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1. Phonetics and phonology (subdivision; langue x parole; phoneme, allophone, sound; RP; accent x dialect); differences between RP and General American in terms of pronunciation.
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds, and their physiological production, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Its Articulatory, acoustic and auditory. Phonology is the systematic use of sound to encode meaning in any spoken human language, or the field of linguistics studying this use. Just as a language has syntax and vocabulary, it also has phonology in the sense of a sound system. Whereas phonetics is about the physical production, acoustic transmission and perception of the sounds of speech, phonology describes the way sounds function within a given language or across languages to encode meaning. Langue abstract system of rules, language as a social phenomenon, every native speaker has in their heads; it describes how you should use the language correctly; prescriptive Parole concrete manifestation, individual phenomenon, describes how we use the language; descriptive Phoneme smallest meaning-distinguishing linguistic unit with contrastive property Allophone phonetic variant of phoneme; its realization Sound acoustic branch of phonetics sound waves, how it travels in space, how it is produced; In English sound doesnt match with written letters (in Czech does) RP Received Pronunciation accent of standard British English, called also BBC English accent a form of pronunciation dialect a form of vocabulary and grammar as well as pronunciation While there is not any single formal definition of General American, various features are considered to be part of it, including rhotic pronunciation, which maintains the coda [] in words like pearl, car, and court. Unlike RP, General American is characterized by the merger of the vowels of words like father and bother, flapping, and the reduction of vowel contrasts before []. General American also generally has yod-dropping after alveolar consonants. Other phonemic mergers, including the cot-caught merger, the pin-pen merger, the Mary-marry-merry merger and the wine-whine merger, may be found optionally at least in informal and semiformal varieties.

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2. Relationship between speech and writing; speech organs; phonation; transcription.

speech temporary we can and probably will forget writing retrievable (we can read it again and again) - in English sound doesnt match with written letters (in Czech does) Speech organs produce the many sounds needed for language. Organs used include the lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge (dse), hard palate (tvrd horn patro), velum (soft palate mkk horn patro), uvula (pek) and glottis (vocal folds and space between hlasivky). Phonation (voicing) the process in which the vocal folds produce certain sounds through quasiperiodic vibration Transcription - typewritten or printed form, of a spoken-language source; the process of matching the sounds of human speech to special written symbols, using a set of exact rules, so that these sounds can be reproduced later. The visual system of symbolization of the sounds occurring in spoken human language. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet (such as the International Phonetic Alphabet).

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3. English pure vowels (colour, length, cardinal vowels); diphthongs and triphthongs.
cardinal vowels key tongue positions (close front tongue far in front and up, open back tongue far back and down i close front e close-mid front - open-mid front a open front u - close back o close-mid back - open-mid back - open back front vowels are called bright, back vowel are called dark vowel colour the position of soft palate nasalized x oral vowels rounded lips -> rounded vowel monophthongs (pure vowels) single vowel sound with relatively fixed beginning and the end; does not glide up or down - short, close front - short, close-mid central/back e short, close-mid front - short, central short, open front - short, open-mid central - short, open-mid(close to open open) back i: - long u: - long : - long : - long : - long dipththongs two sound vowels; change quality during pronunciation glide up or down closing: e, a, , , a centring: , e, thripththongs three sound vowel monosyllabic vowel; may change the quality twice closing dipththongs + centring schwa e, a, , , a

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4. English consonants generally (voicing, place and manner of articulation, fortis/lenis).

manner place bilabial labiodentals dental alveolar post-alveolar palate-alveolar palatal velar glottal k, g h plosive p, b f, v t, d t, d , s, z , j w n l r affricate fricative nasal m approx. (w)

consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. places of articulation where obstruction occurs - bilabial between the lips - labiodentals between the upper teeth and lower lip - dental - between the front of the tongue and the top teeth - alveolar - between the front of the tongue and the ridge behind the gums (the alveolus) - post-alveolar - between the front of the tongue and the space behind the alveolar ridge - palate-alveolar between the middle of the tongue and the space behind the alveolar ridge - palatal - between the middle of the tongue and the hard palate - velar - between the back of the tongue and the soft palate (the velum) - glottal - at the glottis manner of articulation describes how speech organs are involved in making the sound - plosive closing compression release - fricative continuous frication at the place of articulation - affricate begins like a plosive, but releaseses as fricative - nasal complete blockage of the oral cavity - approximant very little obstruction - lateral pronounced along sides of the tongue consonants sorted by produced force: fortis: t, k, p, f, , s, , t (- voiceless) lenis: d, g, b, v, , z, , d; r, j, w (- voiced) voiceless consonant when larynx does not vibrate; voicing change from voiceless to voiced voiceless: p, t, k, f, s, , ; h t - aspirated voiced: b, d, g, v, z, , ; r, j, w, n d - partially voiced h voiceless glottal fricative; takes on the quality of the following vowel sonorants (nasals, lateral, approximants) x obstruents (plosives, fricatives, affricatives)

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5. English plosives (aspiration; inaudible, nasal, lateral release).

manner place bilabial labiodentals dental alveolar post-alveolar palate-alveolar palatal velar glottal

plosive p, b

affricate

fricative f, v

nasal m

approx. (w)

t, d t, d k, g

, s, z ,

l r j

Manner of articulation has 3 stages closing, compression and release Place of articulation - bilabial between the lips - alveolar - between the front of the tongue and the ridge behind the gums (the alveolus) - velar - between the back of the tongue and the soft palate (the velum) fortis p, t, k lenis b, d, g b, d, g (lenis) is usually voiced, but initial and final plosive is usually devoiced (like g in fog). Aspiration - strong burst of air that accompanies the release after initial fortis. - pill [pl] - time [tam] - cat [kt] Inaudible release (aka Incomplete) the release stage is moved to the second consonant that table [tteb] or doctor [dkt] Nasal release the velum is lowered and air escapes through the nose during the release wooden, sudden [...dn] or that night [t nat] Lateral release before lateral consonant l; the air flows along the sides of the tongue puddle [pd'] or that light [t' lat] Glottal stop a closure of vocal folds between two consonants koku x k oku; suchem x s uchem

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6. English fricatives and affricates.

manner place bilabial labiodentals dental alveolar post-alveolar palate-alveolar palatal velar glottal k, g h plosive p, b f, v t, d t, d , s, z , j w n l r nasal m approx. (w)

affricate

fricative

Fricatives are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. fricative continuous frication at the place of articulation affricate begins like a plosive, but releaseses as fricative places of articulation where obstruction occurs - labiodentals between the upper teeth and lower lip - dental - between the front of the tongue and the top teeth - alveolar - between the front of the tongue and the ridge behind the gums (the alveolus) - palate-alveolar between the middle of the tongue and the space behind the alveolar ridge - glottal - at the glottis fricatives and africates sorted by produced force: fortis: f, , s, , t (- voiceless) lenis: v, , z, , d (- voiced) voiceless consonant when larynx does not vibrate voiceless: f, s, , ; h t - aspirated voiced: v, z, , ; r, j, w, n d - partially voiced h voiceless glottal fricative; takes on the quality of the following vowel A sibilant is a type of fricative or affricate consonant, made by directing a jet of air through a narrow channel in the vocal tract towards the sharp edge of the teeth. They are stronger/lauder than other fricatives. Sibilants: s, z, , , t, d S and H are often silent: island, debris; hour, honour Continuants - a sound produced with an incomplete closure of the vocal tract (all vowels and fricatives ARE continuants. Joint articulation of homorganic fricatives: this similarity, of fine

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7. English nasals, lateral and approximants.

manner place bilabial labiodentals dental alveolar post-alveolar palate-alveolar palatal velar glottal k, g h plosive p, b f, v t, d t, d , s, z , j w n l r affricate fricative nasal m approx. (w)

complete closure in the mouth, lowered soft palate all the air flows through the nose places of articulation where obstruction occurs - bilabial between the lips - alveolar - between the front of the tongue and the ridge behind the gums (the alveolus) - post-alveolar - between the front of the tongue and the space behind the alveolar ridge - palatal - between the middle of the tongue and the hard palate - velar - between the back of the tongue and the soft palate (the velum) syllabic n instead of [n] devoiced /m, n/ when a voiceless consonant precedes: smart, snake silent /m, n/ - mnemonic, autumn alveolar lateral approximant L - clear/bright before vowels (lady, fly) - dark before consonants or at the words end (bold, tell) a spoon-like shape of a tongue - devoiced after /p, t/ at the beginning of stressed syllable: play, climb /s, f/ in the initial position: slide, flow - syllabic: middle, bottle, castle - silent in: calf half, talk, walk, calm, palm, folk, Holmes, should, would, could, colonel R post-alveolar approximant, lenis pronounced everywhere in rhotic languages (GA, Canadian, Scottish), in non-rhotic accents (GP, Australian, NZ..) only before vowels - linking: silent /r/ is pronounced far away, here and there - intrusive: after /, :, :/ - vanilla ice, law and order - devoiced: after /p, t, k, f/ at the beginning of the stressed syllable press, cream, fry J, W semi-vowels, lenis (voiced)

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8. Allophonic variations; teaching pronunciation (Voln ch. 6)

An allophone is a variant of a phoneme determined by its position in a string of segments. When babies learn to use language, they must learn not to hear allophonic variations labialized consonants /k/ in quite is realized as [kw] lip rounding starts early /k/ becomes labialized /s/ in soup [su:p] may become [sw] depends on the speaker in most cases, consonant followed by /w/ will be labialized consonant followed by /:/, /u:/, // or // may be also labialized [jwu:sfl twu:l] vowel duration vowels are shorter before fortis consonants and longer before lenis consonants write [rat] is much shorter than ride [rad] same phoneme /a/ the short phoneme may be symbolized with / / - [mt] x [med] shortened long vowels (omg) are marked with one dot /a/ instead of /a:/ aspiration the most noticeable allophonic variation strong burst of air that accompanies the release after initial fortis. - pill [pl] - time [tam] - cat [kt] (partial) devoicing based on alignment between oral gestures and the voice onset - mainly in lenis obstruents plosives / b, d, g /, fricatives / v, , z, / and affricate / d / - approximants / l, r, j / may lose their voicing after / p, t, k / and nasals /m, n/ after /s/ - at the beginning or the end of the word - they get devoiced, but keep their lenis character, marked by / / under devoiced cons. - day [de], try [tra], smell [smell], play [pl e] clear and dark /l/ - lateral alveolar approximant - clear/bright / l / before vowels (lady, fly) - dark/velarized / / elsewhere - before cons. or at the words end (bold, tell) a spoon-like shape of a tongue most people notice dark / / only when its missing in a foreigners accent nasalization if syllable has a nasal coda, the vowel forming the peak is nasalized dim [ dm ], pen [ pn ], hang [ h ], ten [ ten ] x net [ net ] - the velum makes anticipatory gesture before the oral articulation of the nasal consonant starts

http://hlavsa.net/pages/school.php Stop releases Inaudible release (aka Incomplete) the release stage is moved to the second consonant that table [tteb] or doctor [dkt] Canonical release nasal and lateral Nasal release the velum is lowered and air escapes through the nose during the release wooden, sudden [...dn] or that night [t nat] Lateral release before lateral consonant l; the air flows along the sides of the tongue puddle [pd'] or that light [t' lat] Glottal stop a closure of vocal folds between two consonants koku x k oku; suchem x s uchem Dental alveolars dental place of articulation of alveolars without changing a phoneme - symbol / / - you simply touch the upper teeth instead of alveola with your tongue - in that case [ n t kes ] Fronted velars when velar plosive is followed by / i:, j / or sometimes even / , /, it becomes fronted place of articulation moves forward, to the palate - symbol / + / - your tongue moves forward - keen [ ki:n ], Dracula [drkjl]

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9. Connected speech: assimilation, assibilation, elision.

Assimilation often in rapid colloquial speech - of place (regressive) o /t, d, n/ before /p, b, m/ bilabial fat boy [ft b] [fp b] red ball [red b:l] [reb b:l] o /t, d, n/ before /k, g/ velar that cat [t kt] [k kt] good girl [gd g:l] [gg g:l] o /s, z/ before /, , j/ palatoalveolar this shop [s p] [ p] this year [s j] [ j] - of manner most rapid colloquial speech o regressive: good night [gdnat] [gn nat] o progressive: in the [n] [n n] - of voice o progressive: grammatical endings likes [laks], loves [lvz], lies [laz] o regressive: across word boundaries only voicelessness is passed; restricted to weak forms and certain stabilised words of course [v k:s] [f k:s] have to [hv t] [hf t] voicing is never passed across the word boundary back door [bk] x never [bg] nice dress [nas] x never [naz] leave never with [f] Assibilation (aka. coalescent assimilation) - /t, d, s, z/ + /j/ /t, d, , / dont you [dnt j] [dnt] would you [wd j] [wd] as you wish [z j w] [ w] Elision Omission of one or more sounds in a word or phrase which make the result easier to pronounce. - /t, d/ within a consonant cluster next day - /t/ elided between /ks/ and /d/ reached Paris, stopped for lunch /t/ elided - simplifying complex consonant clusters she acts like [kts] [ks] texts [teksts] [teks] - omission of // in unstressed syllables forever, tonight, interesting/vegetables (reducing syllables),

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10. Connected speech: linking; the most common pronunciation problems of Czech speakers of English.
We are used to see spaces between words, but there are no spaces at all between words in real speech. The units separated in speech are called stress-groups or feet from one stressed syllable to another, excluding it. That is what the transcription without word boundaries is about. Linking Glottal stop a closure of vocal folds between two consonants. Symbol [?]. Czech speakers lack linking and overuse the glottal stop. consonant-to-vowel pseudo-resyllabification oneevening, I hatedit, he tookalot of.., Imanaccountant in fast speech [bk.s.zf.pl.z:.l.v..ples] vowel-to-vowel linking linking /r/: silent /r/ is pronounced before vowels far away, here and there intrusive /r/: between two vowels with no written /r/, after /, :, :/; used to avoid glottal stop o vanilla ice, law and order transient (linking, intrusive) /j/: when word ends with /i:, / or a diphthong with //, speakers often introduce /j/ to ease the transition to the following vowel sound o I agree [a(j)gri:], I am [a(j)m] transient (linking, intrusive) /w/ when word ends with /u:/ or dipththong with //, speakers often introduce /w/ to ease the transition to the following vowel sound o go on [gwn], you out [ju:wat], who is [hu:wz]

Common pronunciation mistakes of Czech speakers vowels - length only 2 length degrees in Czech - colour no distinction preserved between - i:; e - ; - :; - :; - u: - insufficient reduction of vowels in unstressed syllables, replaced by e consonants - lenis consonants in final position often neutralized with fortis counterparts - wrong assimilation of voicing: begboun, diz van (this one ) - no devoicing of /r, l, j, w/ after fortis consonants in the onsets of stressed syllables o Cry > krj - /g/ in words like finger, longer, strongest - aspiration not used or wrongly produced; ch sound pill = pchil - /, / replaced with d, t, dz - plosives released before another plosives.. instead of inaudible release - overuse of glottal stops - fully voiced /h/ in initial positions.. hjmen Rhythm - English has stress timed rhythm, Czech has syllable timed same length of syllables Flat pitch range in intonation, tonis tress not prominent enough

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11. Syllable; phonotactics; weak and strong syllables; syllabic consonants.

Syllable unit at higher level than phoneme, yet, distinguished from that of the word or morpheme; its universal exists in all languages. Phonotactics - a branch of phonology that deals with restrictions in a language on the permissible combinations of phonemes. Phonotactics defines permissible syllable structure, consonant clusters, and vowel sequences. phonetical point of view onset before peak consonants; cannot be // peak little or no obstruction, louder; vowel coda after peak consonants; cannot be /w, h, j/ maximum is ccc|v|cccc; eg. texts maximum coda o peak + coda = rhyme o 2 and more consonants = cluster onset clusters - all 3 cons. starts with /s/; sp + /l, r, j/ st + /r, j/ sk + /l, r, j, w/

maximum phonological structure of syllable: ccc|v|cccc - onset (pre-initial, initial, postinitial); peak; coda (pre-final, final, post-final1,2,3) There must be a peak in every syllable. Strong syllables strong peak, full vowel quality Weak syllables always unstressed, shorter, weaker, with different quality - the vowel (schwa) most common - a close front unrounded vowel /i/ o weak /i/ comes from neutralization of /i:/ and // easy [i:zi], busy [bzi] - a close back rounded vowel /u/ o weak /u/ comes from neutralization of /u:/ and // unstressed you, to, into, do - a syllabic consonant o syllabic /l / - if preceding consonant is alveolar its dark /l/ bottle [btl ], tunnel [tnl ] lateral release o syllabic /n/ - most frequent syllabic nasal students [stju:dnts] treated like with a vowel between /d/ and /n/ o syllabic /m, / - only in assimilation or elision process o syllabic /r/ - mostly in rhotic accents, not common in non-rhotic history [hstri], wanderer [wndr]

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12. Word stress (its nature and influence on the vowel quality); stress in complex and compound words; stress shift.
The nature of stress - production (more muscular energy is used) - perception (stressed syllables are more prominent) o prominence factors loudness length pitch full vowel quality Levels of stress - primary pitch, loudness, length, full vowel quality) - secondary length, full vowel quality) - unstressed syllable vowel reduction /, , i, u, l , n/ o leading syllables (before stress) rushed, shortened beGIN, adMIRE o trailing syllables (after stress) longer, drawn out PILLow, CARgo syncope /skpi/ - more than one trailing syllable the vowel of the penultimate (pedposledn) syllable is shortened or it disappears completely family, factory, necessary Stress placement fixed in Czech, free in English depends on - morphology simple, complex, compound - word class eg. noun (1st syllable) x verb (2nd syllable) - number of syllables, phonological structure - origin - context Stress in simple words nouns: if the second syllable contains short vowel, first will be stressed, otherwise the second will verbs, adjectives: if the second syllable is strong, it is stressed; if its weak, the first one is stressed Stress in complex words - prefixes o negative unstressed when standing immediately before the main stress, but carries secondary stress, if there is a syllable between the negative prefixe and main stress dis-, de-, in-, il-, im-, ir-, uno separable usually carry secondary stress anti-, arch-, inter-, mal-, mis-, non-, out-, over-, pre-, re-, ultra-, under-, vice-

http://hlavsa.net/pages/school.php suffixes o carrying primary stress -ade, -ache, -ain, -aire, -ale, -aque, -ee, -el, -eer, -ese, -esque, -ete, -ette, -illa, -ice, -ine, -ique, -oon o attracting primary stress on the preceding syllable -eous, ious, -ial, ual, -ic, ical, -ian, -logy, -egraphy, -ion, -ify, -ity, -itude, -ive o neutral do not affect stress placement -able, ible, -age, -al (verbnoun), -en (adj.verb), -ful, -fy, -ing, -ish, -like, -less, -ly, -ment, -ness, -ous, -wise, -y, ly(adj.) o special -ate for noun or adj. /t/ or /t/; for verb /et/ -ment for noun /mnt/; for verb /mnt/

Stress in compound words fixed expressions made up of more than one word, can be written with one word (flowerpot), two words (washing mashine) or with a hypen (home-made). rules are unstable - early stress (primary stress on the first element, if the compound is longer or separated by a space, it usually carries secondary stress) most common o meaning of the second constituent restricted by the first birthday, airport, flute player, fire extinguisher o ing form + noun: dining room, fucking hell o noun + -ing form: time-consuming, brain-washing o denoting a single idea rather than the combination of two original constituents greenhouse x green house; blackbird x black b:rrraulght! late stress (primary stress on the second element, secondary stress on the first) o adjective + noun/ing form: hot potato, centralheating o most compound adjectives: well-dressed, easy-going, self-whatever o compound numerals with teen: nineteen o personal names: JamesBrown o when first is material the second part is made out of: goldwatch not applied on juice, cake, water, bread: cheescake, orangejuice o place names: HydePark; street is never stressed: Oxford Street o phrasal verbs stress on the first particle call back, grow out off nouns formed from phrasal verbs !early stress!: check-in, warm-up o abbreviations the UK, the USA, the BBC, the YMCA

Stress shift both complex and compound words may lose stress in connected speech - the primary stress when another stressed word follows automatic automatic device Chinese Chinese people - the secondary stress when another stressed word precedes good-looking very good-looking

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13.

Sentence stress; strong and weak forms of grammatical words.

Usually stressed words: content or lexical words - nouns, adjectives, lexical verbs, adverbs, numerals - interrogative pronouns; words this, that, those Usually unstressed words: grammatical words - articles, prepositions, auxiliary and modal verbs - conjunctions (long can be stressed), all but interrogative pronouns Exceptions - usually stressed words become unstressed o second items of compound words Have you heard the flute player? o rhythmic reasons: the intermediate stress in a phrase disappears John went away. A very good thing. o individual exeptions We need ()more experienced workers. different meaning when stressed adverbs in phrasal verb when followed or preceded by a stressed object Put on your coat. x Put it on. usually unstressed words become stressed o auxiliary and modal verbs in following cases: imperative sentence: Do come! followed by nt: It wasnt... / It was not... ellipsis of the lexical verb (short answers): Yes, I have. when final: I asked them where they were. o emphasis o other individual exeptions

Weak forms - forms that may be used when words have no stress the: [] before consonant; [i] before vowel || a, an: [] before cons.; [n] before vowel and: [n]; [n] after /t, d, s, z, / || but: [bt] || than [n] || his [z]; [hz] at the beginning that only in a relative clause: [t]; as demonstrative always in strong form her [] before consonant; [r] before vowel she [i] || he [i]; [hi] at the beginning of the sentence || we [wi] || you [ju] him [m] || her []; [h] at the beginning || them [m] || us [s] the following words are strong when they are final in the sentence: at [t] [t] || for [f(r)] [f:] || from [frm] [frm] || of [v] [v] to [t/tu] [tu]; [tu:] is not used as a strong form || as [z] [z] some [sm]; before countable noun and as final [sm] || there [(r)]; in demonstrative function [e(r)]; in final position [] or [e] all auxiliary verbs; they are always strong in their negative forms (-nt) and as final can, could [kn][kd] [kn][kd]|| shall, should, must [ms(t)], do, does have, has, had [v][z][d] (+h if initial) [hv][hz][hd] || am, are, was, were

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14. Rhythm; stress-timed English x syllable-timed Czech; eurhythmy; strategies to achieve regularity.
Rhythm regularity; alteration of stressed and unstressed syllables stress-timed rhythm o /Walk/down the/path to the/end of the ca/nal. syllable-timed rhythm o /Kad/rno/touto/dobou/vyslme/pravidelnou/nabdku/naich/dopolednch/poad .

foot (aka stress group) the main unit of rhythm it is a stretch of speech from one stressed syllable to another, excluding it eurhythmy tendency towards regular rhythm; nursery rhymes (perfect regularity) nursery rhyme is used for traditional songs for young children, eg. twinkle twinkle little star Strategies to achieve regularity in everyday speech (remedial strategies) - stress timing usage of weak forms compression of unstressed syllables - playing with word order (tidy and neat >>> neat and tidy) - dropping the stress English is stress timed language. This refers to an underlying tendency for stressed syllables (whether prominent or accented) to occur at roughly equal intervals of time, regardless of the number of unstressed syllables in between. Czech is syllable timed language. All syllables (stressed or not) tend to occur at relatively regular intervals and the time between stressed syllables will be shorter or longer in proportions to the number of unstressed syllables. The vowel reduction is rare, the quality of all vowels is preserved.

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15. Form of intonation (tone-unit and its internal structure); five basic tones and their major functions; tone x intonational languages.
Intonation is about how we say things rather than what we say. BUT! It makes a difference to meaning. Wrong intonation causes misunderstanding and it is said that the intonation is as important as word choice. It exists in all languages. The most important factor is pitch. tone-unit - the syllable that carries a tone is called a tonic syllable; the stress is called tonic stress - the structure of tone-unit o the head the part of tone-unit from the stressed syllable up to the tonic syllable (excluding it) o the pre-head all of the unstressed syllables preceding the head or when there is no head (no stressed syllables before tonic stress) o tonic syllable the most prominent syllable, in most cases the only syllable carrying a pitch movement o the tail syllables following the tonic syllable - pre-head | head | tonic syllable | tail

Five basic tones: - falling tone - rising tone

usually regarded as more or less neutral yes/no answeres, when there is nothing more to add gives an impression of finality gives an impression that something more is to follow o I phoned them.. (but they were not home) used while making general question (yes/no) used while listing: Do you want red, brown, yellow, green or blue? used for encouragement: It wont hurt.

fall-rise tone shows limited agreement, doubt, uncertainty or response with reservation o Its possible. it can be true. rise-fall tone used to convey strong feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise o Its impossible! He is honest! level tone almost always when saying something routine, uninteresting or boring

functions of intonation grammatical, attitudinal, accentual and discourse Tone languages the tone itself influences the meaning While in English mother means mother in any tone, in West African Kono or Chinese, the tone makes difference in meaning. Ch - ma means mother, ma = scold and ma = hemp Thai, Vietnamese, African languages.. Intonation languages the tone doesnt influence the meaning

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16.

Grammatical and attitudinal functions of English intonation.

Gramatical function of intonation helps the listener recognize the grammar and the syntax structure of what is being said by using information contained in the intonation. The tone-unit boundary placement can indicate the grammatical structure to the listener. Those who sold | quickly made a profit. x Those who sold quickly | made a profit. - different tone unit boundary (princip esk rky) - modification The Conservatives who like the proposal | are pleased. non-restrictive and The Conservatives | who like the proposal | are pleased. restrictive relative clauses John (|) said his brother | had gone to school. subject verb relationship fall-rise for polite correction

Attitudinal function of intonation expresses our feeling, attitudes and emotions like anger, boredrom, gratefulness and so on. different voice qualities for different attitudes different pitch range in different ways different keys: high key, mid key, low key one may use different facial expressions, gestures and body movements

types of attitudinal intonation - falling intonation usually regarded as more or less neutral yes/no answeres, when there is nothing more to add gives an impression of finality - rising intonation gives an impression that something more is to follow o I phoned them.. (but they were not home) used while making general question (yes/no) used while listing: Do you want red, brown, yellow, green or blue? used for encouragement: It wont hurt. - fall-rise intonation shows limited agreement, doubt, uncertainty or response with reservation o Its possible. it can be true. - rise-fall intonation used to convey strong feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise o Its impossible! He is honest!

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Accentual and discourse functions of English intonation.

Accentual function of intonation refers to accent. The placement of stress is determined by intonation. Intonation is carried entirely by the stress syllables of the tone unit. English is called a language with the end-weight principle the tonic stress is carried usually by the last content word. The tonic stress falls on the stressed syllable of the focused word. However in the context of a discourse, the focus is often shifted when the speaker highlights the new information or puts a special contrastive focus on an earlier word in the tone unit. Any syllables after the tonic stress in a falling tone remain at low pitch.

Discourse function of intonation implies what is to be taken as new information and what is already given. It can indicate some sort of contrast or link with information in another tone unit. In conversation, it can convey to the listener what kind of responce is being expected from him. attention focusing the tonic stress is placed on the appropriate syllable of one particular word in the tone unit on the word that is most important. o She went to Scotland; He went to the drawing-room; information content the stress is placed on the words with highest information content o take the dog for a walk; take the dog to the vet; cases where it is difficult to explain tonic placement in terms of information or importance o Your coat is on fire. most native speakers would place the tonic on the subject noun