English Jet Engine

Turbine Engine Technical English Course
Unit 1
FIRST PRINCIPLES
Dialogue
Welcome to Air-Alpha, the aero-engine school which runs courses in jet propulsion for students from all over the world. A dozen men have gathered in the school's main lecture hall for their first session with Mr. North, the Chief Instructor. Some are examining the engines on display around the room, while others are talking quietly together near the instructor's desk. Then Mr. North enters, and the session begins.
Mr. North:
Chris:
Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North: Chris
Good morning. We have a lot to do, so I suggest we get straight down to business.1 I shall be working fast, but please stop me If there's anything you don't understand. The more questions you ask, the more you will all learn. May I ask the first one? As a pilot, I'm particularly interested in *controls and *instrumentation. Will we be dealing with these during the course? Yes. In fact I hope to cover the whole fleld2 of jet propulsion from the first principles, which you must master before you begin to specialise, right up to the latest developments in *supersonic flight. Im a technician, so I know how a piston engine works. Is that knowledge going to help me here? Yes, indeed. The two principles are very similar. Surely not! A piston engine works on a four-stroke cycle: induction, compression, combustion and exhaust. But air flows straight through a jet engine. True. Yet a jet engine has the same four stages. Look at the diagram of a *ram jet. As you see, it is basically a *tapered tube, open at both ends, into which
Mr. North:
Ben: Chris: Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:
*fuel can be injected. If that's all there is to jet engines, I needn't stay! I suppose air flows into the tube from the left. Is that the induction stage ? It is. Now, once inside, the air slows down because the tube widens, and the *kinetic energy released by this loss of velocity is converted into pressure energy and heat. Why? I don't quite get that.3 Well, energy can't be lost; it can only change its form. That happens in a car. If you slow down, the lost speed reappears as heat in the brakes. I think I see4 now. And in a jet engine this energy reappears both as heat and as an increase in pressure? Exactly. Pressure, after all, is just another form of energy. This presumably corresponds to the compression stroke in the piston engine. Does the compressed air then flow into the *combustion chamber? Yes. Then fuel is injected and ignited. That must cause a big rise in temperature, as it does in a piston engine. And a big increase in pressure, too. No, Ben. The air becomes very hot, but it's free to escape through the rear of the tube, so there's very little rise in pressure. Both combustion and exhaust stages occur simultaneously, then? Yes. In fact all four stages are going on at the same time, but in different parts of the engine. In a piston engine, they all occur in one place, the *cylinder, but at different times. If there is so little rise in pressure, surely the combustion chamber can be made much lighter? Quite right. And this lightness is a great advantage where aircraft are concerned. Couldn't the compression be raised by putting some sort of supercharger near the intake? A good question, Chris. But I'm afraid we can't go into it now;5 let me deal with it next time, when we meet the other members of the jet family. They're all related to the ram jet we've been studying today.
Conversational expressions
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. get . . . down to business: start work cover the whole field: discuss the whole subject I dont . . . get that: I dont understand that see: (here) understand we cant go into it now: we cant talk about it now.
Vocabulary
Controls.- The various switches and levers by which the operations of the engine can be regulated. Instrumentation.- The system of sensors and instruments that enable the pilot to know how the engines are performing. Supersonic.- Faster than the speed of sound. Ram jet.- A type of jet engine in which fuel is burned in a duct using air compressed by the forward speed of the aircraft. Tapered tube.- A tube progressively decreasing in diameter. Kinetic energy.- The energy of a body in motion. Cylinder.- A tube in which a piston can slide.
Exercise 1: Comprehension questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What should a student of jet propulsion master before he begins to specialise? How would you describe the shape of the ram jet engine shown on page 1? Why is there a rise in pressure energy when air enters the front of the engine? What happens after the compressed air flows into the combustion chamber? Why can the combustion chamber of a jet engine be made of light material? Where are lightweight engines particularly useful?
Exercise 2: structural practice

Notice this structure from the conversation: If that's all there is to jet engines, I neednt stay! Use this structure to make sentences from the following: Example: the design / study it Response: If that's all there is to the design, I needn't study it. Now, you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. the design / study it this course / work very hard the diagram / look at it the problem / bother about it piston engines / spend any more time on them this job / worry about it
Exercise 3: progressive substitution drill

Statement: I hope to cover the whole field of jet propulsion. Prompt: We
Response: We hope to cover the whole field of jet propulsion. Now you do it. Statement: I hope to cover the whole field of jet propulsion. Prompts: 1. We 2. He hopes 3. intends 4. expects 5. to deal with 6. the whole subject of 7. aircraft engines 8. engine design
Exercise 4: further structural practice

Notice this structure: We'll meet the other members of the jet family next time. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Example: Prompt: Response: Have you met the other members of the jet family? next time No, we'll meet the other members of the jet family next time.
Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. Have you met the other members of the jet family? Have you had your first session at Air-Alpha? Have you looked at the diagram? next time soon in a few minutes
Now do these. 4. Has he dealt with controls and instrumentation ? weeks 5. Has he answered your question? time 6. Has he covered the whole field of jet propulsion? in the next few
when he's got
during the course
Further Reading
To learn how a jet engine works, we must remember Sir Isaac Newton's third law of motion: "For every force acting upon a body, there is an equal and opposite reaction". In the present case, the "body" is the volume of air that is passing through the engine. The force that accelerates this air towards the rear of the engine also exerts an equal force in the opposite direction, thus driving the engine and the plane itself forwards. lt is important to understand that this forward *thrust occurs inside the engine itself; it is not caused by the high-pressure exhaust gases acting directly on the outside atmosphere, as many people believe. This point is well illustrated by rocket engines which, like aeroplane engines, work on the principle of *internal reaction. We all know that these are capable of forward motion even in outer space, where there is no surrounding atmosphere for their exhaust gases to "push against".
Exercise 5: comprehension questions

1. What is Sir Isaac Newton's third law of motion? 2. What does the force that accelerates the air towards the rear of the engine also do? 3. Where does the forward thrust occur? 4. Do rocket engines work on the principle of internal reaction? 5. What is the density of the atmosphere in space?
Exercise 6
Use the following words in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. tube 2. controls 3. exerts 4. cycle 5. pressure 6. flow 7. velocity 8. tapered 9. instrumentation 10. stage 11. caused by 12. supersonic
Unit 2
THE JET FAMILY Dialogue Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Good morning. At our last session we saw how a ram jet works, and today I want to introduce you to the other members of the jet family. Before you do that, can I ask one more question about ram jets? What forces the air in at the front end? The forward motion of the plane, of course. Thats correct. Im not with you.1 What if the plane is stationary on the ground? Chris is still right. A ram jet can only work at high velocityalready moving forward at high speed. Thats why it is not used in conventional aeroplanes. What about pulse jets? They can run while nearly stationary, cant they? What on earth are they ? Ive never heard of them. Pulse jets are similar to ram jets, but they have *flap valves at the front end. These open to let air in, but close again when back-pressure is created by the fuel burning in the combustion chamber. As the burnt gases escape to the rear, so the pressure at the front end drops to a point below that of the outside atmosphere. At this point, the flap valves reopen, and more air rushes in. Does a pulse jet work by internal reaction, too? Yes; ram jets, pulse jets, *rockets and even propeller-driven aircraft are all practical applications of Sir Isaac Newtons third law of motion. Which jet engines are most used in aeroplanes today? Undoubtedly the turbo-jet. This is rather like the ram jet, but it has a *compressor at the front to force air in. I suggested that idea at the end of the last lesson. You did. And we shall be studying compressors in detail next time. What drives the compressors? The energy must come from somewhere. Think, Ben. Have a shot at2 answering that one yourself. Well, theres plenty of energy at the back, where the hot gases leave the combustion chamber. If you put a *turbine there and connected it to the compressor by a *shaft, that would do the trick,3 wouldnt it? Thats a pretty fair4 description of a turbo-jet. Well done, Ben. What about the other members of the jet family? Theyre all variations on the turbo-jet principle. Theres the turbo-prop, for example, where the turbines rotate both the compressor and an ordinary *propeller. Whats the advantage of that? Well, at lower flying speeds, propellers used to be a more efficient form of propulsion than pure jets. But by-pass engines were later developed How do they work? Will you have a go at5 explaining that, Chris?
Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
Chris:
Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
Il1 try. In by-pass engines only some of the air goes straight through; the remainder is passed through *ducts, round the combustion chamber and turbines, but rejoins the main stream at the rear. This makes the engine quieter and more efficient. Good. Fan engines are an extension of this principle. In their. case, the first set of rotor *blades of the compressor are enlarged to form, a sort of multi-blade propeller, known as a fan. Is this air from the fan ducted to the rear of the engine ? In some cases, yes; but not always. Is that the last of the jet engine family? I'm beginning to get thoroughly confused. Yes, Ben, thats the lot.6 As you see, there are ram and pulse jet engines that have no compressors or turbines, and which youre hardly likely to meet; then there are the various types of turbo-jet, many of which have by-pass systems to make them more efficient. Some work by jet reaction alone, while others use much of their power output to drive either a conventional propeller or a fan.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Im not with you: I dont understand you Have a shot at . . . : Try to . . . that would do the trick: that would give the desired result pretty fair: reasonably satisfactory have a go: try to thats the lot: thats all
Vocabulary
Flap valve.- A simple type of valve, used particularly in the pulse jet engine. Rocket.- A jet engine that produces its own propelling fluid by the combustion of liquid or chemically decomposed fuel with oxygen, which it carries, thus enabling it to operate outside the earths atmosphere. Compressor.- The part of the engine that raises the pressure of the air from the intake before feeding it to the combustion chamber.
Turbine.- A disk fitted with blades which turns when placed in a moving stream of air or gases. Shaft.- A rotating member for the transmission of power. Propeller.- Revolving blades set at an angle that drive a ship or plane forwards. Duct.- A passage or tube through which air or gases can pass. Blades.- Metal aerofoils forming part of a propeller, compressor or turbine.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What does a pulse jet have which a ram jet does not have? What drives the compressor of a turbo-jet? What is the function of the compressor? When is a propeller more efficient as a means of propulsion than a pure jet? What happens to the air in a by-pass engine after it has gone through the compressor?

Notice this structure from the conversation: As the burnt gases escape, so the pressure drops. Now use this structure to join the following sentences: Example Response: The speed of the aircraft increases. The efficiency of its propeller decreases. As the speed of the aircraft increases, so the efficiency of its propeller decreases.
Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The speed of the aircraft increases. The efficiency of its propeller decreases. The fuel burns. The air expands. The pressure goes up. The valves begin to close. The velocity drops. The pressure increases. The plane moves forward. Air is forced into the engine. The flap valves re-open. More air rushes in at the front end.

Statement: I suggested that idea at the end of the last lesson. Prompt: Response: He He suggested that idea at the end of the last lesson.
Now you do it. Statement: I suggested that idea at the end of the last lesson. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. He explained this means of propulsion Newtons law pulse jets at the start of your beginning of last week

Complete the following sentences with their appropriate question tags. Example: Response: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. A ram jet can only work at high velocity. A ram jet can only work at high velocity, cant it?
A ram jet can only work at high velocity. A pulse jet hasnt got a turbine. The first jet engines were very inefficient. The first true turbo-jet plane flew in 1939. Jet reaction is not an external phenomenon. You had to study the principles of jet propulsion.
German flying bomb V1 in World War II was powered by a pulsejet
Further Reading
Every member of the jet family has its uses. Ram jets, for example, are suitable for propelling certain *missiles that are launched from parent aircraft or by rockets. Their inability to work unless travelling forward at high speed then ceases to be a disadvantage, and they are both cheap and easy to manufacture. Pulse jets are not seen today because of their high fuel consumption, but they were used successfully in the Second World War to power Germanys V1 flying bombs. Most modern aeroplanes have turbine/compressor engines. At supersonic speeds, turbo-jets are highly efficient, so they are ideal for fighter aircraft. But, at slower speeds, an engine that slightly accelerates a large mass of air is more economical on fuel than one which produces the same thrust by imparting considerable acceleration to a small mass of air. So by-pass engines, with their larger *airflows at lower velocities, are more suitable for civil aircraft, where low running costs are more important than mere speed. The last member of the jet family is the rocket. Because it carries its own supply of oxygen, this is the only one suitable for use in outer space.
Vocabulary
Missiles.- A military rocket. Airflow.- The movement of air.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What are ram jets suitable for? Why are pulse jets no longer used? What type of engine do most modern aeroplanes have? Why are by-pass engines more suitable for civil aircraft? Why is the rocket the only member of the jet family suitable for use in outer space?
Exercise 6
Use the following words and phrases in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use. 1. energy 7. atmosphere 2. turbine blade 8. compressor 3. propulsion 9. low running costs 4. inability 10. duct 5. supersonic 11. efficient 6. forward motion 12. stationary
Saturn 5 Launch vehicle for Apollo XIII
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Unit 3
THE COMPRESSOR Dialogue Ben: Mr. North: You promised to tell us about compressors today, Mr. North. Yes, Ben, so I did. There are, in fact, two sorts: centrifugal compressors and *axial-flow compressors. The latter are more efficient and are used in most jet engines today, but I think you ought to know a little about the former, too. How does a centrifugal compressor work, then? Like this. A vaned disc, called the *impeller, is attached to the turbine shaft near the *air intake. As the disc rotates, it spins the air in contact with it. And centrifugal force flings the air outwards at high velocity.
Chris: Mr. North:
The impeller
Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:
But I though we needed to increase the pressure of the air, not its velocity. Hold on,1 Ben, I havent finished yet! Do you remember how pressure was increased in the ram jet engine? Yes. The air entered a widening, or divergent, tube. Exactly. And in this case, the air is flung off the impeller into divergent passages formed by diffuser vanes attached to the outer *casing. Oh, I see. When the air enters these passages, it slows down, and the lost kinetic energy reappears as pressure energy. Is that right? Absolutely right. From there, of course, the compressed air is ducted to the combustion chamber of the engine. It sounds simple enough in theory. Yes. And in practice this type of compressor is both robust and fairly easy to manufacture.
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Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Ben:
But you said its not so efficient as the other kind. Yes, I did. So lets move on to2 axial-flow compressors, which youre more likely to meet, anyway. Are these compressors *mounted on the *turbine shaft, too ? Yes. But instead of driving the air outwards by centrifugal force, they force the air straight backwards by means of a series of multi-blade fans mounted one behind the other. Well, that sounds a more efficient arrangement, for a start! It is. Between each set of rotating blades, or *"rotor blades", as they are called, are similar sets of stationary blades, attached to the outer casing. These *"stator blades" re-direct the air to the correct angle for the next set of rotor blades. Each set of rotor blades with its stator blades is known as a *"stage". I suppose that in a multi-stage axial-flow compressor the air must reach very high velocities. Not at all. Each stage accelerates the air only a little. But as the air passes through the spaces between the blades, there is a drop in velocity ... . . . and the lost kinetic energy reappears as pressure energy! This is where I came in,3 I think! Yes, I think it is. But at least you can see why I insisted on you learning the first principles. Yes. For a while I thought you were wasting our time with all that talk about ram jets. I know better now! Theres one thing that still bothers me. You say that the velocity of the air remains almost constant throughout the compressor. Yet, at the same time, I can see that theres a progressive rise in pressure. Yes, thats quite true. But isnt that a contradiction? I mean, surely you cant alter one without changing the other, can you?
A typical axial-flow compressor
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Chris: Mr. North:
Mr. North: A very good point, Ben. But times up4 for today, so I must leave you to try to answer it yourself. Study the construction of a typical axial-flow compressor. Heres a diagram to help you. If you look carefully, you may find the solution to your problem. And if we dont find it? Im sure you will. But Ill give you the answer next time, when we look at axial-flow compressors in a little more detail.
1. 2. 3. 4. Hold on: Wait a moment lets move on to: lets talk about. . . now This is where I came in: Ive heard about this before, this is what we were discussing earlier Times up: we have no more time left
Vocabulary
Axial-flow compressor.- A compressor in which the air flows from the front to the rear parallel to the engine shaft. Impeller.- A vaned disc of a centrifugal compressor. Air intake.- The front part of the engine, which collects the air and directs it into de compressors. Casing.- The outer part of an engine. Mount.- Attach. Turbine.- A disc fitted with blades which turn when placed in a moving stream of air or gases. Rotor blades.- The rotating blades in a compressor or turbine. Stator blades.- The fixed blades in a compressor or turbine. Stage.- One set of stator and rotor blades in a compressor or turbine.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is the difference between the airflows in centrifugal and in axial-flow compressors? What are the main advantages of centrifugal compressors? What is the most common sort of compressor in use today? What happens as the air passes between the rotor and stator blades ? Why does an axial-flow compressor require many stages?
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Notice this structure from the conversation: It's not so efficient as the other kind. Use this structure to respond to the following question: Example: Is it an efficient arrangement? Prompt: the other kind Response: Its no so efficient as the other kind. Now you do it. 1. Is it an efficient arrangement? 2. Is this type of compressor robust? 3. Are ram jets used often? 4. Is the jet engine heavy? 5. Is this principle simple? 6. Is a jet plane efficient at low speeds? the other kind a centrifugal compressor turbo-jets the piston engine that principle a propeller-driven plane

Statement: You promised to tell us about compressors today. Prompt: Mr. North Response: Mr. North promised to tell us about compressors today. Now you do it. Statement: You promised to tell us about compressors today. Prompts: 1. Mr. North 5. the class 2. He 6. combustion chambers 3. intends 7. this afternoon 4. talk to 8. Intended
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Combine these sentences in the following way: Statement: The impeller rotates. The air spins. Response: If the impeller rotated, then the air would spin. 1. The impeller rotates. The air spins. 2. The air enters a divergent passage. Its velocity drops. 3. You add more stages. You create new problems. 4. You alter one factor. You alter all the others. 5. You look at the diagram. You find the answer. 5. You fail to find the solution. I have to give it to you myself.
Further Reading
There is a constant relationship between the volume, the temperature and the pressure of the air as it passes through a jet engine. Briefly, it can be said that the absolute temperature of the air at any point is a product of the pressure and the volume of that air. When the volume of the air is being reduced in either a centrifugal or an axial-flow compressor, there is an increase in both pressure and temperature. During combustion, when fuel is added and ignited, there is a rise in both the temperature and the volume of the air, but the pressure remains almost constant because the combustion chamber is not sealed. As energy is taken from the stream of exhaust gases by the turbine, both the temperature and pressure decrease, while the volume increases. The more efficient the design of a compressor, the higher will be the pressure generated for a given rise in temperature. Similarly, the better the design of the turbine, the more power it will produce. for a given drop in the temperature of the exhaust gases.

1. Is there a constant relationship between the volume, temperature and pressure of the air as it passes through a jet engine ? 2. What happens when the volume of the air is being reduced in a centrifugal compressor? 3. What happens to the air during combustion? 4. Is the combustion chamber sealed? 6. What decreases when energy is taken from the stream of exhaust gases by the turbine?
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Exercise 6
Use the following words and phrases in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. 2. 3. 4. centrifugal force axial-flow impeller casing 5. 6. 7. 8. relationship generated the former the latter 9. 10. 11. 12. in theory in practice progressive robust
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Unit 4
ROTORS AND STATORS Dialogue Chris: Mr. North: Ben: You gave us a problem to solve last time, Mr. North. Thats right. And did you find the solution? Well, we think so. If you remember, you asked us how the design of an axial-flow compressor ensures that the air passing through remains at more or less a constant velocity even though there is a progressive rise in pressure. Well? Well, we think the velocity can be controlled by gradually restricting the size of the passage through which the air has to pass. And how would you restrict the size of this air *annulus? By fitting a tapered *drum round the turbine shaft, and then attaching the blades to it. I see you studied that diagram carefully! Yes, we did. And we thought of another way of getting round1 the problem: by tapering the casing round the compressor. Yes, that method is used, too. But can you tell me what effect this has on the blades themselves ? Yes. The ones at the front can be quite large in diameter, but they must be made shorter and shorter the farther back they are placed. Thats right. Great centrifugal *stresses must be put on the rotor blades when the compressor is turning fast. How are they attached to the rotor drum? There are a number of methods. Sometimes they arent attached to a drum at all, but to discs that are *splined to the rotor shaft. This helps to distribute the centrifugal and axial stresses that are involved. What about the shape of the blades, Mr. North? That would be getting us into really deep water,2 Ben The design of compressor and turbine blades is a very complicated subject indeed, and one that we cant possibly examine in detail at this stage. Tell me, Chris, how would you make a compressor more efficient? By careful design of the rotor and stator blades, I suppose. Ah, but even the best-designed blade will only work at maximum efficiency within a limited range of conditions. Outside these conditions, the blade may *stall, or the whole compressor *surge, with a consequent loss of power. This can be overcome partially by fitting adjustable *inlet guide-vanes to the intake, and by *"bleeding off" air at certain points. Im afraid thats a bit beyond me.3 Cant you make a compressor more powerful simply by sticking on4 more stages? Yes, of course. But that can cause headaches, too. At low speeds, the turbine may not have enough power to turn a high-compression compressor.
Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
Chris: Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North:
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Chris: Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North:
Why not have two compressors: a low-pressure one, and a high-pressure one? That would be complicated. Not if you had two turbines. How would the turbines be connected to the compressors? By two shafts, of course. Thats dead easy.5 Yes, a large hollow shaft, and a smaller one revolving inside it. Well, I really must congratulate you. Youve just described what is known as a twin-spool system, one of the most common designs today. This type is invariably used in by-pass engines, with the L.P. compressor at the front supplying enough air for both the H.P. compressor and the by-pass system. What about fan engines? In their case, the fan is attached to the front of the L.P. compressor. Some of the air then passes into the H.P. compressor, while the remainder passes back, often through ducts, to the atmosphere. What happens to the air after it leaves the H.P. compressor? Does it go to the combustion system? It does. And that, gentlemen, will be the subject of our next session!
The twin spool system
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. a way of getting round: a solution to That would be getting us into really deep water: that would lead to a discussion of very complicated things a bit beyond me: too difficult for me to understand sticking on: adding (slang) dead easy: very easy
Vocabulary
Annulus.- A double ring formed by one cylinder fitted inside another. Drum.- The cylindrical or tapering part of a compressor, to which the rotor blades are attached. Stress.- Intense force acting on a part, and tending to deform it.
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Splined.- Of a shaft and wheel: made to turn together by having projections on the shaft and matching grooves in the hub of the wheel. Stall.- The condition that occurs when a few stages in a compressor are affected by turbulence; the engine vibrates and the turbine gas temperature rises rapidly. Surge.- The condition that occurs when all stages of a compressor are affected by turbulence; the engine vibrates and the temperature of the turbine gases rises rapidly. Inlet guide vanes.- Fixed blades at the front of an engine which guide the air onto the first set of rotor blades. Bleed off.- Remove a fluid from the main stream.

1. How is the velocity of the air kept nearly constant in an axial-flow compressor? 2. What are the stator blades attached to? 3. Briefly describe a twin-spool system. 4. Where does the air go after it leaves the compressor? 6. Where is the fan usually attached in a fan engine?

Notice this structure from the conversation: The velocity can be controlled by restricting the size of the passage. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Example: How can you control the velocity? Prompt: restrict the size of the passage Response: The velocity can be controlled by restricting the size of the Now you do it. 1. How can you control the velocity? restrict the size of the passage 2. How can you distribute the stresses? attach the rotor blades to discs 3. How can you improve the efficiency? design the rotor blades carefully 4. How can you overcome this difficulty ? fit adjustable guide vanes 5. How can you restrict the size of the passage? taper the casing 6. How can you solve this problem? fit two compressors 7. How can you connect the turbines? use two shafts
passage.
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Statement: I see you studied the diagram carefully. Prompt: know Response: I know you studied the diagram carefully. Now you do it. Statement: I see you studied the diagram carefully. Prompts: 1. know 2. hope 3. He hopes 4. looked at 5. examined 6. the problem 7. thoroughly 8. the design
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Notice this structure from the conversation: How would the turbines be connected? Use this structure to respond to the following statements: Example: Wed connect the turbines. Response: How would the turbines be connected? Now you do it. 1. Wed connect the turbines. 2. Wed distribute the stresses. 3. Wed duct the air back. 4. Wed design the engine. 5. Wed make it more efficient. 7. Wed attach the blades.
Further Reading
The efficiency of an axial-flow compressor depends principally upon the design of its rotor and stator blades. Rotor blades are of *aerofoil section, and are made of steel, aluminium alloy or titanium. However skilfully they may be made, they can only work with maximum efficiency within a limited range of operating conditions. Outside these conditions, the smooth flow of air past the blades is upset by unwanted *turbulence. When one stage "stalls" in this way, the compressor may "cough" and start to vibrate. If all the stages stall, and there is a complete breakdown of the airflow, then the compressor is said to "surge". A bang is heard from the engine, and there is a rapid rise in the temperature of the exhaust gases near the turbine. Stator blades are also of aerofoil section. They may be attached directly to the casing of the compressor, or to retaining rings which in turn are fitted to the casing. Whereas rotor blades are usually mounted individually on their drum or disc, stator blades for the front stages of a compressor can be fitted in *packs, with connecting shrouding at their tips to give them greater rigidity.
Vocabulary
Aerofoil.- Shaped like the wing of an aeroplane. Turbulence.- Disruption of the smooth flow of air or gas. Packs.- Several stator blades made in one piece.
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1. What does the efficiency of an axial-flow compressor principally depend upon? 2. What are rotor blades made of? 3. Can rotor blades work with maximum efficiency under all conditions ? 4. What happens to the compressor if there is a complete breakdown of the airflow? 5. What gives stator blades greater rigidity?
Exercise 6
Use the following words in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. 2. 3. 4. problem solutions constant restrict 5. 6. 7. 8. annulus stresses design breakdown 9. 10. 11. 12. maximum distribute hollow power
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Unit 5
THE COMBUSTION CHAMBER Dialogue Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Today we reach the heart of the jet engine-the combustion chamber, where fuel is mixed with the air from the compressors and ignited. Will this be even rougher going1 than last time? Things were getting a bit tough,2 you know. No. Funnily enough,3 the combustion chamber is relatively simple. Think of it first as two tubes, one inside the other. The inside one, known as the *flame tube, is fitted at the front with a perforated *flare behind an entry *snout. In the centre of the flare there are a number of swirl vanes. Theres a diagram here which shows that.
Chris:
Combustion chamber
Ben: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris:
So there is. And I can see bigger holes at various places along the flame tube. That must be the *burner nozzle, right in the centre of the flare. I can see how its made, but how does it work? Well, the air comes from the compressors at high velocity-as much as four or five hundred feet per second.... Thats quite a speed!4 So fast, in fact, it would surely blow out the flame, wouldnt it ? Precisely. And, besides, there is more air than is needed for combustion. *Kerosene, you see, burns best at a ratio of about 15 to 1; but if all the air were used, the ratio could be as high as 120 to 1. So thats why there are two tubes: only the quantity of air needed for combustion goes into the inner tube, the rest passes outside it. The flare presumably helps to decrease the velocity of the air entering the flame tube....
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Ben: Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North:
Chris: Ben: Chris: Mr. North:
Chris: Mr. North:
And to raise its temperature and pressure. Dont forget that! Yes, youre both right. Inside, the air is still travelling at about 75 feet per second. Even this is too fast, but the swirl vanes induce a reverse flow of air in the region of the burner nozzle, which gives us the low velocity we require. How much air goes into the flame tube proper? About 18 % passes in directly, while a further 10 to 15 % enters the combustion zone by the other holes you can see at the front. The remaining air is introduced progressively farther back along the flame tube to mix with the exhaust gases which have already been burnt. Forgive me if I seem a bit stupid, but I dont see why the compressors should be made to deliver so much air when only about 30% of it is needed for combustion. I thought I was the stupid one! Isnt it used for cooling the outside of the flame tube, Mr. North? Yes, but does it need so much? Youre forgetting that the temperature of the gases leaving the combustion zone may be as high as 2,000 centigrade. And thats much too hot to feed into the turbine. In fact, about half the excess air is needed to dilute and cool these exhaust gases. How does the *fuel nozzle work? Fuel is fed to the nozzle by pumps, and lit by a spark from an *igniter plug. Once started, the flame is selfsustaining. Arent there different types of nozzle? Yes. Fuel is usually injected into the combustion zone as *atomized spray, but there is another possible method.... Whats that? Hang on, Ben; Im coming to it!5 In the second method, the swirl vanes and flare are replaced by a *baffle plate that supports fuel sprayers. The air passes through holes in the baffle; then, laden with fuel, it flows into a number of U-shaped tubes located behind the baffle plate in the combustion zone. Here the fuel vaporizes before being swept forward and ignited. Is that the only difference? Yes. In both cases, the burnt gases are cooled by the rest of the air, and passed back to the turbines. And turbines, gentlemen, are the subject of our next session.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. rougher going: more difficult a bit tough: rather difficult funnily enough: strangely Thats quite a speed!: Thats very fast Hang on, Im coming to it: Wait, Im just going to talk about it
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EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: The ratio could be as high as 120 to 1. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Statement: How high is the ratio? Prompt: 120 to 1 Response: It could be as high as 120 to 1. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. How high is the ratio? How fast is the speed of the air? How low is the best ratio? How large is the quantity of air that's taken in? How high is the temperatura of the gases? How much is the velocity? 120 to 1 75 feet per second 15 to 1 18% 2,000 centigrade 500 feet per second
EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: The air is travelling at 75 feet per second. Prompt: moving Response: The air is moving at 75 feet per second. Now you do it. Statement: The air is travelling at 75 feet per second. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. moving 400 500 high velocity more slowly very fast lt's lt would be
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EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Put the following sentences into the active form: Statement: The fuel can be re-ignited by an electric plug. Response: An electric plug can re-ignite the fuel. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The fuel can be re-ignited by an electric plug. The air is driven into the combustion chamber by the compressor. The velocity of the air is reduced by the flare. A reverse flow of air is created by swirl vanes. Fuel is fed to the nozzle by pumps. The fuel is vaporized in the U-tubes by the heat of the combustion zone.
Further Reading Although all combustion chambers work on the principles already describes, they may be *installed in the engine in a number of different ways. The multiple combustion chamber layout is often used with engines having centrifugal compressors. Here, a number of flame tubes, each with its own outer casing, are disposed radially round the engine. Annular and tubo-annular combustion chambers are more often seen, however. The latter have flame tubes grouped round the engine, as in the multiple layout, but instead of each having a separate outer casing, they are all disposed in a common annular casing, shaped like two broad rings, one inside the other. With annular combustion chambers, the flame tube itself is in the form of a double ring which in turn is fitted into an annular casing of two more rings. We have seen that multiple combustion chambers may be the most suitable form for use with centrifugal compressors. Tubo-annular chambers are easier to manufacture and overhaul, while annular chambers, besides possessing these advantages, are also more compact. In addition, annular chambers are so efficient from the point of view of combustion that they considerably reduce many of the problems of air pollution. Combustion chambers are subject to many stresses; they must be capable of withstanding not only very high temperatures and changes of temperature, but also the corrosive effects produced by the products of combustion. In recent years, great progress has been made in developing materials capable of meeting these requirements.
Vocabulary
Install.- To fit or put in its correct place.
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EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. When is the multiple combustion chamber often used? 2. How are the flame tubes arranged in a multiple combustion chamber? 3. Which of the combustion chambers described is the most compact? 4. Why do annular combustion chambers help to reduce air pollution? 5. What do combustion chambers have to withstand?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. 2. 3. 4. combustion ignite perforated multiple 5. 6. 7. 8. overhaul Vane Nozzle Ratio 9. 10. 11. 12. decrease extinguish deliver dilute
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Unit 6
TURBINES Dialogue Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Good morning, Mr. North. What have you thought up for us1 today? Really, Ben! You know he's going to tell us about turbines. He said so last time. That's right. The basic principles of turbine design are relatively easy to understand, but their practical application is very complicated, and we shall only be able to scratch the surface2 of the problem. First, what does the turbine do? It drives the compressor, of course. Anything else? Yes. It drives the propeller shaft in turbo-prop aircraft, and the rotor shaft in helicopters, both through reduction *gears. I suppose it drives various *accessories, too. Fuel pumps, and things like that. Very good. Now, let's see how a turbine works. The hot exhaust gases from the combustion chamber first pass fixed nozzle guide vanes. They look like the stator blades in a compressor, don't they? Yes, in a way. They're aerofoil-shaped blades that are often made hollow inside. Do you know why? No, I don't! Could you guess if I added that cool air supplied by the compressor may be made to flow through them? Ah, I'm with you now. The exhaust gases make them so hot that they have to be cooled. Exactly. Immediately behind the guide vanes are the rotating blades of the turbine. These, too, are of basic aerofoil shape. They have to withstand
Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
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Chris: Ben: Mr. North:
enormous temperatures and strains, and great attention must be paid to the way in which they are attached to the *turbine disc. One way is shown here in a diagram. It's called the "Fir tree root" method. That's quite descriptive, isn't it? Yes, I agree. What sort of stresses are involved here, Mr. North? Well, a blade may weigh only a couple of ounces, but when the turbine is rotating at speed, it can exert a load of two tons or more. Do you notice anything else about the blade?
Ben: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North:
Chris: Ben: Mr. North:
Yes. Theres a sort of segment on the outer end. I suppose that, when all the blades are in place, these segments form a kind of outer ring. Is that to prevent leaks? Thats right. Now lets see the principles upon which the turbine works. What you have learnt about compressors will be useful here. I know! In a divergent passage. Hold on, Ben, youve got it wrong. As far as I know, the nozzle guide vanes form convergent passages. Exactly. But its not only the impulse of the gases striking the blades that works the turbine; a reaction force is also generated between the blades themselves. In most engines about half the power is produced by impulse, and the other half by reaction. The turbine blades seem to be twisted. Youre dead right;3 they are. Yes, their *stagger angle is greater at the tip than at the *root. This ensures that the gases do equal work throughout the length of the blade, and that they leave the turbine at a uniform axial velocity.
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Ben: Mr. North:
Christ: Mr. North:
We saw that there may be more than one turbine; one to drive the L. P. compressor, and one for the H. P. compressor. Are they mounted one behind the other? Yes, they are. A high ratio by-pass fan engine may even have three turbines, and three concentric shafts, running independently. This forms what is known as a triple-spool system. Such engines are not only very efficient, they are also extremely quiet. What happens to the gases when they have left the turbines, Mr. North? We must stop now, Christ, but Ill tell you all about that the next time we meet.
1. What have you thought up for us? : What have you prepared for us? 2. scratch the surface: Study superficially 3. dead right: absolutely right
EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What purpose does the turbine serve? Why are the nozzle guide vanes often hollow? Why must the turbine blades be very firmly attached to the turbine disk? What do the segments on the blades prevent? What are the two forces that drive the turbine round?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: The gases are so hot that they have to be cooled. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Example: Are the gases hot? Prompt: cool Response: Yes, theyre so hot that they have to be cooled. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Are the gases hot? Is the velocity high? Is the movement of the air fast? Is the pressure low? Are combustion engines subject to many stresses? Is that engine design complicated? cool decrease slow down raise strengthen simplify
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7. 8.
Is the volume of air small Is the temperature high?
increase Lower
EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: They have to withstand enormous temperatures Prompt: The inlet guide vanes Response: The inlet guide vanes have to withstand enormous temperatures. Now you do it. Statement: They have to withstand enormous temperatures. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The inlet guide vanes The turbine blades are required to resist very destructive stresses strains heat conditions
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: These engines are not only efficient, they are also quiet. Use this structure to complete the following sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. the air / hot / under pressure the blade / very light / very strong this type of compressor / robust / easy to manufacture the blades / hollow / twisted this principle / simple / very useful this combustion chamber / more efficient / lighter
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Further Reading The performance of a jet engine depends very largely upon the efficiency of its turbines, and enormous technological progress in their design has been made in recent years. Very high temperatures and stresses are involved, for air issuing from the combustion chamber may be travelling at over 2,000 feet per second, and may exceed 1,000C in temperature. In addition, a turbine is the more efficient the faster it rotates, but limits are imposed by the fact that stresses increase as the square of speed.1 The problem of turbine design can be appreciated when it is realized that the blades, while glowing red hot, may be moving at more than 1,300 feet per second at their tips. Only very special materials can withstand such conditions without soon suffering from *creep, corrosion, *fatigue or *thermal shock. At the same time, the blades must be made of materials that can be formed with accuracy, and machined by current manufacturing methods. It is in the turbine that much can be done to reduce engine noise, a problem that is causing world-wide concern as air traffic increases. Triple-spool systems that are efficient yet quiet are an important development in the war against noise pollution.
1
The square of speed: briefly, a stress level at 1,000 r.p.m. will increase by a factor of four at 2,000 r.m.p., and by a factor of nine at
3,000 r.p.m.
EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What speed does the air from the combustion chamber travel at? Does the temperature exceed 1,500C? How do stresses increase? If inferior materials are used for the turbine blades, what will they suffer from? What kind of materials must be used for making turbine blades?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and phrases in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. 2. 3. 4. practical application complicated accessories stuff 5. 6. 7. 8. in addition withstand accuracy exceed 9. 10. 11. 12. descriptive exert impulse uniform velocity
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Unit 7
REHEAT (AFTERBURNING) Dialogue Mr. North: Airline operators require engines that are powerful, yet economical and quiet. But sometimes performance is the major consideration. When do you think that would be? Chris: In fighter aircraft during combat, for instance; or when a plane needs to take off and climb very rapidly. Mr. North: Yes, thats right. How can one best increase performance for short periods like that? Ben: Put in a bigger engine! Chris: No, thats just not on.1 It would increase the weight and lead to higher overall fuel consumption. Ben: I know! Why not use the oxygen that wasnt burnt in the combustion chamber? You could add more fuel and ignite it. Chris: You would wreck the turbine if you raised the temperature of the exhaust gases. Ben: Not if you did it after the turbine stage, in the *jet pipe. Mr. North: You are being bright2 today, Ben. Thats precisely what can be done with *afterburning, or reheat, as its also called. Chris: Do most planes have it? Mr. North: No, because the afterburner makes an engine less efficient when its not in use. The jet pipe must be heavier, and the extra equipment somewhat restricts the gas flow, reducing thrust. Ben: What does it consist of, Mr. North? Mr. North: Well, youve studied combustion chamber design. You tell me. Ben: There must be fuel nozzles, for a start. Mr. North: Yes, These are often in the form of a circular *manifold, with holes at the rear which allow the fuel to escape. Chris: How does the fuel get into the manifold? Mr. North: Its pumped there through *feed pipes in the manifold support *struts.
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Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North
Hang on! You asked me to have a go at3 explaining it. There must also be an igniter plug, of course. Why? I would have thought the temperature of the exhaust gases would be high enough to cause *ignition. Surprisingly enough, an igniter is required. Kerosene needs a temperature of at least 800 C for proper combustion, and the exhaust gases may be cooler than that at high altitudes. What about the problem of the gases blowing out the flame? The velocity of the air in the combustion chamber had to be reduced because of this possibility. Yes, and the same problem occurs with afterburning. An annular ring, Vshaped in section, can be fitted downstream from the manifold. This creates turbulence and the necessary area of low-velocity gas flow. Is all the oxygen burned? No. The jet pipe becomes extremely hot, so its fitted with an inner heat shield, and some air is made to pass between this and the outer casing for cooling purposes. Can afterburning be fitted to any sort of engine? What about by-pass engines? In their case, two methods are possible: either the by-pass and turbine streams are mixed before the reheat stage; or fuel is added to both streams separately, and ignited. Well, even I can get the hang of that!4 Wait, Ben, theres more to come! At the rear end of the jet pipe there is the *propelling, or exit, nozzle that controls the correct balance of pressure, temperature and thrust in the engine. With a small nozzle, these values increase, while with too large a nozzle they may become too low.
Ah, I think I see what youre getting at.5 If the exit nozzle is the correct size when the afterburner is not being used, it will be too small when it is in use. Ben: So the temperatures and pressures in the engine could rise dangerously high. Mr. North: Precisely. Tell me, how can we get round6 that one? Chris:
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Ben: Thats easy. Fit a *variable nozzle. Mr. North: Very good, Ben. Youre catching on fast7 today! Well, we have to stop now, but next time we shall look at the exhaust system in more detail.
1. thats . . . not on: thats not possible 2. bright: intelligent 3. have a go at: try to 4. get the hang of that: understand that 5. I see what youre getting at: I understand what youre trying to see 6. get round: solve 7. catching on fast: understanding things quickly EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. How can the unburnt oxygen remaining in the exhaust gases be used to increase the power of an engine? Is an afterburner economical on fuel? Is the temperature of the gases high enough to cause ignition? What is the purpose of the annular V- shaped ring fitted downstream from the fuel manifold? Must the area of the propelling nozzle be increased or decreased when the afterburner is operating?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: The velocity Had to be reduced because of this possibility. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Example: Why did the velocity have to be reduced? Prompt: this possibility Response: The velocity had to be reduced because of this possibility. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Why did the velocity have to be reduced? this possibility Why did the blades have to be strengthened? the stresses Why did the igniter have to be used? the low temperature Why did the performance have to be improved? these requirement Why did an annular ring have to be fitted? the velocity of the exhaust gases Why did the power have to be reduced? the danger of overheating Why did the engine have to be replaced? structural damage Why did the noise have to be reduced? complaints from the public
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EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: The temperature could rise dangerously high. Prompt: extremely Response: The temperature could rise extremely high. Now you do it. Statement: The temperature could rise extremely high. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. extremely very be become pressure low will might
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure: You would wreck the turbine if you raised the temperature. Use this structure to complete the following sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. increase the weight / put in that engine improve the performance / use an afterburner soon get the hang of it / listen to the instructor solve the problem / fit a variable nozzle see what Im getting at / look at the diagram blow out the flame / increase the velocity of the air protect the jet pipe / install a heat shield create the necessary turbulence / fit an annular ring
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Further Reading Great care must be taken in the design of the propelling nozzle at the rear of the engine. If the flow of exhaust gases is impeded by too small an exit, temperatures and pressures will build up inside the engine, while too large an exit will make them fall, and create a loss of thrust. When afterburning is in operation, the area of the propelling nozzle can be increased by opening two eyelids that partially obstruct the nozzle aperture when closed. Alternatively, a ring of interlocking *flaps hinged to the outer casing can serve the same purpose. The pilot actuates these eyelids, or flaps, through *pneumatic rams, which in turn are linked to the fuel supply system. As they open the supply of fuel is increased, and as they close the supply is reduced again. In addition to this, a pressure ratio control unit is fitted to monitor temperature and pressure conditions around the turbine. Should these rise excessively, the control unit automatically actuates the rams, the eyelids or flaps open, and normal conditions are quickly restored. Planes fitted with by-pass engines that burn relatively little of the oxygen available in their combustion chambers can benefit spectacularly from the use of afterburning. Thrust con be increased by 70 % or more for short periods of time. This enables them to reach an economical cruising height far more quickly than planes not fitted with afterburners, a fact that partially compensates for their basically higher fuel consumption.
EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. What happens if the flow of gases is impeded by too small an exit? What may serve the same purpose as the eyelids? What is fitted to monitor temperature and pressure conditions around the turbine? Which type of engine can benefit spectacularly from the use of afterburning?
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5.
What is the possible increase in thrust?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and phrases in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. 2. 3. 4. economical performance interlocking thrust 5. 6. 7. 8. consist of manifold rear reduce 9. 10. 11. 12. cruising height restricts struts variable
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Unit 8
THE EXHAUST SYSTEM Dialogue Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: We were talking about the propelling nozzle last time, Mr. North, but we havent really studied the exhaust system in detail yet. Do you think we could go over it 1 with you today? Thats just what I had in mind, 2 Ben. Lets start where the exhaust gases leave the turbine. Can you hazard a guess at their temperature at this point? I think you said it could be less than 800 C. Thats why an afterburner requires its own igniter. Ah, Chris, youve remembered that. Good. To be more exact, the temperatures there may vary between 550 and 850 C. Naturally by-pass engines are cooler than non-by-pass engines, for the latter send all the air through their combustion chambers. Even these lower temperatures are pretty hot, to my way of thinking. 3 Yes, they are. So a protective *cone is usually fitted to the rear of the turbine disc to prevent these hot gases from blowing across it. Why is it cone shaped? Somehow, I think Ben would like to answer that one. Would I? Thats news to me! 4 Just think, Ben. How must the cone affect the area of the jet pipe at that point? 39
Ben: Mr. North:
Ben: Chris:
It makes it progressively larger, like a divergent passage. Oh, I see what youre driving at! 5 In a divergent passage, theres a drop in velocity. . . . Precisely! But why should we want that, Chris? Before you answer, remember that the gases leaving the turbine may be travelling at more than 1.000 feet per second. At that speed, they must produce high friction losses. So if you decreased the velocity, youd make the engine more efficient. Thats right, youve got it. 6 Further losses can be caused by residual *whirl velocity in the gas stream produced by the turbine; but the support *fairings in the exhaust system can be designed to straighten out the gas flow to some extent, so reducing these losses. What happens exactly when the exhaust gases reach the propelling nozzle? Thats not easy to explain in a few words, but Ill try to keep it short. 7 The propelling, or exit, nozzle forms a convergent duct. When the exhaust gases passing through it reach the speed of sound, the nozzle becomes *choked and no further increase in exhaust gas velocity is possible. What is the speed of sound? That depends on the temperature, doesnt it? The higher the temperature, the higher the speed of sound.
Ben: Mr. North:
Chris:
So, if you make the exhaust gases hotter, you can achieve a higher exit velocity, I suppose? True, but if you raise the temperature too much, youll destroy the turbine! Incidentally, when the nozzle becomes *choked, the static pressure of the gas at exit rises above that of the outside atmosphere. This produces what is known as pressure thrust. This is small, of course, compared with the main thrust of engine which is produced by the momentum change of the gas stream. I rather thought that the propelling nozzle was convergent-divergent in shape.
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Mr. North Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Chris: Ben:
Some are, especially on high pressure ratio engines. When the exhaust gases enter the convergent part their velocity rises. . . . And when they pass on into the divergent part, theres an increase in pressure. Yes. And this pressure acting on the walls produces yet more thrust. Let me get this quite straight. 8 Thrust is produced by the acceleration of the gas stream through the engine. More thrust is produced across the face of the nozzle. Is that right? Yes. That is known as pressure thrust. And yet more thrust is obtained from the pressure of the gases on the walls of the divergent part of the nozzle. Bravo, Chris. I couldnt have explained that better myself. And dont ask me to try, Mr. North, as I can see that times up for today!
1. go over it: discuss it 2. had in mind: had intended to do 3. to my way of thinking: in my opinion 4. Thats news to me! I didnt know that! 5. driving at: trying to explain 6. got it: understood it 7. keep it short: explain briefly 8. get this quite straight: understand this properly
EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Are the exhaust gases of a by-pass engine cooler than those of a turbo-jet? Why is there a cone downstream of the turbine disc? What might be the velocity of the gases as they leave the turbine? What is the speed of sound? How is the most thrust obtained in a jet engine?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: If you decreased the velocity, youd make the engine more efficient. Use this structure to make complete sentences: Example: decrease the velocity / make it more efficient Response: If you decreased the velocity, youd make it more efficient. Now you do it.
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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
decrease the velocity / make it more efficient fit an adjustable nozzle / be able to control the temperature fit a protective cone / get more protection make the exhaust gases hotter / increase the exit velocity add this modification / improve the design change the design / straighten out the gas flow add an afterburner / make it more powerful use a triple spool system / have a quieter engine
EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: Lets start at the point where the gases leave the turbine. Prompt: Shall we Response: Shall we start at the point where the gases leave the turbine? Now you do it. Statement: Lets start at yhe point where the gases leave the turbine. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Shall we begin at the stage the exhaust gases I suggest we the combustion chamber
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Reply to the following sentences in the negative: Example: Is the exhaust flow of a by-pass engine hotter than that of a turbo-jet? Response: No, it isnt so hot. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Is the exhaust of a by-pass engine hotter than that of a turbo-jet? Do piston engines turn faster than jet engines? Would this engine have worked better with a different fuel? Are flying conditions worse in summer than in winter? Do jet engines work better at low altitudes than at high ones?
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Further Reading Although the basic principles of the engine are widely understood, doubt often remains in peoples minds as to the exact position of the thrust forces involved. In fact, these are distributed throughout the engine. Some are in a forward direction, while others are towards the rear, and it is the amount by which the sum of the former exceeds the sum of the latter that determines the efficiency, or rated thrust, of an engine. As a rule, it can be said that forward thrust is created wherever there are divergent passages which convert velocity, or kinetic energy, into pressure energy. Conversely, rearward thrust occurs in convergent passages, where pressure drops but velocity rises. Following the air as it passes through the engine; we see that considerable forward thrust occurs in the compressors because of the rise in pressure there. The air then passes to the combustion chambers, where even greater forward pressure is exerted on the walls as the heated air expands. The expanding gases next meet the turbine guide vanes, where they are accelerated and deflected onto the turbine blades. Both vanes and blades are subjected to large rearward forces, often known as *drag. Slight forward thrust occurs on the turbine cone, while the convergent shape of the propelling nozzle produces yet more drag. EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Where are the thrust forces? What is another word for velocity energy? Where does rearward thrust occur? Why does considerable forward thrust occur in the compressor? What happens when the expanding gases meet the turbine guide vanes?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and phrases in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. 2. 3. 4. system requires protective cone 5. 6. 7. 8. deflected friction forward direction residual 9. whirl 10 basic principles 11. difference 12 acceleration
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Unit 9
NOISE SUPPRESSION Dialogue Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: You mentioned some time ago, Mr, North, that airline operators require engines that are not only powerful and economical, but quiet, too. How can quietness best be achieved? Its a difficult problem, Chris, and one to which theres no perfect solution. Lets face it, 1 aeroplanes are naturally noisy things. Youre telling me! 2 I once lived near an airport, and life was pure hell at times. You can talk, 3 Ben! That old motor-bike of yours is worse than any jet plane. Yes, but were concerned with aero-engines. There are, in fact, three main sources of noise in a jet engine. Can you name them for me? Well, the obvious one is the exhaust gas stream coming out at the back. Then I suppose the turbine itself must be quite noisy. Yes, and so are the compressor. But which is the noisiest? That depends on the type of engine. With pure jets, the most noise is created by the external mixing of the exhaust gas stream with the atmosphere. You cant stop that happening. No, of course not. But by careful design of the exhaust nozzle, you can make the gas flow merge more efficiently with the atmosphere. This creates less turbulence, and therefore less noise. How are such nozzles made, then, Mr. North? 44
Mr. North:
Ben:
There are two main types of noise suppressor. One consists of metal *corrugations inside the nozzle, with parts open to the atmosphere. Air flows into these corrugations and mixes with the jet stream, reducing the turbulence. Theres a diagram to illustrate that. And another one to show the second method.
Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:
Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben:
Yes, The other noise suppressor works on a similar principle, but in this case the exhaust gases are split to flow through a number of * lobes, where again they mix efficiently with the air. Dont these suppressors reduce the efficiency of the engine? Yes, they do. A nozzle with deep corrugations or large lobes must be bigger in diameter than an unsuppressed nozzle if it is to pass the same volume of gases, and the increased size inevitably means greater weight and more drag. I dont think pure jets can ever be made really quiet. But what about bypass engines; they are less noisy, arent they? Even so, they have their problems. Their exhaust jet may be quieter, but their compressor and turbines are by no means silent. In fact the fan of a high by-pass ratio engine is sometimes as noisy as a pure jet. What exactly creates all this noise? There are two main sources. Discrete tones and Harmonics are produced as the rotor blades pass through the wakes set up in the air by the preceding stationary blades.4 And background noise is produced by the reaction of each blade to the air passing over its surface. Then weve had it! 5 Theres no solution unless you take out all the blades in the compressors and turbines; and you cant do that! No, of course not. But a lot of noise is created by the guide vanes and none are needed in front of a large single-stage fan. Such a quiet fan could be driven by a high by-pass ratio engine which is fairly quiet, too. Chris is quite right. And if the speed of the fan can be reduced without loss of total thrust, then the engine will be quieter still. That would be possible with a triple-spool engine fitted with a variable area exhaust nozzle. By reducing the area of the nozzle, you could reduce
45
Chris: Mr. North:
the speed of the fan and its turbine, so cutting down the amount of noise they make. But that would increase the velocity of the exhaust gases, and they would make more noise! Exactly, so a compromise must be reached. The exhaust nozzle must be reduced only to the point where the noise levels from the fan, turbines and exhaust stream are the same. That will produce the quietest engine of all with the least loss of efficiency.
1. Lets face it: admit the facts 2. Youre telling me!: I know that only too well! 3. You can talk!: You are guilty too, so you should not criticize other people 4. Discrete tones: noises separated by fixed intervals of pitch; harmonics: secondary vibrating noise. Wakes are areas of air disturbed by the stator blades. 5. weve had it!: theres nothing we can do EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. What are the three main sources of noise in a jet engine? 2. What creates the most noise in a pure jet engine? 3. How can you make the gas flow merge more efficiently with the atmosphere? 4. Do the suppressors reduce the efficiency of an engine? 5. What happens if you reduce the speed of the fan and its turbine?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: The fan of a high by-pass ratio engine is sometimes as noisy as a pure jet. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Example: Is the fan noisy? Prompt: sometimes / a pure jet Response: Its sometimes as noisy as a pure jet. Now you do it. 1. Is the fan noisy? 2. Is the exhaust stage important? 3. Are centrifugal compressors efficient? 4. Is this design good? 5. Are metal corrugations effective? sometimes / a pure jet just / the combustion stage almost / axial-flow compressors quite / that design just / lobes
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6. Is the turbine noisy?
nearly / the exhaust gas flow
EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: I suppose the turbine must be quite noisy. Prompt: the compressors Response: I suppose the compressors must be quite noisy Now you do it. Statement: I suppose the turbine must be quite noisy Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. the compressors the exhaust gas stream is makes a lot of noise most of the should think
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Complete the following sentences with their appropriate question tags: Example: Airline operators require engines that are quiet. Response: Airline operators require engines that are quiet, dont they? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Airline operators require engines that are quiet. We are only concerned here with jet engines. You can stop that happening. There was a diagram on page fifty. Jet engines cant be made completely silent. They would have made quieter engines if it had been possible.
Further Reading Many people feel that the day man first landed on moon was a critical point in our attitude towards technology. Before that day, there seemed something frighteningly inevitable about the march of scientific progress. If a project were feasible, it had to be attempted, at whatever cost to the environment. Only when Neil Armstrong took that historic step did mankind gain sufficient self-confidence to be able to say no to the
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dreams of our scientists. Henceforth, the quality of our lives would become more important than our technological pride. People looked at their world with freshlyopened eyes; and to their horror they saw the effects of misapplied technology: rivers polluted beyond redemption, towns no longer a joy to live in, the very air we breathe made unbearable with noxious gases and the incessant roar of aircraft overhead. The change in public opinion has naturally affected the aircraft industry. Today the emphasis is no longer simply on producing faster and yet faster planes. They must be quiet, too. Progress will continue, but in future it will be directed towards preserving the environment, not destroying it. EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What event changed many people attitude towards technology? What became more important than our technological pride? What was wrong with the rivers? What has this change in public opinion affected? Planes must not only be fast, they must be . . . .
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. source 2. exhaust 3. technology 4. noise 5. mixing 6. corrugated 7. turbulence 8. split 9. inevitable 10. drag 11. preceding 12. area
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Unit 10
THRUST REVERSAL Dialogue Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Weve been talking about aircraft and the effect they have on the environment. But its not just a matter of the horrible noise they make. No. Airports too create problems. As planes become heavier and faster, they need longer runways that swallow up more and more precious land. Designers are aware of this. Thats why so much research is going into the development of vertical take-off and S. T. O. L. aircraft. S. T. O. L.? What does that stand for? 1 The letters are for Short Take Off and Landing. Thats all very fine, but 2 arent there less revolutionary ways of slowing down a plane? You bet there are! 3 Didnt you know that the disc brakes you find on so many cars today were first developed for aeroplanes? Thats true. But even disc brakes are inadequate on runways that are wet or covered by snow and ice. Some planes deploy small parachutes on landing, but personally Ive never thought much of that idea. No, it does seem a bit primitive. With propeller-driven planes, of course, the problem has already been solved simply by reversing the *pitch of the blades. 49
Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North: Ben: Chris:
And a very efficient method it is, too. Some of these planes can even taxi backwards! Yes, I once saw a military transport plane do that. I could hardly believe my eyes! Im sure you couldnt, but lets keep to the point. 4 Most modern planes dont have propellers; so how do you stop a jet? Turn the engine round and make it blow the other way! Oh, dont be silly, Ben Hes not quite as silly as you might think, Chris. Perhaps it isnt practical to turn the whole engine round, but there is nothing to stop you deflecting the flow of the exhaust gases forwards. In fact its a method thats used both when the plane is in flight, to make a more rapid rate of descent possible, and for braking purposes as it lands. you see, Chris, Im not as stupid as I look. But how is the airflow reversed, Mr. North? Well, you tell me. Let me see. If you blocked off the exhaust exit. . . . Ive got it! Look at this diagram. *Bucket doors or clamshell doors are fitted near the rear of the engine. In normal flight they lie *flush with the sides of the engine, allowing the gases to pass without hindrance.
Ben: Chris: Ben:
In that position they also *seal off the forward-facing *thrust reverser ducts that lead to the outside atmosphere. Then, when the plane lands, the pilot operates a lever and the doors close, blocking off the normal exit for the exhaust gases. As they close, they uncover the thrust reverser ducts. . . 50
Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:
. . . and the gases are deflected forwards into the outside atmosphere. It seems such an obvious method, now we know. But does it really work? It does indeed. The doors are operated by pneumatically or hydraulically operated rams, and are of course built to withstand the high temperature and pressures of the exhaust gases. In a ducted fan engine you could reverse just the flow of the cold by-pass air. Then heat wouldnt be such a problem. That method is used. Folding *blocker doors, or flaps, are fitted so that in normal flight they allow the cold airstream to pass. They also block off the thrust reverser ducts. . . . . . and a cowl covers the outside of the duct to give a cleaner line to the engine, and so reduce drag. Good. Now, when the doors fold back, they slide the cowl open and redirect the cold airstream through the thrust reverser ducts. At the same time, other doors swing back to *spoil the flow of the hot exhaust gases. It all sound quite simple! I know. But in fact theres a lot for the pilot to remember. For one thing, he has to be very careful with his operational technique, and ensure that thrust reversal is cancelled before the plane speed drops below a certain point. Otherwise, there can be severe ingestion of dust and grit from the runway into the engine. Well, I think thats all for today, then. Next time well talk about fuel system.
1. 2. 3. 4. stand for: represent Thats all very fine, but. . .: Thats a good idea as far as it goes, but. . . You bet there are!: There certainly are! lets keep to the point: lets just talk about the subject we meant to discuss
EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What do the letters S.T.O.L. stand for? When are disc brakes least effective? How may propeller-driven planes be braked? How can the exhaust gas flow be deflected forwards in a jet engine? How are the doors actuated?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: The doors are operated by pneumatic or hydraulic rams. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: 51
Example: How do you operate the doors? Prompt: pneumatic or hydraulic rams Response: The doors are operated by pneumatic or hydraulic rams. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. How do you operate the doors? How do you slow down the plane? How do you reverse the airflow? How do you reduce drag? How do you drive the compressor? How do you alter the velocity? How do you feed fuel to the nozzle? How do you light the fuel? pneumatic or hydraulic rams deflecting the flow of gases the use of clamshell doors fitting a cowl the turbine restricting the size of the air annulus pumps a spark
EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: You could reverse the flow of the cold by-pass air. Prompt: the gases Response: You could reverse the flow of the gases. Now you do it. Statement: You could reverse the flow of the cold by-pass air. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. the gases airflow deflect fit clamshell doors bucket folding blocker They Theyve fitted
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EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure: Arent there less revolutionary ways of slowing down a plane?. Use this structure to complete the following sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. easier / suppress the noise quieter / increase the velocity more advanced / reduce the turbulence cheaper / cut down the amount of noise more efficient / cool the blades better / attach the impeller
Further Reading No one who is acquainted with modern airports can consider them beautiful. With their noise and miles of drab concrete runways, they are disfiguring blots upon the landscape, an insult to the environment. Yet they must exist, for man will travel, so how can they be made less objectionable? There seems to be no simple solution to the problem. The suggestion that they be built in remote areas, and linked to the main centres of population by helicopter *feeder services, is hardly realistic, for helicopters are far too extravagant on fuel to be economically viable. No doubt a compromise will eventually be reached. Concrete will never be anything but ugly; but modern technology can at least limit its destructive spread by developing aircraft that require shorter runways. Already thrust reversers are playing their part, and much research is now being concentrated upon the development of S.T.O.L. aircraft. Helicopters may never be cheap enough for commercial service, but other new forms of rapid transport exist. There is the hover-train, for example. Powered by *linear induction motors, it is both fast and virtually silent, and could well link distant airports to the towns they serve. EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What type of aircraft need only short runways? Are helicopters likely to become the main link between airports and the towns they serve? Why are helicopters not suitable? What new forms of land transport are being developed? What are the two main advantages of hover-trains?
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EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and the phrase in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. environment 2. remote areas 3. pitch 4. reverse 5. flush 6. compromise 7. airstream 8. automatically 9. spoil 10. fold 11. solution 12. deflect
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Unit 11
FUEL SYSTEM Dialogue Ben: Mr. North: How does the pilot control the speed of his plane, Mr. North? Does he vary the flow of fuel to the combustion chamber, as you do with a car? Yes, in a way. But things are rather more complicated with a jet engine. You see, an engines thrust depends upon the weight of air passing through it, and this varies according to the aircrafts speed, its altitude and the temperature of the air itself. You mean that if any of these alter, then the speed of the plane will alter too, even though the pilot hasnt touched the *throttle controls? Precisely. That could be dangerous. Yes, but in fact every engine is fitted with an automatic control unit that senses these variables and applies the necessary corrections. How does this unit work, Mr. North? It would take up too much time if I went into details, for the units are rather complicated; but they all give the pilot precise control of his speed, whatever the conditions. How does the fuel get from the *tanks to the combustion chambers? May I butt in1 here? Pumps are used, arent they? One type consists of a number of spring-loaded pistons or *plungers fitted to a root *assembly. The outer ends of the plungers *bear against a non-rotating *camplate. As the plungers revolve, they are forced down by the camplate, then released again. This produces the required pumping action. Good heavens, Chris, where on earth did you learn that? Elementary, my dear Watson!2 Ive been studying the diagram.
Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris:
Ben: Chris:
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Mr. North: Ben:
Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
You might have added, Chri, that a *servo piston is linked to the camplate so that the angle of its inclination can be varied. Oh, I see. By altering the angle of the camplate, you can alter the *stroke of the plungers and therefore the quantity of the fuel being pumped. And the servo piston itself is regulated by the automatic control unit we were talking about just now. Is it true that such a pump can deliver up to 2,000 gallons of fuel per hour? It is, and a pressure of up to 2,000 lbs per square inch. Mind you,3 it takes a lot of power from the engine to work it, 50 or more horse-power in some cases. Isnt there another sort of pump that works on the principle of meshing gears? Yes, its output depends directly on the speed of the engine driving it, so a *spill-valve actuated by the control unit is incorporated. This allows excess fuel to be *tapped off and returned to inlet. Weve talked about the control unit and fuel pumps; what else is there in the system? Well, lets go through it stage by stage, starting at the fuel tank themselves. These are usually pressurized to prevent the fuel from boiling; otherwise excessive *vapour loss can occur. Isnt there a danger of *vapour locking, too? That can even happen to cars on a hot day. Yes, thats true. The tanks may be pressurized either by using an inert gas or, more simply, by installing a controlled *venting system that regulates the pressure of the fuel vapour itself.
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Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North
Arent there also conditions where the fuel might become too cold? In winter, for example, or at high altitudes, ice crystals could form and block the flow. Yes, thats another problem, so a fuel heater is included in the system. You could kill two birds with one stone4 by using the engines oil cooler as a fuel heater. That is done. For obvious reasons the device is known as a fuel cooled oil cooler. Isnt hot air from the compressor sometimes used to heat the fuel? Yes, it is. But do remember that no system would be complete without efficient fuel *filters. Well, thats all for todayand next week well talk about starting and ignition.
1. 2. butt in: interrupt Elementary, my dear Watson!: the expression always used by Sherlock Holmes, the famous fictional detective, when explaining things to his friend Dr. Watson 3. Mind you: Dont forget 4. kill two birds with one stone: solve two problems at the same time (English proverb) EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What is the function of the fuel control unit? How can the output of a plunger-type fuel pump be adjusted? Why are fuel tanks pressurized? Why is a fuel heater required? Are filters always installed in fuel system?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: Either an inert gas or a venting system is used to pressurize the tanks. Use this structure to respond to the following questions: Example: Do you use an inert gas to pressurize the tanks? Prompt: a venting system Response: Either an inert gas or a venting system is used. Now you do it. 1. Do you use an inert gas to pressurize the tanks? a venting system
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2. Do you use hot air to heat the fuel? 3. Do you use this kind of pump? 4. Do you use steel to make the rotor blades? 5. Do you use conventional propellers? 6. Do you use corrugations to suppress the noise? Notice that these two are in the future: 7. Will you use an axial-flow compressor to reduce the volume of air? 8. Will you use this design? EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL
an oil cooler a pump with a spill valve aluminium alloy ducted fans lobes a centrifugal compressor that one
Statement: Ive been studying the diagram on this page. Prompt: looking at Response: Ive been looking at the diagram on this page. Now you do it. Statement: Ive been studying the diagram on this page. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. looking at Hes page 32 Has he looked the example that page Have you
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Make the following sentences into questions: Example: The engine is fitted with an automatic fuel control unit. Response: Is the engine fitted with an automatic fuel control unit? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The engine is fitted with an automatic fuel control unit. Kerosene type fuels boil at higher temperatures. There are some other types of fuel. Ice crystals could form at high altitudes. The output of the pump depends upon the speed of the engine. 58
6.
Ive got to refill the tanks now.
Further Reading However good its mechanical design, a jet engine depends for its efficiency upon the quality of the fuel that it burns. There are two main types of fuel in use today: the kerosene type and what is known as the *wide cut gasoline type. The latter, while possessing certain advantages, may create problems, for it boils at lower temperatures and altitudes. This can cause serious vapour loss and even vapour locks in the fuel system itself. Both sorts of fuel must flow easily, have a high calorific value, be noncorrosive and provide efficient combustion under all working conditions. The specific gravity of the fuel is important, too, for this can affect the possible *range and carrying capacity of a plane. Briefly, some fuels store more energy for a given volume, while others store more energy for an equivalent weight. For long flights, where the limited size of the fuel tanks is the main problem, a fuel that releases the most energy in relation to its weight is obviously more suitable for shorter flights, where the useful *payload of the aircraft is the prime concern of the operator. EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Does the quality of the fuel used affect the efficiency of a jet engine? Wide cut gasoline is one type of fuel. What is the other type? Why is the specific gravity of fuel important? What fuel should you use on long flights? What is the prime concern of the operator on shorter flights?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and the phrase in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. non-corrosive 2. altitude 3. flow (verb) 4. precise 5. pump 6. specific gravity 7. camplate 8. regulate 9. equivalent 10. spill 11. vapour 12. prime concern
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Unit 12
STARTING AND IGNITION Dialogue Chris: Ben: Mr. North Ben: One sometimes hears of airliners being stranded after a *forced landing simply because no engine starting equipment was locally available. How does one start up a jet engine, Mr. North? May I chip in1 here? You see, I once visited an air-force base as a cadet, and they showed me how it was done. Carry on, Ben, the floor is all yours.2 Well, the engine I saw was fitted with a starter motor. This had a small impulse-type turbine which rotated the engine through reduction gears. There was also an automatic *clutch mechanism which disconnected the two once the engine fired. Do you get3 what I mean? Yes, Im with you. But what drove de turbine of the starter motor in the first place? Ah, funnily enough4 that was turned by high velocity gases given off by a cordite *cartridge. The cartridge was loaded into a *breech, rather like that of a gun, and fired electrically. Can I put you straight on one point5, Ben? This method is used mainly in military aircraft. It allows the engine to be started quickly without the help of external equipment. How about commercial airliners? Do they ever use electric starter motors like those fitted to a car? Yes, low or high voltage DC motors can be used, but the electric supply must be passed through a system of *relays and *resistances so that the voltage is built up gradually. The final drive is through reduction gears and an automatic clutch. Are there any other ways of starting an engine? Oh yes, lots. One method that is economical to operate, yet offers high power output for little weight, is to use a small, self-contained gas turbine engine. This has a *free turbine that turns the main engine via the usual reduction gears and clutch. Well, thats a laugh!6 How on earth do you start the first gas turbine that starts the main gas turbine engine? It is only a small one, Ben, and it has its own electric or *hydraulic starting system. Hydraulic systems, I believe, are sometimes used to start the main engine itself. Yes. On smaller jets one of the engines pumps may serve the dual function of a starter motor. It can be connected to the engine by the usual reduction gears and clutch, and is rotated by hydraulic pressure from an external source. When the engine fires, it reverts to its normal role as a pump. Is air pressure never used, Mr. North?
Chris: Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:
Ben: Mr. North
Ben:
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Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:
Chris:
It is indeed. This method is light, economical and simple to operate, so it is the system used on most commercial airliners today. Even some military planes are fitted with it. Can you give us a rough idea7 of how it works? There are several variations, Ben. Air under pressure may be taken either from an external ground supply, or from an auxiliary power unit installed in the aircraft itself. It may even be taken from one of the planes engines that is already running. Let me guess the next stage. The air is fed through ducts and nozzles so that it *impinges on the engines turbine blades, thus making them turn. Very good, Chris. Often, however, a separate air starter motor is fitted. This has a turbine rotor worked by the compressed air. The turbine transmits its power to the engine. . . . Via the usual reduction gears and clutch! Precisely. In some cases, where no external source of compressed air is available, air from storage bottles inside the aircraft is used. This is mixed with fuel taken from the engines fuel system, and ignited in a combustion chamber. Combustion is continuous, and the resultant gases drive the starter motor. Yes, I think I understand that. Thank you, Mr. North; well see you again next week.
An air starter motor
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. chip in: interrupt the floor is all yours: you may speak get: (here) understand funnily enough: its strange but. . . . put you straight on one point: correct you about one fact thats a laugh: thats funny
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7.
give us a rough idea: explain briefly
EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Can all jet engines be started without the assistance of ground equipment? How can a gas turbine starter motor itself be started? How are starter motors usually connected to the main engine? What method of starting is used on most commercial airliners? Can an engine that is already running be used to start the other engines of a plane?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: How does one start up a jet engine? Use this structure to make new sentences. Example: How is a jet engine started up? Response: How does one start up a jet engine? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. How is a jet engine started up? How is the fuel mixture ignited? The flame can be relit flight. This type of starter motor is often met in modern aircraft. I dont know if that can be done. Biplanes are seldom seen these days.
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EXERCISE 3: PROGRESSIVE SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: This way of starting the engine is used mainly in military aircraft. Prompt: This method Response: This method of starting the engine is used mainly in military aircraft. Now you do it. Statement: This way of starting the engine is used mainly in military aircraft. Prompts: 1. This method
2. of turning 3. 4. 5. 6. the turbine assembly is employed principally in commercial airliners
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Put the following sentences into direct speech: Example: He asked if he could put a question. Response: Can I put a question? Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. He asked if he could put a question. He told them to study the diagrams. He told them that they should have made more notes. He told them not to worry about the problem. He asked why they were studying jet engines. They replied that they found the subject both interesting and useful.
Further Reading Two separate systems are required to start a gas turbine engine: the compressor/turbine assembly must be rotated up to a speed at which the air passing into the combustion chamber can mix properly with the fuel from the burner; then the mixture must be ignited. During engine starting, the two systems work together, Provision for them to work independently, however, must also be made, for ignition alone may be required for *re-lighting during flight, while, on the ground, the engine needs to be turned for checking and maintenance purposes. Ignition systems are
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relatively simple but must be completely reliable. A low voltage supply is taken from the aircrafts electrical system and fed to a high energy ignition unit that consists basically of a transformer and a *rectifier, a *capacitor and a sealed discharge gap. When the voltage in the capacitor reaches the breakdown value of the gap, the high voltage released is discharged across the face of the igniter plug in the combustion chamber. In practice, two ignition units with their associated plugs are always fitted. One, with a high value output, is used for starting, while the other, giving a continuous low value output, ensures automatic relight should flame extinction occur during take off in heavy rain or snow. EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. How many separate systems are required to start a gas turbine engine? Why does the engine need to be turned on the ground? What does a high energy ignition unit basically consist of? How many ignition units are fitted? In what weather conditions would you wish to be sure of automatic relight?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and the phrase in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. equipment 2. discharge 3. reduction gears 4. clutch 5. cartridge 6. output 7. hydraulic 8. external 9. start up 10. transmits 11. supply 12. relatively simple
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Unit 13
CONTROLS AND INSTRUMENTATION Dialogue Mr. North: By this stage you should have a pretty clear idea of how a jet engine works in principle, so today I want to look at things from the pilots point of view. Chris: Ah, that means were going to deal with controls and instrumentation. Being a pilot myself, thats right up my street.1 Mr. North: I think youll all find it interesting. The controls are designed to make the handling of the engines as simple as possible. Weve already discussed the automatic control unit in the fuel system. . . . Ben: Yes, that ensure that the plane flies at the right speed for a given *throttle setting, whatever the operating conditions, doesnt it? Mr. North: Thats right. Even the afterburner is linked to the throttle so that it automatically comes into operation when required. Theres no separate lever for it. Chris: How does the pilot stop the engines at the end of a flight? Does he *shut off the fuel supply by closing the throttle completely? Mr. North: Yes, thats one method. Alternatively, he may turn off the main *cock in the fuel system by operating a separate switch on the *instrument panel. Ben: Are the thrust reverser also linked automatically to the throttle controls, Mr. North? 65
Mr. North:
No, Ben. They need to be under independent control, so they have their own lever. But the pilots work-load is reduced in a number of other ways. Safety devices, for instance, ensure that maximum permissible turbine temperatures are never exceeded; theyll even *shut down an engine completely if a main failure should occur. Ben: It strikes me2 that the pilot has a pretty easy time of it.3 With nearly everything done for him, does he really earn his large salary? Chris: I object to that! He still has to fly the plane, Ben, often in appalling weather conditions. And the responsibility is enormous, for the lives of many people are in his hands. Ben: Yes, thats true enough, I suppose. And in addition he has to keep an eye on4 all those instruments in front of him. What are they all for, Mr. North? Mr. North: They tell him lots of important facts about how the engines are behaving. What sort of information do you think they give him? Chris: Well, obviously he needs to know how fast the engines are turning. I believe this can be shown by making each one drive a small electric generator. Naturally, the quicker the engine rotates the more current is produced, and the exact amount generated can be shown on a *dial in front of the pilot. Ben: Yes, The dial can be *calibrated to read directly in engine revolutions per minute r.p.m. Mr. North: Good. But there is also a simpler, non-mechanical method of assessing engine speed. It consists merely of a toothed phonic wheel on the compressor shaft and, near its periphery, a *probe attached to the casing. As the teeth rotate, they vary the *magnetic flux across a coil inside the probe, thus creating an electric current. This current, too, is proportional to the speed of rotation of the engine, and, as before, the exact amount can be shown on a calibrated dial in front of the pilot.
The probe and phonic wheel Chris: I suppose the engines thrust is as important as its rotational speed.
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Mr. North:
Yes, it is. And the pilot must also know the temperature of the gases at the turbine stage. But I shall leave you to read up more about that elsewhere. Ben: Arent there also dials to show the temperature, pressure and rate of flow of the fuel? Mr. North: Yes, and the temperature and pressure of the oil, too. In fact every aspect of the planes behaviour is carefully *monitored. EXERCISE 1: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. What does the pilot need to know about the gases at the turbine stage? Which lever brings the afterburner into operation? How does the pilot stop the engines? Are the thrust reversers linked to the throttle levers? What do the letters R.P.M. stand for?
EXERCISE 2: STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Notice this structure from the conversation: The pilot shuts off the fuel supply by closing the throttle. Use this structure to respond to the following questions. Use pronouns instead of nouns in the first part of the answer. Example: How does the pilot shut off the fuel supply? Prompt: closing the throttle Response: He shuts off the fuel supply by closing the throttle. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. How does the pilot shut off the fuel supply? How does the pilot select the right speed? How does the pilot know the temperature of the gases? How do the engines produce an electric current? How does the pilot assess engine speed? How do safety devices reduce the pilots workload? How does the pilot stop the engines? How does the pilot turn off the main cock in the fuel system? closing the throttle adjusting a lever looking at this dial turning a generator watching the dials controlling the engine temperature shutting off the fuel supply operating a separate Switch
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EXERCISE 3: SUBSTITUTION DRILL Statement: You must remember that the lives of many people are in his hands. Prompt: We
Response: We must remember that the lives of many people are in his hands.
Now you do it. Statement: You must remember that the lives of many people are in his hands. Prompts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. We should realize that the safety is of the passengers is the pilots responsibility
EXERCISE 4: FURTHER STRUCTURAL PRACTICE Answer the following questions in the affirmative, using the prompts. Example: Have you seen the new engine? Prompt: yesterday
Response: Yes, I saw it yesterday. Now you do it. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Have you seen the new engine? Has the prototype flown yet? yesterday last year
Have the apprentices begun their course yet? on Monday You have done that job, havent you? Has the old engine been removed yet? Has the pilot been told about that? last week this morning two hours ago
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Further Reading No instrumentation system would be complete if it failed to show the pilot actual power *output of his engines. This is achieved by positioning *pitot tubes at appropriate points inside the jet pipe. These sense the pressure of the exhaust gases, then pass the information, either directly or through an electrically operated transmitter, to instruments on the control panel. Thrust, however, depends not only on jet pipe pressure, but also on the pressure of air entering the engine, so additional pitot tube are often fitted at the compressor inlet. By comparing inlet and jet pipe pressures, the engines true thrust can be found, although further corrections may have to be made for variations in the surrounding atmospheric conditions. The pilot must also know the temperature of the gases entering the turbines, for too high a temperature could lead to the total destruction of the engine. Thermocouples may be used to sense the J.P.T., or jet pipe temperature, but more accurate *readings can be obtained by using a *radiation pyrometer. This instrument uses a *photo-voltaic cell to convert the infra-red radiations given off by the turbine blades themselves into electrical energy the hotter the blades, the greater the e.m.f. produced inside the cell. This current is then amplified and fed to a dial in front of the pilot. EXERCISE 5: COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. How is the actual power output of the engines found? What do the pitot tubes do? How can you find the engines true thrust? What may be used to sense the J.P.T.? What will give you more accurate readings? What do the turbine blades give off?
EXERCISE 6 Use the following words and the phrase in sentences of your own to show that you understand their meaning and use: 1. amplified 2. work-load 3. permissible 4. information 5. exceed 6. atmospheric conditions 7. periphery 8. calibrated 9. electrically operated 10. aspect 11. appropriate 12. temperature
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English Jet Engine

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English Jet Engine

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Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Ben: Mr. North: Chris

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Ben: Chris: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Exercise 1: Comprehension questions

Exercise 2: structural practice

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Exercise 3: progressive substitution drill

Exercise 4: further structural practice

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

when he's got

during the course

Exercise 5: comprehension questions

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Exercise 1: comprehension questions

Exercise 2: structural practice

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Exercise 3: progressive substitution drill

Exercise 4: further structural practice

German flying bomb V1 in World War II was powered by a pulsejet

Turbine Engine Technical English Course

Exercise 5: comprehension questions

Saturn 5 Launch vehicle for Apollo XIII

Chris: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:

A typical axial-flow compressor

Chris: Mr. North:

Exercise 1: comprehension questions

Exercise 2: structural practice

Exercise 3: progressive substitution drill

Exercise 4: further structural practice

Exercise 5: comprehension questions

Chris: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North:

Chris: Ben: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Chris: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:

The twin spool system

Exercise 1: comprehension questions

Exercise 2: structural practice

Exercise 3: progressive substitution drill

Exercise 4: further structural practice

Exercise 5: comprehension questions

Ben: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North:

Chris: Ben: Chris: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:

Chris: Mr. North:

Chris: Ben: Mr. North:

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Chris: Ben: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North:

Christ: Mr. North:

Is the volume of air small Is the temperature high?

What is the possible increase in thrust?

Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North: Ben: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North: Chris: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North:

Ben: Mr. North: