions (all with 0.1 mol): a. Ideal gas at low T 10 K, high T 1000 K, low P 1 atm, high P 15 atm b. Methane gas (CH4) at low T 160 K, high T 400 K, low P 1 atm, high P 15 atm c. Carbon dioxide gas (CO2) at low T 250 K, high T 1000 K, low P 1 atm, high P 15 atm
Gas V (L) P (atm) T (K) n (mol)
Ideal, low T, low P Ideal, low T, high P Ideal, high T, low P

Ideal vs Real Gases
Ideal, high T, high P CH4, low T, low P CH4, low T, high P CH4, high T, low P CH4, high T, high P CO2, low T, low P
CO2, low T, high P CO2, high T, low P CO2, high T, high P
Analyze
1. If PV nRT then R PV/nT. Complete the table for each experiment above. Use four significant digits.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and vs Real Gases Ideal Echinoderms
35
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Gas
Calculated R (1-atm/K-mol)
Ideal, low T, low P Ideal, low T, high P Ideal, high T, low P Ideal, high T, high P CH4, low T, low P CH4, low T, high P CH4, high T, low P CH4, high T, high P
Ideal vs Real Gases
CO2, low T, low P CO2, low T, high P CO2, high T, low P CO2, high T, high P
2. Which gases and conditions show significant deviation from the ideal value of R? Explain.
36
Ideal vs Real Gases
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 15: Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass

Purpose
Investigate the relationship between the internal pressure of a gas and the applied external pressure by placing weights on a frictionless, massless piston.
Background
An understanding of pressure is an integral part of our understanding of the behavior of gases. Pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by a gas or other medium. The pressure of a gas is affected by many variables, such as temperature, external pressure, volume, number of moles of a gas, and other factors. This experiment will help you to become more familiar with pressure.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Gases laboratory. 2. To investigate the relationship between mass added to the piston to apply an external pressure, note that in this experiment Pint Pmass Pext, where Pint is the internal pressure or the pressure of the gas in the cylinder, Pmass is the pressure being exerted on the gas by adding weights to the piston, and Pext is the pressure being exerted on the piston by the gas in the chamber. 3. Click the green Piston button to move the piston into position. Record the force (in tons) and the internal pressure (in psi) in the Data Table. 4. Click on the tenths place for force and add 0.5 tons of force to the piston. Record the force and internal pressure in the table. Repeat this for 2.5 tons (the weight of a small car).
external pressure (psi) calculated internal pressure (psi) internal pressure from meter (psi) Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass
force (tons)
0 .5 2.5
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass
37
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
1. You must now calculate the pressure being exerted by the 0.5 tons or, Pmass. First, convert tons to psi (pounds per square inch). How many pounds is 0.5 tons? The diameter of the piston is 15 cm. What is the radius (in cm)? 1 inch 2.54 cm. What is the radius of the piston in inches? r2. What is the area of
The area of the circular piston is found by A the piston in square inches (in2)?
The pressure exerted on the piston by the added mass in pounds per square inch (psi) can be determined by dividing the mass in pounds by the area in square inches. What is the pressure exerted by the added mass in psi? The internal pressure is the sum of the external pressure and the added mass. What is the calculated internal pressure? Compare your calculated answer to the internal pressure meter answer. How do they compare?
Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass
2. Predict the internal pressure (in psi) when 2.5 tons are added. How does your calculated answer compare to the internal pressure meter when you add 2.5 tons of mass? Record your data in the table.
38
Investigation of Gas Pressure and Mass Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 16: The Specific Heat of a Metal

Purpose
Determine the specific heat of a metal using a calorimeter.
Background
On a sunny day, the water in a swimming pool may warm up a degree or two while the concrete around the pool may become too hot to walk on with bare feet. This may seem strange since the water and concrete are being heated by the same sourcethe sun. This evidence suggests it takes more heat to raise the temperature of some substances than others, which is true. The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 g of a substance by 1 degree K is called the specific heat capacity, or specific heat, of that substance. Water, for instance, has a specific heat of 4.18 J/K # g. This value is high in comparison with the specific heats for other materials, such as concrete or metals. In this experiment, you will use a simple calorimeter and your knowledge of the specific heat of water to determine the specific heat of several metals.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select The Specific Heat of a Metal from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Calorimetry laboratory. 2. Click on the Lab Book to open it. Record the mass of Pb on the balance. If it is too small to read click on the Balance area to zoom in, record the mass of Pb in the Data Table, and return to the laboratory. 3. Pick up the Pb sample from the balance pan and place the sample in the oven. Click the oven door to close. The oven is set to heat to 200C. 4. The calorimeter has been filled with 100 mL water. The density of water at 25C is 0.998 g/mL. Use the density of the water to determine the mass from the volume and record the volume and mass in the Data Table. Make certain the stirrer is On (you should be able to see the shaft rotating). Click the thermometer window to bring it to the front and click Save to begin recording data. Allow 2030 seconds to obtain a baseline temperature of the water. 5. Click on the Oven to open it. Drag the hot lead sample from the oven until it snaps into place above the calorimeter and drop it in. Click the thermometer and graph windows to bring them to the front again and observe the change in temperature in the graph window until it reaches a constant value and then wait an additional 2030 seconds. Click Stop in the temperature window. You can click on the Accelerate button on the clock to accelerate the time in the laboratory. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link and record in the Data Table the temperature before adding the Pb and the highest temperature after adding the Pb.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms The Specific Heat of a Metal
The Specific Heat of a Metal
39
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
6. Repeat the experiment with a metal sample of your choosing. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Double-click the Dewar calorimeter to move it to the Stockroom counter. Click the metal sample cabinet. Click a drawer (the samples are alphabetically arranged), and select a sample by double-clicking and zoom out. Double-click on the petri dish with the selected sample to move it to the Stockroom counter. Return to the laboratory. 7. Move the petri dish with metal sample to the spotlight next to the balance. Click on the Balance area to zoom and make sure the balance has been tared. Move the metal sample to the balance pan and record the mass in the table. Return to the laboratory. 8. Double-click the calorimeter to move it into position in the laboratory. Click the oven to open the door. Move the metal sample from the balance pan to the oven and click to close the oven door. Click above the tens place several times on the front of the oven to change the temperature to 200C. Fill the 100 mL graduated cylinder with water by holding it under the tap until it returns to the counter and then pour it into the calorimeter. Turn on the thermometer. Click on the Graph and Save buttons. Move your metal sample from the oven to the calorimeter. Follow the procedures used with Pb to obtain the equilibrium temperature. Record your observations in the table.
Pb your choice Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
mass of metal (g) volume of water (mL) mass of water (g) initial temperature of water (C) initial temperature of metal (C) max temp of water metal (C)

1. Determine the changes in temperature of the water ( Twater).
2. Calculate the heat (q) gained by the water using the following equation: qwater mwater # Twater # Cwater, given Cwater 4.184 J/(gC)
40
The Specific Heat of a and Echinoderms Mollusks, Arthropods,Metal
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
3. Determine the changes in temperature of the Pb ( TPb). 4. Remembering that the heat gained by the water is equal to the heat lost by the metal, calculate the specific heat of lead. qmetal qwater qmetal mPb # TPb # CPb and CPb (mmetal)(Tmetal) 5. Calculate the percent error in the specific heat value that you determined experimentally. Use the accepted value given by your teacher. 0 your answer accepted answer 0 % Error 100 accepted answer 6. Repeat the calculation of specific heat capacity for your choice of metals and calculate the percent error. Use the accepted value given by your teacher.
7. What assumptions have been made that might affect your answers? 8. The calorimeter would probably absorb some of the heat. If we consider this source of error we can correct for it by modifying the specific heat of water to include the heat absorbed by the calorimeter. The corrected J specific heat of water for the calorimeter is 5.224 k # g. Calculate the most accurate specific heat for lead and the metal of your choosing. What is the percent error for each using your new calculation?
41
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 17: Heat of Fusion of Water

Purpose
To measure the heat of fusion of water using a calorimeter.
Heat of Fusion of Water
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Heat of Fusion of Water from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Calorimetry laboratory with a beaker of ice on the balance and a coffee cup calorimeter on the lab bench. 2. Click on the Lab Book to open it. Record the mass of the ice on the balance. If it is too small to read, click on the Balance area to zoom in and record the mass of ice in the Data Table. 3. 100 mL of water is already in the coffee cup. Use the density of water at 25C (0.998 g/mL) to determine the mass from the volume and record in the Data Table. Make certain the stirrer is On (you should be able to see the shaft rotating). Click the thermometer window to bring it to the front and click Save to begin recording data. Allow 2030 seconds to obtain a baseline temperature of the water. 4. Drag the beaker from the balance area until it snaps into place above the coffee cup and pour the ice into the calorimeter. Click the thermometer and graph windows to bring them to the front again and observe the change in temperature in the graph window until it reaches a constant value. Click Stop in the temperature window. Click on the Accelerate button on the clock to accelerate the time in the laboratory. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link and record in the Data Table the temperature before adding the ice and the lowest temperature after adding ice. 5. If you want to repeat the experiment, click on the red disposal bucket to clear the lab, click on the Stockroom, click on the clipboard and select Preset Experiment 3, Heat of Fusion of Water.
volume of water in calorimeter (mL) mass of water in calorimeter (g) mass of ice (g) initial temperature (C) final temperature (C)
42
Heat of Fusion of Water Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analysis and Conclusion

1. Calculate T for the water by T |Tf Ti|.
Heat of Fusion of Water
2. Calculate the heat (q) transferred from the water to the ice by q mC T where the heat capacity (C) for water is 4.18 J/gC and the mass is for the water in the calorimeter. Convert to kJ/mol. 3. Convert the mass of ice to moles. 4. Calculate Hfus of ice (kJ/mol) by dividing the heat transferred from the water by the moles of ice melted. 5. Compare your experimental value of Hfus of ice with the accepted value of 6.01 kJ/mol and calculate the % error as: % Error 0 your answer accepted answer 0 accepted answer 100
6. What possible sources of error could there be in this laboratory procedure?

Mollusks, Arthropods,of Fusion of Water Heat and Echinoderms
43
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 18: Heats of Reaction

Purpose
Measure the heats of reaction for three related exothermic reactions and to verify Hesss law.
Background
Energy changes occur in all chemical reactions; energy is either absorbed or released. If energy is released in the form of heat, the reaction is called exothermic. If energy is absorbed, the reaction is called endothermic. In this experiment, you will measure the amount of heat released in these three related exothermic reactions: NaOH (s) S Na (aq) NaOH (s)
Heats of Reaction
OH (aq) H (aq)
H1 Na (aq) Cl (aq) Na (aq) H2 Cl (aq) H3
H (aq) OH (aq)
Cl (aq) S H2O
Na (aq)
Cl (aq) S H2O
After determining the heats of reaction, you will analyze your data and verify the additive nature of heats of reaction.
Procedure
Start Virtual ChemLab and select Heats of Reaction from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Calorimetry laboratory.
Reaction 1
1. There will be a bottle of NaOH near the balance (move the plot window to see it). A weigh paper will be on the balance with approximately 4 g NaOH on the paper. The calorimeter will be on the lab bench and filled with 200 mL water. Click the Lab Book to open it. Make certain the stirrer is On (you should be able to see the shaft rotating). In the thermometer window click Save to begin recording data. Allow 2030 seconds to obtain a baseline temperature of the water. 2. Drag the weigh paper with the sample to the calorimeter until it snaps into place and pour the sample into the calorimeter. Observe the change in temperature until it reaches a maximum and then record data for an additional 2030 seconds. Click Stop. Click on the Accelerate button on the clock to accelerate the time in the laboratory. A blue data link will appear in the Lab Book. Click the data link and record the initial and final water temperatures in the Data Table. If you need to repeat this part of the experiment, enter the Stockroom and select Preset Experiment #6 on the clipboard.
44
Heats of Reaction Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Reaction 2
1. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Click on the clipboard and select Preset Experiment #5. Return to the laboratory. 2. There will be a bottle of NaOH near the balance. A weigh paper will be on the balance with approximately 4 g NaOH on the paper. The calorimeter will be on the lab bench and filled with 100 mL water, and there will be a beaker containing 100 mL of 1.000 M HCl on the lab bench. In the thermometer window click Save to begin recording data. Allow 2030 seconds to obtain a baseline temperature of the water. 3. Make sure the beaker of HCl is visible and drag it to the calorimeter and pour it into the calorimeter. The HCl and the water are at the same temperature so there should be no temperature change. Now drag the weigh paper with the NaOH to the calorimeter until it snaps into place and pour the sample into the calorimeter. It is important that the HCl be added first and the NaOH added second. Observe the change in temperature until it reaches a maximum and then record data for an additional 2030 seconds. Record the temperature before adding the HCl and after adding the NaOH.
Heats of Reaction
Reaction 3
1. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Click on the clipboard and select Preset Experiment #4. Return to the laboratory. 2. In the thermometer window click Save to begin recording data. Allow 2030 seconds to obtain a baseline temperature of the water. Pour the first beaker containing the HCl into the calorimeter and then pour the second beaker containing the NaOH into the calorimeter. Observe the change in temperature until it reaches a maximum and then record data for an additional 2030 seconds. Record the initial and final temperatures.
Parameter Reaction 1 Reaction 2 Reaction 3
Mass NaOH initial temperature (C) final temperature (C)

1. Determine the change in temperature, T, for each reaction. Record your results in the table.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Heats of Reaction
45
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab18_pp044-046
8/12/04
2:00 PM
Page 46
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
2. Calculate the mass of the reaction mixture in each reaction. (To do this, first determine the total volume of the solution. Then calculate the mass of the solution, based on the assumption that the added solid does not change the volume and that the density of the solution is the same as that of pure water, 1.0 g/mL.) Remember to add the mass of the solid. Record your results in the table. 3. Calculate the total heat released in each reaction, assuming that the specific heat capacity of the solution is the same as that of pure water,
4.184J K#g.
Record the result in the table.
4. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH used in reactions 1 and 2 where n = m/MW. Record the results in the table.
Heats of Reaction
5. Calculate the number of moles of NaOH used in reaction 3 by multiplying the volume of NaOH times the molarity (1.000 mol/L). Record the results in the table. 6. Calculate the energy released in kJ/mol of NaOH for each reaction and record the results in the table.
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. # Rxn Mass of Rxn Mixture Total Heat Released Heat Released per mol NaOH
DT
mol NaOH
1 2 3
7. Show that the equations for reactions 1 and 3, which are given in the Background section, add to give the equation for reaction 2. Include the energy released per mole of NaOH in each equation.
46
Heats of Reaction Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 19: Heat of Combustion

Purpose
Measure the heat of combustion of sugar.
Background
The heat of combustion is the heat of reaction for the complete burning of one mole of a substance. Calorimetry experiments such as the determination of the heat of combustion ( Hcomb) can be performed at constant volume using a device called a bomb calorimeter. In this assignment you will calculate the heat of combustion of table sugar (sucrose, C12H22O11). The calorimeter must also be calibrated by first combusting benzoic acid.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Heat of Combustion from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Calorimetry laboratory with the bomb calorimeter out, disassembled, and a sample of benzoic acid in the calorimeter cup on the balance. The balance has already been tared.
Calibration of the calorimeter

2. Click on the Lab Book to open it. Highlight and delete any data links left by a previous student. 3. Record the mass of the benzoic acid sample from the balance. If you cannot read it, click on the Balance area to zoom in, record the mass, and return to the laboratory. 4. Double-click in this order to assemble the calorimeter: (1) the cup on the balance pan, (2) the bomb head, (3) the screw cap, and (4) the bomb. Click the calorimeter lid to close. Combustion experiments can take a considerable length of time. Click the clock on the wall labeled Accelerate to accelerate the laboratory time. 5. Click the Bomb control panel and the Plot window to bring them to the front. Click on the Save button to save data to the lab book. Allow the graph to proceed for 2030 seconds to establish a baseline temperature. 6. Click Ignite and observe the graph. When the temperature has leveled off (up to 5 minutes of laboratory time), click Stop. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to view the collected data. Record in the Data Table the temperature before and after ignition of the benzoic acid sample.
Heat of Combustion
Combustion of sugar
7. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Click on the clipboard and select Preset Experiment #13. Return to the laboratory.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Heat of Combustion
47
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
8. Repeat steps 47 for sucrose. Record your observations in the table.

benzoic acid (C7H6O2) sucrose (C12H22O11)
mass of sample (g) initial temperature (C) final temperature (C)
Calibration of calorimeter
1. Calculate T for the water in the benzoic acid combustion by T |Tf Ti|. Calculate the moles of benzoic acid (MW sample/molecular weight 122.13 g/mol). n mass
2. Hcomb for benzoic acid can be calculated by H (Csystem T)/n , where n is the moles of benzoic acid in the sample and Csystem is the heat capacity of the calorimetric system. If the accepted value for the heat of combustion for benzoic acid is 3226 kJ/mol, calculate the heat capacity (Csystem) of the calorimetric system.
Heat of combustion of sucrose

Heat of Combustion
1. Calculate T for the water by T
|Tf Ti|. 342.3 g/mol).
2. Calculate the moles of sucrose in the sample (MWsucrose
3. Hcomb for sucrose can be calculated by Hcomb (Csystem T)>n, where n is the moles of benzoic acid in the sample and Csystem is the heat capacity of the calorimetric system. Using the value you calculated for Csystem, calculate the heat of combustion for sucrose. 4. If the accepted value for the heat of combustion for sugar is 5639 kJ/mol, calculate the percent error. 0 your answer accepted answer 0 %Error 100 accepted answer
48
Heat of Combustion Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 20: Enthalpy and Entropy

Purpose
Observe and measure energy changes during the formation of a solution and to describe and explain those changes in terms of entropy and enthalpy.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Enthalpy and Entropy from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Calorimetry laboratory. 2. There will be a bottle of sodium chloride (NaCl) on the lab bench. A weigh paper will be on the balance with approximately 2 g of NaCl on the paper. 3. The calorimeter will be on the lab bench and filled with 100 mL water. Click the Lab Book to open it. Make certain the stirrer is On (you should be able to see the shaft rotating). In the thermometer window click Save to begin recording data. Allow 2030 seconds to obtain a baseline temperature of the water. 4. Drag the weigh paper with the sample to the calorimeter until it snaps in place and pour the sample in the calorimeter. Observe the change in temperature until it reaches a maximum and then record data for an additional 2030 seconds. Click Stop. Click on the Accelerate button on the clock to accelerate the time in the laboratory.) A blue data link will appear in the Lab book. Click the data link and record the initial and final water temperatures in the Data Table. 5. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Click on the clipboard and select Preset Experiment #7 and repeat the experiment with NaNO3. Record the initial and final temperatures in the Data Table. 6. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. Click on the Stockroom to enter. Click the clipboard and select Preset Experiment #8 and repeat the experiment with NaCH3COO (NaAc). Record the initial and final temperatures in the Table.
Mixture T1 T2 T
NaCl (s) NaNO3 (s)
H2O (l) H2O (l) H2O (l)

Enthalpy and Entropy
NaCH3COO
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Enthalpy and Entropy
49
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
Use your experimental data to answer the following questions in or below your data table. 1. Calculate T for each mixture. T T2 T1
2. An exothermic process gives off heat (warms up). An endothermic process absorbs heat (cools off). Which solutions are endothermic and which are exothermic? What is the sign of the change in enthalpy in each case? 3. Which solution(s) had little or no change in temperature? 4. When sodium chloride dissolves in water, the ions dissociate. NaCl (s) S Na (aq) Cl (aq)
Write ionic equations, similar to the one above, that describe how NaNO3 and NaCH3COO each dissociate as they dissolve in water. Include heat as a reactant or product in each equation. 5. What is the sign of the Gibbs free energy ( G) for each process?
6. Consider the Gibbs-Hemholtz equation, G H T S. For each dissolving process, substitute the sign of G and H into the equation and predict the sign for the entropy ( S). Does the sign for entropy seem logical? Explain
Enthalpy and Entropy
7. If the sign for G is negative (spontaneous process) and the sign for S is positive (more disorder) for both dissolving processes, how could one be endothermic (positive H) and one be exothermic (negative H)? Is there more to consider than just the dissolving process?
50
Enthalpy Arthropods, Mollusks,and Entropy and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 21: Electrolytes

Purpose
Classify compounds as electrolytes by testing their conductivity in aqueous solution.
Electrolytes
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Electrolytes from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titration laboratory. 2. Click inside the Stockroom. Double-click on three reagents to move them to the stockroom counter: NaCl, Na2CO3 (100%), and NaHCO3 (100%). Return To Lab. 3. For each salt, complete the following procedure: double-click the bottle to move it to the spotlight next to the balance. Click the Beakers drawer and place a beaker in the spotlight next to the salt bottle. Click on the Balance area to zoom in and open the bottle by clicking on the lid (Remove Lid). Pick up the Scoop and scoop up some salt by dragging the scoop to the bottle and then down the face of the bottle. Pick up the largest sample possible and place it in the beaker. Zoom Out. Move the beaker to the stir plate. Pick up the 25 mL graduated cylinder near the sink and hold it under the water tap until it fills. Pour the water by dragging the cylinder to the beaker. Turn on the conductivity meter and place the conductivity meter probe into the beaker and record the conductivity in the Data Table. Double-click the salt bottle to place it back on the Stockroom counter. Place the beaker in the red disposal bucket. 4. When you have completed the three reagents, return to the Stockroom. Double-click on each bottle to return it to the shelf. Obtain three more samples (two salts and one solution): KNO3, NH4Cl, NH3. Return to Lab. Use the procedure from #4 for NH4Cl, and KNO3. For the solution complete the following procedure: Place a beaker on the spotlight left of the stir plate. Click on the Pipets drawer and double-click a 25 mL pipet. Pick up the bottle of solution from the Stockroom shelf and pour into the beaker until the beaker is at least one-quarter full. The solution bottle will automatically go back to the Stockroom shelf. Click the pipet bulb (Fill Pipet) to fill the pipet. Place the used beaker in the red disposal bucket. Drag a new beaker to the spotlight under the pipet and click the pipet bulb to Empty Pipet. Drag the beaker to the stir plate. Place the conductivity meter probe into the beaker and record the conductivity in the Data Table. 5. Return to the Stockroom. Double-click each bottle to return them to the Stockroom shelves. Obtain two more samples: HCl and HCN. Measure the conductivity of each solution using the procedure above, and record the conductivity in the Table.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Electrolytes
51
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
NaCl
Na2CO3
NaHCO3
KNO3
NH4Cl
NH3
HCl
HCN
conductivity
Electrolytes
Analyze
1. Electrolytes are compounds that conduct electricity in aqueous solution. Which compounds in your table are electrolytes? Which are not electrolytes?
2. Would any of these electrolytes conduct electricity in the solid form? Explain.
3. Are these ionic or covalent compounds? Classify each compound in the grid as ionic or covalent. For a compound to be an electrolyte, what must happen when it dissolves in water?
4. When an ionic solid dissolves in water, water molecules attract the ions, causing them to dissociate, or come apart. The resulting dissolved ions are electrically charged particles that allow the solution to conduct electricity. The following chemical equations represent this phenomenon. NaCl (s) S Na (aq) Na2CO3 (s) S 2Na (aq) Cl (aq) CO32 (aq)
Write a similar balanced chemical equation for each electrolyte in the data table.
5. After examining the chemical reactions for the electrolytes, why does Na2CO3 have a higher conductivity than all of the other electrolytes?
52
Electrolytes Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 22: Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Solids

Purpose
Observe, identify, and write balanced equations for precipitation reactions.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Solids from the list of assignments. Lab will open in the Inorganic laboratory. 2. React each of the cations (across the top) with each of the anions (down the left) according to the table below using the following procedures:
AgNO3 (Ag ) Pb(NO)3 (Pb2 ) Ca(NO3)2 (Ca2 ) Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Solids
Na2CO3 (CO32 ) Na2S (S2 ) NaOH (OH ) Na2SO4 (SO42 ) NaCl (Cl )
a b c d e
f g h i j
k l m n o
a. Click in the Stockroom. Once inside the stockroom, drag a test tube from the box and place it on the metal test tube stand. Then click on the bottle of Ag metal ion solution on the shelf to add it to the test tube. Click Done to send the test tube back to the lab. Return to Lab. b. Drag the test tube containing the Ag from the blue rack to the metal test tube stand. Click on the Divide button (the large red arrow) four times to make four additional test tubes containing Ag . With one test tube in the metal stand and four others in the blue rack, click on the Na2CO3 bottle on the reagent shelf, observe what happens in the window at the bottom left. Record your observation in the table above. If the solution remains clear, record NR, for no reaction. Drag this test tube to the red disposal bucket on the right. c. Drag a second tube from the blue rack to the metal stand. Add Na2S, record your observations and discard the tube. Continue with the third, fourth and fifth tube, but add NaOH, Na2SO4, and NaCl respectively. Record your observations and discard the tubes. When you are completely finished, click on the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. d. Return to the stockroom and repeat steps a through c for five test tubes of Pb2 and Ca2 .
Precipitation Arthropods, and Echinoderms Mollusks, Reactions: Formation of Solids
53
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
1. Translate the following word equations into balanced chemical equations and explain how the equations represent what happens in grid spaces a and g. a. In grid space a, sodium carbonate reacts with silver nitrate to produce sodium nitrate and solid silver carbonate. b. In grid space g, sodium sulfide reacts with lead (II) nitrate to produce sodium nitrate and solid lead (II) sulfide. 2. Write a word equation to represent what happens in grid space m.
Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Solids
3. What happens in grid space d? What other reactions gave similar results? Is it necessary to write an equation when no reaction occurs? Explain. 4. Write balanced equations for all precipitation reactions you observed.
5. Write balanced net ionic equations for all precipitation reactions you observed.
54
Precipitation Reactions: Formation of Solids Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 23: Identification of Cations in Solution

Purpose
Identify the ions in an unknown solution through the application of chemical tests.
Background
The process of determining the composition of a sample of matter by conducting a chemical test is called qualitative analysis. Solutions of unknown ions can be subjected to chemical tests and the results can be compared to the results given by known ions. By conducting the appropriate tests and applying logic, the identities of the ions present in an unknown solution can be determined. In this experiment, you will observe several types of chemical reactions commonly used as tests in qualitative analysis. These reactions include the color of a flame as the chemical is placed in the flame and the formation of a precipitate (solid).
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Identification of Cations in Solution from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Inorganic laboratory. 2. Enter the stockroom by clicking inside the Stockroom window. Once inside the stockroom, drag a test tube from the box and place it on the metal test tube stand. You can then click on a bottle of metal ion solution on the shelf to add it to the test tube. When you have added one metal ion, click Done to send the test tube back to the lab. Repeat this process with a new metal ion. Continue doing this until you have sent one test tube for each of the following metal ions to the lab: Na , K , and a Na /K mixture. Fill one test tube with just water by clicking on the bottle of distilled water. Now click on the Return to Lab arrow. 3. When you return to the lab you should note that you have four test tubes. Just above the periodic table there is a handle. Click on the handle to pull down the TV monitor. With the monitor down you can drag your cursor over each test tube to identify what metal ion the test tube contains, and you will see a picture of what it looks like in the lower left corner.
Identification of Cations in Solution
Part 1, Flame Tests

1. You will use two of the buttons across the bottom, Flame and Flame w/ Cobalt (blue glass held in front of the flame.) A test tube must be moved from the blue test tube rack to the metal test tube stand in order to perform the flame test. You can drag a test tube from the blue rack to the metal test tube stand to switch places with a test tube in the metal test tube stand.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Identification of Cations in Solution
55
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
2. Flame test sodium ion only. Flame w/ Cobalt test sodium ion only. Record your observations.
3. Flame test potassium ion only. Flame w/ Cobalt test potassium ion only. Record your observations.
4. Flame and Flame w/ Cobalt test a mixture of sodium and potassium. Record your observations.
5. Flame test a blank (distilled water) with and without cobalt glass to get a feel for what it looks like with no chemicals other than water. Record your observations. 6. Return to the Stockroom. On the right end of the supply shelf is a button labeled Unknowns. Click on the Unknowns label to create a test tube with an unknown. Now click on Na and K . On the left side make the minimum 0 and maximum 2. Click the Save button. An unknown test tube titled Practice will show in the blue rack. Drag the practice unknown test tube from the blue rack to place it in the metal stand and click Done to send it to the lab. Return to Lab. 7. Flame test the Practice Unknown and determine if it contains sodium or potassium or both or neither. Click on the Lab Book. On the left page, click the Report button, Submit, then OK. If the ion button is green, you correctly determined whether the ion was present or not. If the ion button is red you did not make the correct analysis. Click the red disposal bucket to clear the lab. If you want to repeat with a new practice unknown, return to the stockroom and retrieve it from the blue rack. When you are confident that you can make a correct determination with sodium and potassium, proceed to Part 2.
Part 2, Insoluble Chlorides

1. Return to the Stockroom. In a new test tube, place three ions: Ag , Hg22 , and Pb2 . (There is Hg2 and Hg22 on the shelf. Make sure you obtain Hg22 .) Return to Lab. As you proceed with the chemical analysis watch the TV screen to see the chemistry involved in the chemical reactions.
56
Identification of Cations in Echinoderms Mollusks, Arthropods, and Solution
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
2. Move the test tube to the metal stand. Click the reagent bottle NaCl to add chloride to the test tube. What observations can you make? Click the Centrifuge button. What observations can you make? Each of the three ions form insoluble precipitates (solids) with chloride. If the solution turns cloudy white it indicates that at least one of the three ions is present. Now, we must determine which one. 3. Turn the heat on with the Heat button. Observe the TV screen. What happened? If you cannot tell, turn the heat on and off while observing the TV screen. With the heat turned on, click Decant. Drag your cursor over the new test tube in the rack. What appears on the TV screen? What appears in the picture window? This is the test for Pb2 . If heated, it is soluble. When cooled it becomes insoluble. 4. Turn off the Heat. Click the NH3 bottle on the reagent shelf. What do you observe?
Addition of ammonia produces a diammine silver complex ion which is soluble. The mercury produces a black solid. This is the test for mercury. 5. Centrifuge and then Decant to pour the silver ion into another test tube. Move the tube with the black mercury solid to the red disposal bucket. Move the tube containing silver back to the metal stand. Click the pH 4 reagent bottle. What do you observe? The silver ion is soluble as the diammine silver complex ion in pH 10 and is insoluble as AgCl in pH 4. You can click alternately on each of the pH bottles to confirm this test for silver ion. 6. Return to the Stockroom and create an unknown with Ag , Hg22 , and Pb2 . Use minimum 0 and maximum 3. Return to the lab and complete the analysis. Report your results in the Lab Book and check to determine if you can correctly identify these three ions. When you are confident that you can correctly identify Ag , Hg22 , and Pb2 proceed to Part 3.
57
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Part 3, Selected Transition Metal Ions

1. Return to the Stockroom. In a new test tube, place three ions: Co2 , Cr3 , and Cu2 . Return to Lab. As you proceed with the chemical analysis watch the TV screen to see the chemistry involved in the chemical reactions. 2. Move the test tube to the metal stand. Click the NaOH bottle on the reagent shelf. What observations can you make?
3. Click Centrifuge and Decant. What observations can you make as you drag your cursor over each test tube?
This is the test for chromium. If the new test tube in the blue rack is green when decanted then chromium is present. You can confirm it by placing the clear green test tube in the metal stand and clicking pH 10 and then adding HNO3. What observations can you make?
4. With the test tube containing the precipitate in the metal stand, add NH3. What observations can you make?
5. Centrifuge and Decant. Add HNO3 to the tube in the metal stand containing the precipitate. What observations can you make?
This is the confirmatory test for cobalt ion (Co2 ). 6. Place the test tube from the blue rack which is the decant from step # 5 in the metal stand. Add HNO3. What observations can you make?
This is the confirmatory test for copper. 7. Return to the Stockroom and create an unknown with Co2 , Cr3 , and Cu2 . Use minimum 0 and maximum 3. Return to the lab and complete the analysis. Report your results in the Lab Book and check to determine if you can correctly identify these three ions.
58
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab24_pp059
8/11/04
12:00 PM
Page 59
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 24: Qualitative Analysis

Purpose
Develop a systematic panel of chemical tests to identify an unknown solution of eight metal cations.
Background
In the Identification of Cations in Solution experiment, you learned how to identify eight metal cations in three groups. In this experiment you will complete a qualitative analysis scheme using the information learned in the previous experiment with an unknown solution containing one to eight of the ions.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Qualitative Analysis from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Inorganic laboratory. 2. Click to enter the Stockroom. Create an unknown with Na , K , Ag , Hg22 , Pb2 , Co2 , Cr3 , and Cu2 . Set minimum 0 and maximum 8. This means that you could have only water or any number of the ions up to all eight. Click Save. Move the Practice Unknown to the metal stand and Return to Lab. 3. Move the test tube to the metal stand and click the Divide button three times. Move the three new test tubes to the right end of the blue rack. These three tubes are duplicates of your unknown. If you make a mistake and need to begin again, you can use one of these. Before you use the last one make additional duplicates. 4. From your experience in the previous lab, you know how to analyze the three different groups: flame tests, insoluble chlorides, and selected transition metals. Now that all three groups are combined you will still analyze the unknown as three separate groups. First, flame test for Na and/or K . Remember, neither may be present and one of the other six ions will have a unique flame test that you have not seen before. Second, test for the insoluble chlorides. If you obtain a precipitate when adding NaCl then Centrifuge and Decant. The decant will contain the third group. Third, complete the analysis on the transition metals. 5. Report your results in the Lab Book and check to see if you correctly identified the presence or absence of each of the eight cations.
Qualitative Analysis
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Qualitative Analysis
59
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 25: Study of Acid-Base Titrations

Purpose
Study of Acid-Base Titrations
Observe the changes that occur during the titration of a strong acid and strong base.
Background
Titrations provide a method of quantitatively measuring the concentration of an unknown solution. In an acid-base titration, this is done by delivering a titrant of known concentration to an analyte of known volume. (The concentration of an unknown titrant can also be determined by titration with an analyte of known concentration and volume.) Titration curves (graphs of volume vs. pH) have characteristic shapes. By comparison, the graph can be used to determine the strength or weakness of an acid or base. The equivalence point of the titration, or the point where the analyte has been completely consumed by the titrant, is identified by the point where the pH changes rapidly over a small volume of titrant delivery. There is a steep incline or decline at this point of the titration curve. In this assignment, you will observe this titration curve by titrating the strong acid HCl with the strong base NaOH.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Study of Acid-Base Titrations from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titration laboratory. 2. Click the Lab Book to open it; if other students have left data links highlight and delete them. 3. The buret will be filled with NaOH. The horizontal position of the orange handle is off for the stopcock. Click the Save button in the Buret Zoom View window. Open the stopcock by pulling down on the orange handle. The vertical position delivers solution the fastest with three intermediate rates in between. Turn the stopcock to one of the fastest positions. Observe the titration curve. When the volume reaches 35 mL, double-click the stopcock to stop the titration. Click Stop in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will be created in the lab book, click on it to view the data.
Analyze
1. The beaker contains 0.3000 M HCl and the buret contains 0.3000 M NaOH. Write a complete balanced equation for the neutralization reaction between HCl and NaOH. The following questions can be answered by examining the Plot and Data Viewer windows.
60
Study of Acid-Base Titrations Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
2. What were the pH and color of the solution at the beginning of the titration?
3. What were the pH and color of the solution at the end of the titration? 4. Examine the graph of the pH vs volume. Sketch the shape of the titration graph of pH vs volume (blue line).
5. What happens to the pH around 25 mL?

6. What caused the change observed in Question 4?
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Study of Acid-Base Titrations
61
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
7. Examine the graph of the conductivity vs volume. Sketch the shape of the titration graph of conductivity vs volume (red line).
8. What happens to the conductivity during the titration?
9. What caused the change observed in Question 8?
Further Investigation
Complete a similar laboratory activity except using a polyprotic acid. Click in the Stockroom. Click on the clipboard and select Polyprotic Acid Strong Base. 1. What observations can you make about the graph of a titration with a polyprotic acid?
62
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab26_pp063-065
8/11/04
11:59 AM
Page 63
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 26: Acid-Base Titrations

Purpose
Standardize a NaOH solution and measure the molarity of an unknown acetic acid solution by titration with standardized NaOH.
Background
Titrations provide a method of quantitatively measuring the concentration of an unknown solution. In an acid-base titration, this is done by delivering a titrant of known concentration to an analyte of known volume. (The concentration of an unknown titrant can also be determined by titration with an analyte of known concentration and volume.) Titration curves (graphs of volume vs. pH) have characteristic shapes. By comparison, the graph can be used to determine the strength or weakness of an acid or base. The equivalence point of the titration, or where the analyte has been completely consumed by the titrant, is identified as the point where the pH changes rapidly over a small volume of titrant delivery. There is a steep incline or decline at this point of the titration curve. In this assignment, you will determine the molarity of an unknown solution of NaOH by using a primary standard, potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP). You will then use a standardized solution of NaOH to determine the molarity of an unknown solution of acetic acid.
Acid-Base Titrations
Procedure
Part 1
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Acid-Base Titrations from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titrations laboratory. 2. Click the Lab Book to open it. Click the Buret Zoom View window to bring it to the front. Click the Beakers drawer and place a beaker in the spotlight next to the balance. Click on the Balance area to zoom in, open the bottle of KHP by clicking on the lid (Remove Lid). Drag the beaker to the balance to place it on the balance pan; tare the balance. Pick up the Scoop and scoop out some KHP; as you drag your cursor and the scoop down the face of the bottle it picks up more. Select the largest sample possible and drag the scoop to the beaker until it snaps in place which will place the KHP in the beaker (about 1 g). Unload the full scoop twice into the beaker so you have around 2.0 g and record the mass of the sample in the Data Table. Place the beaker in the spotlight outside the balance and Zoom Out. 3. Drag the beaker to the sink and hold it under the tap to add a small amount of water. Place it on the stir plate and add the calibrated pH meter probe to the beaker. Add Phenolphthalein for the indicator.
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Acid-Base Titrations
63
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab26_pp063-065
8/11/04
11:59 AM
Page 64
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
4. The buret will be filled with NaOH. Click the Save button in the Buret Zoom View window so the titration data be saved. The horizontal position of the orange handle is off for the stopcock. Open the stopcock by pulling down on the orange handle. The vertical position delivers solution the fastest with three intermediate rates in between. Turn the stopcock to one of the fastest positions. Observe the titration curve. When the blue line begins to turn up, double-click the stopcock to turn it off. Move the stopcock down one position to add volume drop by drop. There are two methods for determining the volume at the equivalence point: (1) Stop the titration when a color change occurs. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Scroll down to the last data entry and record the volume at the equivalence point in Data Table 1; OR (2) Add drops slowly through the equivalence point until the pH reaches approximately 12. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Click Select All button to copy and paste the data to a spreadsheet. Plot the first derivative of pH vs. volume. The peak will indicate the volume of the equivalence point since this is where the pH is changing the most as volume changes. Repeat at least two additional times, and record your data in the table. The molecular weight of KHP is 204.22 g/mol.
Trial mass KHP (g) volume NaOH (mL) molarity NaOH (mol/L) Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
1 2
Analyze
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction of KHP and NaOH. 2. What is the average molarity of the unknown NaOH for your closest three titrations?
64
Acid-Base Titrations Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
4573_PH_CHEM_Lab26_pp063-065
8/11/04
11:59 AM
Page 65
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Part 2 1. Click in the Stockroom. Click on the clipboard and select Weak Acid Strong Base Unknown. The base is 0.3060 M NaOH and the buret has been filled with it. The weak acid is an unknown concentration of acetic acid. 25 mL of acetic acid has been added to the beaker. The indicator is phenolphthalein and has already been added. The pH meter has been turned on and calibrated. 2. Open your lab book and click the Save button on the Buret Zoom View window before starting the titration. Begin the titration by opening the stopcock on the buret. Observe what happens to the pH as the titration proceeds. As the titration nears the end point, decrease the rate of delivery to the slowest rate. Immediately after the color of the indicator changes, stop the titration and read the amount of titrant that has been delivered from the buret by clicking Stop in the Buret Zoom View window. Open the blue data link in the lab book and determine the volume at the equivalence point using one of the methods described in Part 1. Record the volume in the table. 3. Move the used beaker to the disposal bucket and repeat the experiment at least two more times. Fill the buret with NaOH. Place a beaker in the spotlight left of the stir plate and fill the beaker half full with acetic acid (HAc). Open the Pipets drawer and double-click on a 25 mL pipet. Click the pipet bulb (Fill Pipet) to fill the pipet. Move the beaker to the spotlight right of the stir plate and drag a new beaker to the spotlight under the pipet and click the pipet bulb to Empty Pipet. Drag the beaker to the stir plate. Place the pH meter probe in the beaker and add phenolphthalein indicator. Make certain the lab book is open and click Save in the Buret Zoom View.
volume NaOH (mL) molarity NaOH (mol/L) volume HAc (mL) molarity HAc (mol/L)
Trial
1 2
Analyze
1. Write a balanced equation for the reaction between HAc and NaOH. 2. What is the average molarity of the unknown acetic acid solution?
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Acid-Base Titrations
65
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 27: Ionization Constants of Weak Acids

Purpose
Measure ionization constants of weak acids such as bromocresol green (BCG).
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Ionization Constants of Weak Acids from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titration laboratory. 2. Using the bottle of 0.1104 M NaOH, fill the buret. The bottle will snap into position to pour and remain until buret is full. Click the buret to open the buret window. 3. Click the Beakers drawer and place a beaker in the spotlight to the left of the stir plate. Fill the beaker half full with 0.1031 M HAc. Open the Pipets drawer and double-click on a 10 mL pipet. Click the pipet bulb (Fill Pipet) to fill. Move the beaker to the spotlight to the right of the stir plate and place a new beaker under the pipet and click the pipet bulb to Empty Pipet. Move the beaker with 10 mL HAc and place it on the stir plate. Click the Stir Plate Switch to turn it on. Place the calibrated pH meter probe in the beaker. Add Bromocresol Green to the beaker (doubleclick on the bottle labeled Bro G). 4. What are the color and pH of the solution?
Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
5. The horizontal position of the orange handle is off for the stopcock. Open the stopcock by pulling down on the orange handle. The vertical position delivers solution the fastest with three intermediate rates in between off. Turn the stopcock two stops down from the off position. When there is a color change, double-click the stopcock to turn it off. If it is necessary to repeat the experiment, do not forget to refill the buret with NaOH and place the pH meter in the beaker on the stir plate. 6. What are the color and pH of the solution? Continue to add NaOH as before. What is the final color of the solution?
66
Ionization Constants of Weak Acids Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
1. An acid-base indicator is usually a weak acid with a characteristic color. Because bromocresol green is an acid, it is convenient to represent its complex formula as HBCG. HBCG ionizes in water according to the following equation: HBCG H2O S BCG (yellow) (blue) 3BCG 4 3H3O 4 3HBCG4 H3O
The Ka (the equilibrium constant for the acid) expression is Ka
When [BCG ] [HBCG], then Ka [H3O ]. From the pH of the solution the [H3O ] and Ka can be determined. 2. What color is an equal mixture of HBCG and BCG ? What is the pH at the first appearance of this color? 3. What is the Ka for bromocresol green?
Youre the Chemist

Design and carry out an experiment to measure the Ka of bromocresol purple and methyl orange.
Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
67
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 28: Analysis of Baking Soda

Purpose
Determine the mass of sodium hydrogen carbonate in a sample of baking soda using stoichiometry.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Analysis of Baking Soda from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titration laboratory. 2. The beaker has 1.5000 g of the impure solid NaHCO3 and is filled with water to make a volume of 25.00 mL. The indicator methyl orange is in the beaker. The calibrated pH meter is in the beaker, the graph window is open. Click on the Lab Book to open it and delete any previous data saved by another students. Click on the Buret Zoom View window and the pH meter window to bring them to the front. Click the Save button on the graph window before starting the titration. Begin the titration by opening the stopcock on the buret. Observe what happens to the pH as the titration proceeds. It is important that the volume increments and pH measurements near the equivalence point are small enough so the equivalence point can be determined as closely as possible. When the graph starts to curve downward decrease the rate of delivery to the slowest rate. Immediately after the color of the indicator changes, stop the titration by double-clicking the stopcock. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View window. Click the blue data link in the lab book. Scroll down the Data Viewer window to the last volume entry in the left column and record the volume in the Table. There are two methods for determining the volume at the equivalence point: (1) Stop the titration when a color change occurs. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Scroll down to the last data entry and record the volume at the equivalence point in Data Table 1; OR (2) Add drops slowly through the equivalence point until the pH reaches approximately 2. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Click Select All button to copy and paste the data to a spreadsheet. Plot the first derivative of pH vs. volume. The peak will indicate the volume of the equivalence point since this is where the pH is changing the most as volume changes.
mass unknown sample (g) volume HCl (mL) molarity HCl (mol/L)
Analysis of Baking Soda
68
Analysis of Baking Soda Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Analyze
1. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction between NaHCO3 and HCl. 2. Calculate the moles of HCl by multiplying the volume of HCl in liters and the molarity of HCl in mol/L. (Keep four significant digits in all of the calculations.) 3. The moles of HCl can be converted to moles of NaHCO3 using the coefficients from the balanced equation. What is the mole to mole ratio of HCl to NaHCO3? How many moles of NaHCO3 are present in the sample?
4. Calculate the grams of NaHCO3 by multiplying the moles of NaHCO3 by the molecular weight of NaHCO3 (84 g/mol). 5. The percent NaHCO3 present in the sample can be calculated by dividing the mass of NaHCO3 from Question 4 by the mass of the sample from the Table and multiplying by 100. What is the percent NaHCO3?
Analysis of Baking Soda
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Analysis of Baking Soda
69
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 29: Molecular Weight Determination by Acid-Base Titration

Molecular Weight Determination by AcidBase Titration
Purpose
Determine the molecular weight of a solid acid by titration methods.
Background
Titrations provide a method of measuring the concentration of an unknown solution. In an acid-base titration, a titrant of known concentration is added to an analyte of known volume. (The concentration of an unknown titrant can also be determined by titration with an analyte of known concentration and volume.) Titration curves (graphs of volume vs. pH) have characteristic shapes. The graph can be used to determine the strength or weakness of an acid or base. The equivalence point of the titration, where the analyte has been completely consumed by the titrant, is identified as the point where the pH changes rapidly over a small volume of titrant delivery. There is a steep incline or decline in the titration curve at this point of the titration curve. In this assignment, you will determine the molecular weight of an unknown acid powder by weighing the solid to determine the mass and titrating to determine the moles of acid.
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Molecular Weight Determination by AcidBase Titration from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titration laboratory. 2. Click the Lab Book to open it. Click the Buret Zoom View window to bring it to the front. Click the Beakers drawer and move a beaker to the spotlight next to the balance. Click on the Balance area to zoom in, open the bottle by clicking on the lid (Remove Lid). Drag the beaker to the balance to place it on the balance pan; Tare the balance. Pick up the Scoop and scoop out some sample; as you drag your cursor and the scoop down the face of the bottle it picks up more. Select the largest sample possible and drag the scoop to the beaker until it snaps in place which will place the sample in the beaker (about 1 g). Record the mass of the sample in the Table. Place the beaker in the spotlight outside the balance and Zoom Out. 3. Drag the beaker to the sink and hold it under the tap to add a small amount of water. Place it on the stir plate and add the calibrated pH meter probe to the beaker. Add Phenolphthalein for the indicator. 4. The buret will be filled with NaOH. The horizontal position of the orange handle is off for the stopcock. Click the Save button in the Buret Zoom View window. Open the stopcock by pulling down on the orange handle. The vertical position delivers solution the fastest with three intermediate rates in between. Turn the stopcock to one of the fastest
70
Molecular Weight Determination by Acid-Base Titration Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
positions. Observe the titration curve. When the blue line begins to turn up, double-click the stopcock to turn it off. Move the stopcock down one position to add solution drop by drop. There are two methods for determining the volume at the equivalence point: (1) Stop the titration when a color change occurs. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Scroll down to the last data entry and record the volume at the equivalence point in Data Table 1. OR (2) Add drops slowly through the equivalence point until the pH reaches approximately 12. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Click Select All button to copy and paste the data to a spreadsheet. Plot the first derivative of pH vs volume. The peak will indicate the volume of the equivalence point since this is where the pH is changing the most as volume changes. Repeat at least two additional times, and record your data in the table. Do not forget to refill the buret with NaOH and place the pH meter in the beaker and add indicator each time. The concentration of the NaOH is 0.1961 M. The moles of acid are calculated by multiplying the volume of the NaOH (in L) by the molarity of the NaOH. Dividing the mass of the acid sample by the moles will provide the molecular weight in g/mol.
Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. volume NaOH (mL) molarity NaOH (mol/L) (g/mol) molecular weight
Molecular Weight Determination by AcidBase Titration
Trial
mass of acid sample
1 2 3
5. What is the average molecular weight of your three closest answers? 6. Calculate your percent error by the following formula using only the values used in the average if you complete more than three trials: % Error highest answer lowest answer average 100
Molecular Weight Determination by Acid-Base Titration Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
71
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Lab 30: Redox Titrations: Determination of Iron

Purpose
Determine the percent composition of iron in a sample using an oxidationreduction titration with potassium permanganate.
Background
Titrations provide a method of quantitatively measuring the concentration of an unknown solution. In an acid-base titration, this is done by delivering a titrant of known concentration to an analyte of known volume. (The concentration of an unknown titrant can also be determined by titration with an analyte of known concentration and volume.) Reduction-oxidation (redox) titrations can also be used to measure concentrations. In redox titrations, voltages of the mixture of an oxidant and reductant can also be measured as the titration proceeds. All titration curves have characteristic shapes. The equivalence point of the titration, or the point where the analyte has been completely consumed by the titrant, is identified by the point where the voltage changes rapidly over a small volume of titrant delivered. There is a steep incline or decline at this point of the titration curve. In this assignment, you will observe this titration curve by titrating KMnO4 with FeCl2.
Redox Titrations: Determination of Iron
Procedure
1. Start Virtual ChemLab and select Redox Titrations: Determination of Iron from the list of assignments. The lab will open in the Titrations laboratory. 2. Record the FeCl2 Unknown # in the Data Table. Click the Lab Book to open it. Click the Buret Zoom View window to bring it to the front. Click the Beakers drawer and place a beaker in the spotlight next to the balance. Move the FeCl2 bottle to the spotlight next to the balance. Click on the Balance area to zoom in and open the bottle of FeCl2 by clicking on the lid (Remove Lid). Drag the beaker to the balance to place it on the balance pan. Tare the balance. Pick up the Scoop and scoop up some sample by dragging the scoop to the bottle and then down the face of the bottle. Pick up the largest sample possible and place it in the beaker (about 1 g). Continue dragging the scoop to the beaker until it snaps in place which will place the sample in the beaker. Unload the full scoop twice into the beaker so you have around 2.0 g and record the mass of the sample in the Table. Place the beaker in the spotlight outside the balance and Zoom Out. 3. Place the beaker on the stir plate. Drag the 50 mL graduated cylinder under the tap in the sink and fill it with distilled water. Pour the water into the beaker on the stir plate. Place the electrode in the beaker and turn on the volt meter.
72
Redox Titrations: Determination of Iron Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
4. The buret will be filled with KMnO4. The horizontal position of the orange handle is off for the stopcock. Click Save on the Buret window to save the data to the lab book. Open the stopcock by pulling down on the orange handle. The vertical position delivers volume the fastest with three intermediate rates in between. Turn the stopcock to one of the fastest positions. Observe the titration curve. When the blue line begins to turn up, double-click the stopcock to turn it off. Move the stopcock down one position to add volume drop by drop. There are two methods for determining the volume at the equivalence point: (1) Stop the titration when a color change occurs. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Scroll down to the last data entry and record the volume at the equivalence point in the Data Table; OR (2) Add drops slowly through the equivalence point until the voltage reaches approximately 1.50 V. Click the Stop button in the Buret Zoom View. A blue data link will appear in the lab book. Click the blue data link to open the Data View window. Click the Select All button to copy and paste the data to a spreadsheet. Plot the first derivative of voltage vs. volume. The peak will indicate the volume of the equivalence point since it is where the voltage is changing the most as volume changes. 5. Sketch the graph of the titration below. Label the axes.
The reduction potential of Fe2 is 0.732 volts. The reduction potential of MnO4 in acidic solution is 1.507 volts. If you titrate FeCl2 into KMnO4, what happens to the voltage of the solution as the titration starts and proceeds to the end?
Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Redox Titrations: Determination of Iron
73
Name ___________________________
Date ___________________
Class _____________
Repeat the titration at least two additional times recording data in the Table. Do not forget to refill the buret with KMnO4, place the voltage meter in the beaker and add water each time. The molecular weight of FeCl2 is 151.91 g/mol. Unknown # _____
Trial mass FeCl2 (g) volume KMnO4 (mL) molarity KMnO4 (mol/L)
1 2 3
Analyze
1. Write a balanced net ionic equation for the reaction in acidic solution of FeCl2 and KMnO4 (Fe2 becomes Fe3 and MnO4 becomes Mn2 ). 2. The moles of MnO4 can be determined by multiplying the volume of MnO4 required to reach the endpoint multiplied by the molarity of the MnO4 . What are the moles of MnO4 ?
3. The moles of FeCl2 can be calculated by using the mole ratio from the balanced equation. What are the moles of FeCl2? 4. The mass of FeCl2 in the sample can be calculated by multiplying the moles of FeCl2 by the molecular weight of FeCl2. What is the mass of FeCl2 in the sample? 5. The percent iron in the unknown sample can be determined by dividing the mass of FeCl2 in the sample by the total mass of the unknown sample. What is the percent iron in your unknown sample? 6. What is the average percent iron in the unknown sample using your best three answers?
74

VCL Workbook (High School)

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

VCL Workbook (High School)

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page i

PREN TIC E HALL

Virtual ChemLab Record Sheets

Needham, Massachusetts Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page ii

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page iv

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page v

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page vi

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page vii

Installing Virtual ChemLab

Important Installation Notes and Issues

Installing Virtual ChemLab

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page viii

viii Getting Started

4573_PH_CHEM_FM_ppi-iv 8/11/04 11:58 AM Page ix

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab01_pp001-003 8/11/04 12:24 PM Page 1

Lab 1: Flame Tests for Metals

Flame Tests for Metals

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab01_pp001-003 8/11/04 12:24 PM Page 2

Flame Tests for Metals

Flame Tests for Metals

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab01_pp001-003 8/11/04 12:24 PM Page 3

Flame Tests for Metals

Analysis and Conclusions

Flame Tests for Metals

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab02_pp004-005 8/11/04 12:18 PM Page 4

Lab 2: Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab02_pp004-005 8/11/04 12:18 PM Page 5

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab03_pp006-008 8/11/04 12:08 PM Page 6

Lab 3: Counting by Measuring Mass

Part 1, Measuring Metal

Counting by Measuring Mass

Counting Arthropods, and Echinoderms Mollusks, by Measuring Mass

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab03_pp006-008 8/11/04 12:08 PM Page 7

Part 2, Measuring Compounds

Mollusks, Arthropods, and Echinoderms Counting by Measuring Mass

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab03_pp006-008 8/11/04 12:08 PM Page 8

Counting by Measuring Mass

Counting by Measuring Mass

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab04_pp009-010 8/11/04 12:07 PM Page 9

Lab 4: Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab04_pp009-010 8/11/04 12:07 PM Page 10

Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

0 your value accepted value 0 accepted value

Thomson Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab05_pp011-013 8/11/04 12:07 PM Page 11

Lab 5: Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab05_pp011-013 8/11/04 12:07 PM Page 12

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

(3439.0 r 3 , without units)

Millikan Oil Drop Experiment

4573_PH_CHEM_Lab05_pp011-013 8/11/04 12:07 PM Page 13

Terminal Velocity (v t, in m/s)

Radius (r, in meters)

Mass (m, in kg)