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R.SUBBARATNAM RETD., HEAD, QA&NDT SECTION QUALITY ASSURANCE DIVISION ENGINEERING SERVICES GROUP INDIRA GANDHI CENTRE FOR ATOMIC RESEARCH KALPPAKAM Subbu_10@yahoo.com
IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
Pre-Service & In-Service Inspection Unconventional Assembly, Level measurement, Gap measurement Visual Imaging 3 Dimensional information Position, size, orientation Macro, Micro, Nano Levels
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NDE METHODS
VISUAL LEAK TESTING BASIC NDE UE MPE LPE
SURFACE NDE
VOLUMETRIC NDE
RE
EC
3
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VA
UE
TOFD, SAFT
AE
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VISUAL EXAMINATION
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Visual Examination Most common and First method of NDE Easy Quick Low Cost Guide for other NDE methods Reflection of light from the specimen Eye tool for the examination Adequate and proper cleaning and lighting of surface Surface preparation in certain cases required
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EYE
The registering device Variable individual point of view
Variation in eye
Unreliable with different light intensities optical illusion Relative brightness of different light sources can be judged approximately with same order of brightness Large image if the retinal image is large Angle subtended at the eye by the object called the Visual Angle
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VIEWING
Converging lens increases visual angle and increases the size of image Diameter of the pupil is ~2.5 mm for 5500 A wavelength Minimum angular separation of two points resolvable by the eye is about one minute of arc Minimum size of the defect detected depends on
Surface being examined Brightness level Contrast between the area and the background
Brightness falling on the retina is most important than the brightness on the specimen Brightness on the retina is determined by area of pupil Pupil size variable from 1 to 6 mm and hence the area varies by a factor of 36
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SENSITIVITY OF EYE
Sensitivity of human eye varies for different wave lengths With ordinary conditions it is most sensitive to yellow green light with wave length of 5500 A Human eye will provide satisfactory vision over wide range of conditions Eye has excellent visual perception, however adequate lighting is prime importance Time of inspection permitted to work shall be limited to avoid errors due to decrease in visual reliability and discrimination
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LIGHTING
The amount of light reaching shall be sufficient for best definition obtainable with aided or unaided eye Relation between the visual acuity and brightness shall be considered The ratio of least perceptible brightness difference to the brightness at which it is measured is nearly constant over large range of 1 to 100000 candles / m2 [ordinary interior illumination to bright day light] But the visual acuity varies quit sharply over the lower and middle portion of the range visual acuity is considered to be dependant on the threshold response of the cones in the retina. But no data available to give explanation.
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OPTICAL AIDS
Optical aids
Mirror Lens Microscope Periscope Telescope Fiberscope Boroscope
Provide a means of compensating for the limits of visual acuity by enlarging small image in to large Improving viewing conditions for rapid inspection of small precision parts, inaccessible areas and reducing operator fatigue
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MIRROR Simplest way of looking inaccessible area Advantage of a portion of mirror is used and cone of rays is limited by the pupil of eye Other instrument / equipment can also be added with mirror Mirror surface shall be extremely flat Mirror must be kept free from dust Reflecting power of mirror reduces after some period of use Reflecting power of two three mirrors are much less However the reflecting power can be increased by special coating
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BOROSCOPE
Boroscope is the instrument to inspect the inside surface of tube, bore or chamber Precision built optical system with prism and lenses through which light also passes Light source is located in font of object lens provides light in the required area The design of the objective determines the angle of view, size of visual field and amount of light gathered Design of the middle lenses has an important influence on the image obtained. Most middle lenses are achromatic for the purpose of preserving the sharpness of the image and color values Different angle of vision [0, 45, 60, 90]
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FIBERSCOPE
Fiberscope is the instrument used to inspect surface of pipeline. Compared to the Boroscope this is flexible and the image transmission is by optical fibers. Possibility of lighting of the surface of the object Various diameters, operating length and angle of viewing [0, 45, 60, 90], backward and forward throw Limitation guiding to proper location is required
Image acquisition in the digital form possible in both Boroscope and Fiberscope
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SURFACE NDE OPEN TO SURFACE DISCONTINUITIES ONLY PRINCIPLE CAPILARY ACTION SIX METHODS
Two types & Three Techniques
FIVE STAGES HIGH SENSITIVITY WITH POST EMULSIFICATION AND FLUREOSCENT 10 SENSITIVITY WITH FLOURESCENT AND 25 WITH VISIBLE - SOLVENT REMOVAL Temp. 15 to 50 C
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Factors influencing Penetrant infiltration into discontinuities surface tension of the liquid Penetrant discontinuity configuration constant surface coatings and contaminants additives and contaminants in the liquid Penetrant mechanical obstructions temperature of the test object roughness of the interior walls of the discontinuity
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LPE METHODS
VISIBLE OR FLOURSCENT
WATER WASHABLE
POST EMULSIFICATION
SOLVENT REMOVABLE
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LPE - STEPS
Pre-Cleaning Penetrant Appln. Dwell Time (10 min to >1 Hr.) Penetrant Cleaning
Water Washable Post Emulsification Solvent Removable
Developer Appln. (Dry or Wet) Developing time (~5 min) Interpretation Post Cleaning
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LPE STEPS
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LPE INDICATIONS
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LPE INDICATIONS
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SURFACE NDE SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6mm) FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS - LIMITATION PRINCIPLE MAGNETIC FLUX LEAKAGE DUE TO DISCONTINUITY SPECIMEN MAGNETISATION
Permanent Magnet; Magnetic Yoke; Prod; Head Shot (Fixing component in head and tail stocks and passing current); Coil AC or DC
DETECTION
APPLN. OF IRON POWDER (Wet or Dry) Visible and Fluorescent
DISCONTINUITIES NORMAL TO THE MAGNETIC LINES WILL BE DETECTED Temp. Max 300 C
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Types of Magnetisation
Continuous Residual Circular Longitudinal
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Type
Prods (Circular Mag.) Coils (Longitudinal Mag.) Head Shot (Circular Mag.)
Black Light (Fluorescent) Equipments PIE Gauge, KETOs Ring, Shims with Notches for field measurement & Gauge for residual mag. Field measurement
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MPE Principle
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MAGNETISATION METHODS
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MAGNETISATION METHODS
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MPE INDICATIONS
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SURFACE NDE SURFACE AND SUB-SURFACE (Up To 6 mm) CONDUCTIVE MATERIAL LIMITATION PRINCIPLE INDUCTION OF CURRENT (CIRCULAR EDDY) IN THE SPECIMEN AND ANALYSING INTERACTION (Induction, Permeability) PROBE CONFIGURATION
Encircling or Bobbin; Surface; Multiple Frequency Probes
DISCONTINUITIES NORMAL TO EDDY CURRENT DETECTABLE EXAMINATION FAST (Less Time) USED FOR
Material Sorting (Permeability; Electrical Conductivity); Defect Detection; Coating Thk.
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ECT - EQUIPMET
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ECT - INSTRUMENTATION
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COIL APPLICATION
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Probe
Signals produced by various amounts of corrosion thinning.
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RADIOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION
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PRINCIPLES OF RADIOGRAPHY
Differential absorption of short wavelength radiations Difference in density is the effect of variations in thickness of the part, differences in absorption characteristics caused by variations in compositions. Shadow projection, an image, on a detector - varying grey levels Sources - X-rays, gamma rays, neutrons, protons, electrons. X and gamma rays are common sources for industrial radiography Detector radiographic films, image intensifiers or scintillator screens / counters. Double coated, fine grain, high contrast X-ray films used Radiography is the best method for the detection of volumetric defects. It can be applied on a variety of component ranging from miniature integrated circuits to mammoth missile parts and complex assemblies.
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RADIOGRAPHY SET UP
Source
Specimen
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Glass tube heads - earlier, modern X-ray heads - metal ceramic When fast moving electrons impinging on a metal target X-ray is produced . Most of the energy (98%) - as heat, only a fraction is converted into X-rays. Depends on the atomic number of the target material, level of vacuum. X-ray tube target - high atomic number and high melting point - Tungsten
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X RAY EQUIPMENT
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GAMMA RAY
Isotopic sources emitting gamma rays - extensive applications. Main advantage of gamma ray sources
simplicity of apparatus, compactness and portability. does not require cooling and power supply - field applications.
The commonly used gamma sources are Cobalt-60, Iridium192, Cesium 137 and Thulium 170.
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74 Days
33.1 Yrs
1.3
0.55
0.38
0.25
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Radiographic film most widely used as detectors Consists - base, emulsion, binding layer protective layer Polyester is most-commonly used material for film base Emulsion of silver bromide is coated over the base Gelatin acts a binding layer between film base and emulsion. protective layer - hardened gelatin, serves to protect the emulsion from physical damage, abrasion and stress marks. Industrial radiographic films are double coated the emulsion is coated on both sides of the base. increases the film speed.
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RADIOGRAPHIC FILM
Protective Layer 5 Emulsion 10
Base 50
When X or gamma rays strike the grains of the sensitive silver compound in the emulsion, change takes place in the physical structure of the grains. This change is of such a nature that it cannot be detected by ordinary physical methods. When the exposed film is treated with a chemical solution (called developer) a reaction takes place, causing the formation of black metallic silver. This blackening of the film is called as optical density (D) and is given by the relation. D = Log10 (I0/It)
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Characteristic Curve
Different types of radiographic film respond differently to a given amount of exposure. Film manufacturers commonly characterize their film to determine the relationship between the applied exposure and the resulting film density. The plot is called a film characteristic curve, sensitometric curve, density curve, or H and D curve (named for their developers Hurter and Driffield). "Sensitometry" is the science of measuring the response of photographic emulsions to light or radiation. A log scale is used or the values are reported in log units on a linear scale to compress the X-axis. Also, relative exposure values (unitless) are often used. Relative exposure is the ratio of two exposures. The image directly right shows three film characteristic curves with the relative exposure plotted on a log scale, while the image below right shows the log relative exposure plotted on a linear scale. Film characteristic curves can be used to adjust the exposure used to produce a radiograph with a certain density to an exposure that will produce a second radiograph of higher or lower film density. The curves can also be used to relate the exposure produced with one type of film to exposure needed to produce a radiograph of the same density with a second type of film.
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Characteristic Curve
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Intensifying Screens
Screens used to reduce the exposure times and improve the image quality of the radiographs. Two types of radiography screens - metallic and fluorescent screens Both of these differ in Speed, contrast and elimination of scattered radiation. Metal screens - Lead is most widely used Being a metal with high Z, Lead acts to absorb the scattered radiation of lower wavelength. This improves the radiographic contrast. Due to photoelectric interactions of X-rays with lead, photoelectrons are emitted which serve to reduce the exposure time by more than 50%. This is called as intensification action. Intensification action expressed in terms of intensifying Factors (IF) Intensification factor depends on element, thickness, energy of radiation. Apart from lead, copper screens have also used.
Exposure time required producing a film with particular density without screen
IF= ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Exposure time required producing the same density with screen
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RADIOGRAPHIC TECHNIQUES
Quality of radiographs or detection of discontinuity depends on extent of the optical density of the image. Selection of exposure parameters required to produce the required radiographic density to reveal the discontinuity
Exposure Time Exposure Technique Component / Specimen Shape
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Gamma Ray
Calculation Exposure Time (Min) = (FF x (SFD) 2 x 2 (thickness/HVL) x 60) / (S x RHM x (100)2 )
Where FF is the film factor in roentgens, S is the source strength in curies and SFD the source to film distance in cm.
Any Variation
Material Film Source to Film Distance (SFD) IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE Screen
60
100 kV
120 kV 200 kV
mA min
Const.: Material Steel Film Agfa D7 SFD 700 mm Screen Lead Intensifying Developing Std.
Matl Thk.
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SFD
Variation in SFD Varies the beam intensity - I1 / I2= D22/ D12 [Inverse Square Law] TIME & DISTANCE RELATIONSHIP: T2 / T1 = D12 / D22 MILLIAMPERAGE & TIME RELATIONSHIP:M1 / M2 = T2 / T1
Film
Medium film to slow film increases exposure time or vice versa Film manufacturer provides the film speed factors
Ex: D7 to D4 increases the Exp. Time by 3 times
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SWSI
DWDI IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
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Depth of Discontinuity
Stereo Radiography Only illusion Double Exposure Method Generally Followed
Two exposures by shifting the source with half exp. time
a
SFD - d
d b
d = b x SFD/a+b
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Film Processing
Film processing - in five stages @ 18 24 C
Developing Stop bath Fixing Clearing in running water Drying
The developing converts the exposed silver bromide grains / crystals to metallic silver i.e. creation of the visible image 5 Min The second stage stop bath, stops the developing action and removes all the developer 2 Min The fixing process fixes this metallic silver and removes all unexposed silver bromide grains / crystals 10 Min Washing in running water 20 Min The drying dries all the wetness on the film. After drying the film is ready for interpretation. Processing consumes minimum of 30 minutes.
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IQI
10 Fe 16
10
Wire
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Definition Geometry
Screen film Contact Source size Source to specimen distance Object to film distance Source off set Abruptness of thickness Shape and surface condition of the object
Film contrast
Type of film Film processing Variation in film density Intensifying screens
Film graininess
Type of film Chemical processing Scattering of radiation by film grains due to type of screen
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METAL
APPROXIMATE RADIOGRAPH EQUIVALENT FATORS ENERGY LEVEL 100kV 150kV 0.05 0.12 0.14 0.54 1.0 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.4 1.7 2.4 14.0 2.3 14.0 220kV 0.08 0.18 0.18 0.54 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 2.0 12.0 14.0 20.0 12.0 16.0 9.0 12.0 1.7 1.5 1.0 5.0 3.0 4.0 3.9 12.6 3.4 14.0 2.5 1.0 2.7 1.2 4.0 1.0 2.3 1.0 1.4 0.71 1.0 1.4 1.3 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.3 0.35 0.35 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.3 0.35 0.35 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.0 1.0 1.3 250kV 400kV 1MeV 2MeV 4-25 MeV IR192 CO60
Magnesium Aluminum Aluminum Alloy Titanium Iron/all Steels Copper Zinc Brass Inconel X Monel Zirconium Lead Hafnium Uranium
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Effects of Radiation
Exposure to radiations (x, , , ) are hazardous Radiations produce ions and modify the cell Natural mechanism of the body rectifies the damages When this is not successful, irradiation causes the following: Chromosome aberrations Gene mutation Cell death Radiation effects are depends on type of radiation energy of radiation dose & duration of exposure mode (internal or external) region of the body exposed.
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Lack of Penetration
Porosity
Slag inclusion
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ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION
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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
CHARACTERISTICS: ULTRASONIC WAVE Sound waves are vibration of particles of solid, liquid or gas, of Greater Than Audible Freq. - 20 KHz FREQ. Audible Freq. 20 Hz 20 KHz Particle Displacement Three Factors Velocity - V, Frequency - f , Wave Length - V = f ; f = V/ ; = V/f Velocity The speed at which the energy is transported between two points. Frequency (f) Oscillation of the atom in the medium when the wave is traveling. Unit Hz, KHz, MHz. Time period (T) = 1/f Wave Length () The distance traveled by the wave during the time period (T) in the medium.
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Fundamentals of Ultrasonic
One cycle Amplitude Displacement Time / Distance
Time period - T Acoustic Impedance (Z) : The resistance offered to the propagation of ultrasonic wave by the material Z = V Acoustic Pressure (P) : Denotes the amplitude of alternating stresses on material by propagating ultrasonic wave P = Z a Acoustic intensity (I) : Acoustic Energy passing through unit area
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ACOUSTIC PROPERTIES
Material Aluminum Copper Steel Titanium Perspex Oil Water Air Density Kg/m3 2700 8900 7850 4540 1180 870 1000 0.093 Vel Long m/s 6300 4700 5950 6230 2730 1740 1480 330 Vel Shear m/s 3130 2260 3250 3180 1430 ---Z 103 Pa s/m 17 064 41 830 46 629 28 284 3 221 1 514 1 480 31
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Reflec
Reflection R = (Z1-Z2)2 / (Z1+Z2)2 Transmission T = Z1Z2 / (Z1+Z2)2 Angle of Refraction = sin a / sin b = V1 / V2 (Snells Law)
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S L S
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Near Field
Far Field
Near Field Sound Pr. is not uniform D2 / 4 Far Field - Fraunhaufer Zone After Near zone Beam Divergence / Spread Sin = K / D Value K - 1.22 (100%- 40dB); 1.08 (10% - 20dB); 0.55 (50%-6dB) D Dia of probe
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Coupling and Surface roughness External condition of the specimen Absorption and Scattering Internal condition of the specimen Grain structure and Grain size
Fine grain Absorption Coarse grain - Scattering
P=P0e -d Since the sound Pr. Is proportional to echo ht. Attn. Coeff. = 20/d log (H0/H) dB/m; dB = 20 log (H1 / H2)
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Effect of Frequency( )
Decreases (1.2 / D = 1.2 V / f D) Increases ( s = / 2 = V/ 2 f) Increases (NZ = D2 / 4 = D2 f / 4 V ) Increases
Sensitivity
Near Zone
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Generation of Ultrasound
Magnetostriction Ferromagnetic materials like Fe, Ni, Co shows that the length (size) can be varied by application of magnetic field. If alternating mag. field applied this will vibrate. Hence, the production of ultrasound in the contact specimen Piezoelectric Effect A piezoelectric material will develop an electrical potential when subjected to mech. Pr.. Two types of piezoelectric transducers
Single crystal Natural / Artificial Quartz, Lithium Sulphate Polycrystalline materials Polarised Ceramic Materials - Barium Titanate, Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), Lead Metabionate.
These are made by heating them to their curie point and cooling them under the influence of voltage.
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Lithium Sulphate
Most efficient receiver, Does not age, Very little mode conversion, Low acoustic impedance Efficient Generators, Operate in low voltage, Some can be used for high tem. Appln. (lead metabionate)
Very Fragile, Soluble in water, Limited to use with temp. can be used below 75 C
Polarised Ceramics
Piezoelectric property reduces with aging, Low resistance to wear, suffer from mode conversion.
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Construction of Transducers
The Transducers are of two types
Longitudinal / Compression mode Shear / Transverse mode
Generally the compression mode is used for the construction of shear transducers.
Acoustic Barrier Backing Crystal Wear Plate S L Delay Block Long. TR Probe Focused Probe
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Long. Probe
Shear Probe
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Couplant
Air is having low acoustic impedance compared to the probe and the specimen. Hence the beam is reflected at the probe specimen interface. A medium with the acoustic impedance between the specimen and probe has to be used Commonly used Couplant Water, Oils, Glycerin, Petroleum Grease, Silicon Grease Selection of Couplant based on Surface finish, Specimen Temperature, Chemical reaction with the specimen, Post Cleaning Transfer correction (External condn. Of specn.)
Loss due to surface roughness, Couplant thickness Amt. of gain difference between the specimen and reference, in dB to be added during scanning
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EQUIPMENT
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
Pulse Generator Pulse Receiver Signal Processing & Control Circuitry Display System (CRT)
a b c
CRT
a c b
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Presentation
Three Presentation Available
A Scan Amplitude vs. Time/Distance B / D Scan Side View C Scan Plan View C
Specimen & Transducer
D B D C
Width
C SCAN
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TESTING TECHNIQUES
Resonance Exist when the thickness of a material equals to half the wavelength or multiples of sound f = V / 2 t Through transmission Two probes transmitter and receiver on either side of the specimen Defect position will not be given.
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Immersion
1.
Easy Scanning Suitable for site condition Defect position identification easy
2.
3.
Use of high freq. Increases sensitivity. Easy manipulation of required angle & odd shape jobs. Automation possible.
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Volumetric
Inclusion Gas, Slag
Ultrasonic Examination is ideal for detection of Planar discontinuities Discontinuities parallel to scanning surface Longitudinal Beam Discontinuities in oblique / angle Angle Beam
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Reference Blocks
Three types of references used
Flat Bottom Hole (Normal beam / Long.) Side Drilled Hole (Angle Beam / Shear) Notches (Shear / Angle beam)
A B C A C A C
Reference blocks shall be acoustically similar and should have same shape, thickness. IGCAR/QAD/QA&NDTS/NDE
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Flaw Sizing
Flaw Location Flaw Length
S t P d
Probe Travel
Length
d t
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Ultrasonic Examination
Casting Restricted / Difficult due to Coarse grain Forging Widely used as the fine grain exists Long. & Angle beam used Semi finished products Billets, Rods Rolled Products
Plates both contact & immersion - Long. & Angle , Pipes & Tubes Immersion - Long. & Angle
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PLATE
Scanning on any major surface of plate After heat treatment Longitudinal / Straight & / or Shear / Transverse Beam
According to the stage & defects expected
Acceptance
Long. Shear Sizing Total loss of back reflection -<5% - Area Equal to or greater than reference (DAC) 6 / 20 dB method
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TUBES & PIPES Scanning on OD Shear / Transverse beam Scanning in axial and circumferential directions
OD Notches Thk.
Calibration Reference
3% 10% Notch on ID & OD Both in Axial and Circumferential
ID Notches
Acceptance Indication less than reference (DAC) Generally automatic scanning using immersion
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FORGING
DISC Forging
Straight beam Axial - Flat face & Radial Thk.
CLYLINDRICAL Forging
Straight beam Axial & Radial
HOLLOW Forging
Straight beam and Angle Beam Axial and Radial from OD OD / ID Ratio < 2
Calibration Reference
St. Beam FBH / Back Reflection Angle Beam 3 / 5 / 10% Notches on OD and ID
T
CASTING
Low Frequency 0.5 2 MHz Reference blocks with FBH Surface condition - Rough
To be machined to accommodate scanning Amplitude correction
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WELDS
Parent metal Weld Joint configuration Welding Process Weld Discontinuities Code, Specification & Procedure Equipment, Transducer & Calibration Examination method / Technique Reference Scanning sequence Signal Evaluation & Reporting
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UE OF WELD GEOMETRIES/CONFIGURATION
Lap Fillet Corner Groove Butt Sq. Butt Single Double Discontinuities Lack of penetration & Lack of fusion
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UE OF WELD - WELDING
Welding Joining of metal by fusion, Appln. of heat, Pr. Welding Process
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) Submerged arc welding (SAW) Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) Electron beam welding (EB welding) Laser, Electron Beam, Electro Slag, Explosive welding etc.
Discontinuities
Crack Slag (SMAW, SAW) Tungsten inclusion (GTAW) Porosity (GMAW) Debonding (Explosive)
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UE OF WELD - DISCONTINUITIES
Type
Planar - Crack, LP, LF, Under Cut, Debonding Volumetric - Slag, Porosity, T/I
Origin
Process parameters Current, Speed, Heat input, Heat treatment Joint configuration Welder performance Manipulation, weaving
Orientation
Joint configuration Weld configuration ( Passes / layers)
Inductance / Occurrence
Fabrication / Manufacturing All In-service Planar Crack
Location
Anywhere in the weld, HAZ, Parent metal
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UE OF WELD - EXMINATION
Examination technique Contact, Immersion, Intensity Equipment Transducer
Single, TR, Pitch catch Frequency Sensitivity
Long. Normal Shear Angle Long Angle Lamination in PM, Weld discontinuity Part thk., Weld Geometry, Defect type, Matl. Type Coarse grain structure
UE OF WELD - EXAMINATION
Scanning
Manual, Auto Accessibility Area, Coverage Direction Movement Overlap Speed Scanning sensitivity
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Evaluation
Signal crossing 20% DAC Investigate Acceptance as per referring code
Cladding / Overlay
PE Tech., Single / Duel Crystal, Calibration
Reference hole at interface and FBH up to interface in PM & Overlay
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Discontinuity Representation
Volumetric Porosity
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Other Techniques
Tandem Technique Pitch Catch
Time-of-flight Diffraction Technique (TOFD) Synthetic Aperture Focusing Technique (SAFT) Projection Scan ( P-Scan) Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT) Technique
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Specimen shape odd & irregular shape difficult to examine Specimen Metallurgy coarse grain difficult to examine Data & Signal Acquisition may not be possible in the conventional analog / digital equipments Technical knowledge is required for interpretation
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10
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LEAK TESTING
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INTRODUCTION
NEED FOR LEAK TESTING TO PREVENT MATERIAL LEAKAGE LOSS WHICH INTERFERES WITH SYSTEM OPERATION TO PREVENT HAZARDS ENVIORNMENT CONTAMINATION
TO DETECT UNRILIABLE COMPONENTS WHOSE LEAKAGE EXCEED THE ACCEPTABLE LIMIT TO ENSURE RELIABILITY AND SERVICEBILITY AND TO PREVENT PREMATURE FAILURE OF SYSTEMS UNDER PRESSURE OR VACUUM
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LEAK TESTING
LEAK TESTING
FORM OF NDE
DETECTION & LOCATION OF LEAK MEASUREMENT OF FLUID LEAKAGE IN EITHER PRESSURISED OR EVACUATAED COMP. / SYS.
LEAK
EXISTANCE OF PHYSICAL OPENING MAY BE CRACK, CREVICES, HOLE, FISSURES OR PASSAGE WHICH ADMITS FLUIDS ESCAPE
LEAKAGE ?
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Pr.
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Mass Loss (Pr. Change) Ultrasonic Chemical Penetrants Bubble Thermal Conductivity Halogen
Generally limited to sizable leaks. Gives good overall quantitative measure. No inf. On leak location & time consuming Leak location only. Fast. No clean up. Can detect from distance. Useful for large leaks Simple to use. Location only. May plug small leaks. Requires cleaning. Leak location. Fluids may plug small leaks. Requires cleaning Simple, compact, portable, inexpensive, sensitive to a number of different gasses, operates in air Operates in Air. Sensitive with SF6 (-12). Portable, requires cleaning, losses with use, sensitive to ambient, halide gasses Most sensitive for vacuum testing. Expensive. Relatively complex. Not portable as that of Halogen Detectors. Much less sensitive when used with pressure testing.
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0.05 10 -4 10 -5 10 -6 10 -10
Mass Spectrometer
10 -12
TECHNIQUES
PRESSURISED SYSTEM EVACUATED SYSTEM FLOW MEASUREMENT METHOD
ADVANTAGES
NO SPL. TACER REQUIRED PR. / VAC. GAUGES ALREADY INSTALLED CAN BE USED
LIMITATIONS
LONGER TIME REQD. NO PRECISE LEAK LOCATION
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GAUGE PRESSURE
PRESSURE ABOVE ATM. PRESSURE UNITS k.Pa (GAUGE)
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
PR. ABOVE ABS. ZERO VALUE CORRESPONDING TO EMPTY SPACE EQUAL TO SUM OF LOCAL ATM. PR. & GAUGE PR. UNIT k.Pa.
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TEMP. CORRECTION
dP/dT= [(P1+101) (T1+273) / T2 + 273)] / dT (SI Units kPa, C) dP / dT = [P1 P2 (T1 / T2)] / dT (For all abs. units)
TYPES
PR. CHANGE TESTS FOR PRESSURISED SYSTEM PR. CHANGE TESTS FOR EVACUATED SYSTEM
VAC. UNITS: 1 TORR = 133 Pa; 760 TORR = 101.325 k.Pa OUTGASSING PUMPDOWN TIME T = 2.3 V /S {T in Sec, v- Vol in Cu.m, S Pumping Speed in Cu.m/Sec} LEAKAGE RATE Q = (P2 P1) V / t (SI Units)
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TRACER GASES
AIR, AMMONIA, NITROGEN HELIUM MOST SUITABLE FOR LOW LEAKAGES LIQUID FILM APPLN.
SOAP SOL: 1 PART LIQ DETERGENT + 1 PART GLYCERINE + 4.5 PARTS WATER ALCOHOL + ETHYLENE ADDED FOR ANTI FREEZE
SENSITIVITY
10 -3 Std. CC / Sec SHOP / FIELD CONDN. 10 -5 Std. CC / Sec LAB CONDN.
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GAS PROPERTIES
Properties Chemical Formula Molecular Wt Leakage rate relative ti Air Boiling Pt at atm pr. C Boiling Pt at atm pr. F Liquid density at boiling pt. kg/m3 Liquid density at boiling pt.lb/ft3 Liquid density at 21 C kg/m3 Liquid density at 70F lb/ft3 Vapour pr. Above refrigerant at 21 C kPa gauge R 12 CCl2F2 120.9 1.5 -29.8 -21.6 1486 92.8 1413 82.6 483 R 22 CHClF2 86.4 1.5 -40.8 -41.4 1413 88.2 1209 75.5 842
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TYPES OF DETECTORS HALIDE TORCH HEATED ANODE HALOGEN DETECTOR ELECTRON CAPTURE DETECTOR HALIDE TORCH DETECTOR
NORMAL FLAME PALE BLUE WITH AIR ALONE GREEN WITH PRESENCE OF HALIDE SENSITIVITY 10 -4 Std. CC / Sec. FOR LOCATION OF LEAKS ON PRESSURISED SYSTEM SCAN ALWAYS FROM TOP
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TYPES OF DETECTORS
RED HOT PLATINUM, AND CERAMIC HEATER ELEMENTS ASSY EMITS +VE IONS CYLINDRICAL CATHODS COLLECTD IONS HALOGEN VAPOURS INCREASES EMMISSION ALSO INCREASES THEREBY INDICATION OF LEAK REFREGENT GASES Cl, Fl ETC. SENSITIVITY 10 -9 Std. CC / Sec.
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APPLIED STRESS
Factor of safety Even with large factor of safety Failures and accidentsMaterial behave differently in presence of defects
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NDT & Fracture Mechanics Fracture mechanics approach damage tolerance approach (propagates the idea of live with discontinuities) A material property, fracture toughness (KIc) is defined and this characterizes the material behaviour in presence of discontinuities which the earlier strength of materials design approach has not taken into account. KIc can be experimentally determined The stress intensity factor (KI) the stress distribution around a discontinuity is given by KI = G a where G is geometric constant, is the working stress and a is flaw size Failure criteria : KI = or > KIc
To determine KI,, flaw size information needed and is provided by NDT Life extension and life prediction methods flaw size
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APPLIED STRESS
APPLIED STRESS
FLAW SIZE
FRACTURE TOUGHNESS
(b) The Fracture Mechanics approach Comparison of classical design philosophy with fracture mechanics approach
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NDE
NDE is used to inspect pipelines to prevent leaks that could damage the environment. Visual inspection, radiography and electromagnetic testing are some of the NDE methods used.
Magnetic flux leakage inspection. This device, known as a pig, is placed in the pipeline and collects data on the condition of the pipe as it is pushed along by whatever is being transported.
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