8

13

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17
17
19
22
26
32
38
47
55

2.
2.
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2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
3.
3.0.
3.1.
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63
63
65
71
76
82
87
91
91
93
98
104
111

4.
4.0.
4.1.
4.2.
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4.5.

117
117
118
122
129
132
139

3.
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5.3.
5.4.
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5.7.
5.8.

147
147
148
150
154
156
157
160
162
165

6.
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168
168
169
172

7.
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7.3.
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7.5.
7.6.

177
182
185
191
197
208
214
214
215
218
224
230
236
241

7
4.

8.

251

8.0.
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251
252
257
264
269

9. ; -
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() (text)?
9.3.
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275
275
276

10.
10.0.
10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5. ,
10.6.

309
309
310
318
328
336
343
352

360
363
373

279
282
288
293
306



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19

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21

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22

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24

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25

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26

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27

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21

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22

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24

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25

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26

1.

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27

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28

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29

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30

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31

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32

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1.4. ,

33

(18) Linguistics is the scientific study of languages '

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34

1.

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35

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36

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37

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38

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39

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40

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41

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43

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44

1.

(
- ). , ,
, ,

( , , (salient)
), . ,
,
( )
, .


() ,
. ,
: , 'solei'
'sole2' ( , :
),
, () "
", " ". ,
,
, ,
.

.
,
,
.
, ,
, ,
'bank | ' ' 2 , 'sole1' 'solei'.
,
, ''
. ''
, , (
).
, ,
, ( ), ( -
).
, .
, : (i) (
- )
( ) -

1.5. :

45

; (ii)
. '' (
'')
, (.
Lyons 1968: 135137).
, ''
.
,
,
, ( ) ,
(not only form, but a form). ,
(
) , ,

. ,
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, ()
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.
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, (

), ,
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(
,

.)

. , ,

; , ,
.
.

:
( ).

46

1.

, ( )
,
( , , ): . soul
sole [soul]2, great grate [greit], red read [red] (
). , (
)
,
: . read ( have read [red] will read [ri:d]), blessed ( The
bishop blessed [blest] the congregation '
' Blessed [blesid] are the peacemakers '
'). ,
,
. ,
, .
, ,
,
, ,
.
,
, ,
, ()
,
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man's ( , ), (
, ), men's ( ,
). , 'man',
,
( )
().
,
(, , )
. ,
'come' '' (they come), ,

{they have come).

. . .

1.6. ; ,

47

? : ,
. they come ,
they have come, ,
( , ).
they come they have

'come'. , ,
,
,
( ) have learned, ( ) have
learnt ( ),
learned learnt
( ).
, , (
) ,
,
'learn' ', ' (
) .

. ,


,
,
. ,
'' , . ,
,
,
, ,
.

1.6. ; ,
( ) ,
,
(1.5).
: (i) ,
, , ; () -

48

1.

, , ,
.
- .
. ,
,
.
,
, .
,
( ,
) . ,
(22) (23), (
), .
,
,
:
(22) 'It was raining yesterday' ' '

(23) 'Was it raining yesterday?' ' ?'.

(24) (25). ,
, ,

:
(24) 'John admires Mary' ' '

(25) 'Mary admires John' ' '.

,
( ,
),
,
. ,
,
.
, ,
,
.


(, , )

1.6. ; ,

49

,
. ,


.
,

. , , ,
, , , ,
.

.

,
.
,
.
.
.
'' ('utterance')
( '' '
' '(', 'conversation')). '', ,
. '
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.
,
,
.
.
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.
, .
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,
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4 3113

50

1.

. ,
, ,
,
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-, .
,
.
( )
, (conversation)
.
, , '', ''
'' ( '')
, :
, ,

(1.4). , ;
;
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1.6. ; ,

51

-) .
,
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-
.

.
,
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,
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,

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.
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.
Mary won't ' ', ,
,
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4*

52

1.

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,

.
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, . , , ,
- ,
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,
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.
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(5.2).

,
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,
,
. ,
-.

.
. -,
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:
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(
) , ,
,

1.6. ; ,

53

. ,
, :
() ,
,
()
, (make statements), :
(26) 'Exercise is good for you' ' '

(27) 'I prefer mine with ice' ' '.

,
: ,

, ,
, :
(28) 'What time is lunch?' ' ?'
. , (22)
'It was raining yesterday' ' ' (23) 'Was it raining
yesterday?' ' ?'
,
,
.
'
' ' '.

, ,

.
, (
)
,
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,
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, . .). , , , -

54

1.

,

, .
,
,
.

- ,
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.
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.
, (29)
(26)
,
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, . .), :
(29) Exercise is good for you? ' ?'


(, , )
.
,
,
,
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.
.
, 3 4,


,
.

1.7.

55

1.7.
,
?
:
(I) ( ) ("
, ", , () ''
() ; ''
, , );
(II) , , ("
, , ,
");
(III) ("
, , ,
, ");
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, , ");
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,
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, ").
,
,
.

, ,
.
, . ,
,
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.
,
? :

56

1.

. , ,
(Wittgenstein 1953);
. ,
, ,
, . ,
'meaning' '' 'mean' ''
. ,
, ,
'' '';
,
, , , ,
, . ,
'meaning' 'mean'

, , , ,
. , :
(30) 'What is the meaning of concept"?' ' 'concept'?'

(31) 'What do you mean by the word 'concept'?' '

'concept'?'

(30) 'Quel est le sens de 'concept' [en anglais]?'

(31a) 'Qu'est-ce que tu veux dire par le mot [anglais] 'concept'?'

( ) ;

(30b) 'Was ist die Bedeutung von 'concept' [auf Englisch]?'

(31b) 'Was meinst du mit dem [englischen] Wort 'concept'?';

(30c) ' [ ] 'concept'?'

(31) ' [] 'concept'?'

.
, 'concept',
,
. , -

1.7.

57

, (31).
, , -
,
.
.
,
(31) ,
, ,
'to mean' (utterer's meaning),
,
( 'vouloir dire' ' ',
'meinen'), (. '
'). ,
, , .
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58

1.

,
.
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, .
?
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(, , ),
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1.7.

59

, , ,
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60

1.

.
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.

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 2

2.0.
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.
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64

2.

, ,
(, ,
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2
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, 1.2)
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2.1.

65

. , ,
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,
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, (1.6).
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.
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5 3113

66

2.

. ,
. . (18391914)
( ,
tokens) .
. :
(1) ' who laughs last laughs longest' ' ,
', . ', , '.
, ,
: . ,
,
(laughs) :
( (instances)) .

. ,
, ''
.
, , ,
,
.
. :
(2) 'If he is right and 1 am wrong, we are both in trouble' ' ,
, '?

.

(
).

. ,
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-. is, am are
.
'' (2)
; , ,
11 .
'', ,
- () . -, ,
. ,
,

2.1.

67

,
(1.5).
, ,
,
() ,
.

. ,
(3) 'They have found it impossible to found hospitals or charitable institutions
of any kind without breaking the law' ' ,
,
'
{found)
, .
,
,
, ''.
,
, '' '', '-'.
, ,
. ,
; , ,
,
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, pass muster, passes
muster, passed muster . .
(tokens) .
.
, ,
. ,
:
, (. .
) ,
. 'pass muster'
, 'pass the examination' '
' . , ,
. (
) , 5*

68

2.

, -
.
, 'politeness' ''
'polite' ''
.
'politeness'
(. .
), ,
( )
.
, -,
. ,
, ,
. ,
,
,

.
(. . ) ,
'pass muster' (
,
), , 'red
herring' ' ',
'red herring' ' '
", ".
, ( 'red herring1')
'pass muster' , , -
'red herring2' 'pass the examination',
.

()
,
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, .

( ),
,

.

.

2.1.

69

. ,
,
.
, ,
: ,
. , 'girl*
'' 'girls' '' (
), :
(
), (
),
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,
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() .
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(
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).
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(4) 'That sheep over there belongs to the farmer next door' '
'
(5) 'Those sheep over there belong to the farmer next door' '
'.
(4) ,
(5)? ,
,
. ,
(

70

2.

) (
), .
. ,
(4) ,
(5), ,

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.
(4) (5) ,
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2.2.

71

,
(
) ,
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.
,
,
.

2.2. ;

, ,

'bank1' 'bank2', "
", " ".
. ,
, .

.
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.
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(
):
(i) ;
() ;
(iii) .
: . 'bank 1 '
'b2'; 'sole1' (" ") 'sole 2 ' ("
"); . .

72

2.

,
. ,
() () , ()
,
. , 'find' ', ' 'found' '
, ' found,
finds, finding founds, founding
. ., a found 'find'
found 'found'. ,
, ()
(iii).
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,
.

, . found
'find'
found 'found',
. , , found

'found', 'find'.
(. (3) 2.1),
(6) They found hospitals and charitable institutions ' /
'
'found'

'find'. , 'found' 'find'
( )
, ,
, , , 'hospi
tals and charitable institutions'. 'hospitals and charitable insti
tutions' ,
, (6)
.
(6)
.
,
'found'
'find'. ,
( ) -

2.2.

73

found, 'found',
found, 'find'.
,
,
, ,
.
have found
(7) They have found hospitals and charitable institutions '
',
. have
found
:
(7), found
.
'find'
( ).
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founded. (
'found'
; , 'find' ,
, .)
, (6),
they he she:
(8) He/she found hospitals and charitable institutions ' /

'.
,

( 'be') ,


( , , , 'may'
''), . finds .find founds -.found. ,
(8) found
'find' .
(6) , ,
(9) He/she founds hospitals and other charitable institutions '/
'
, ,
(10) He/she foundedhospitals and other charitable institutions ' /
'.

74

2.

,
,
. ,

: ,

. ,
'last 1 ' '' ( 'last week' ' ')
'Iast2' ', ' ( 'Bricks last a long time'
' ') .
, last,

, .

. ,
( ),
,
.
,
, ,
,
,
.

,

. , 'rung' '
' 'ring' ''
:
(11) A rung of the ladder was broken ' ';
(12) The hell was rung at midnight ' '.
,
,
,
,
.
,
.
,
. ,

2.2.

75

, ,
.
, - .
. (
) ,
, ("
") .
. ,
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.
,
,
.
,
.

?
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: ( )
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,
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") 'bat 2 ' '' (",
") ,
:
'bat|'
'bakke', a 'bat 2 ' 'butt' "".
,
, ,
. ,
, .
'solei' (" ") 'sole 2 ' (" "),
,
;
. ,

,
.
, ,

76

2.

,
. ,
. ,
, , 'shock1'
'shock of corn' ' ' 'shock2' 'shock of hair'
' ' .
.
, .
, , , :

.
, ,
. ,
, , ,
, 'foot' " "
" ".

. , ,
. (
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,
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.
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.

2.3.
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. -,

,
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.
, ,
,

2.3.

77

.
,
( (Roget 1852)
), , : ,
, . -,
, ,
,
,
, .
-
'mist' ' ' 'fog' ' ', 'stream' ',
, ' 'brook' '', 'dive' ' , '
'plunge' ' , '.
,
-,
, ,
(. . ) .
,

,
. (,
.) ( )
,
:
(i) ;
() ;
(iii) (. .
) ,
.

, ,
,
, ,
-.
,
() -
() ,

78

2.

.
.
'big'
'' 'large' '' (
).
,
(13) 'They live in a big/large house' ' '.
.
, 'big' 'large'
( (i))
, . :
(14) 'I will tell my big sister' ' [] /
'
-
'big',
(15) 'I will tell my large sister' ' [] (= )
'
.
. , 'big'
, 'large'.
,
, .
(ii).
,
. ,
,
. .
'big' 'large'. 'large'
'big' ( ,
'big' 'large'),
. , 'large' 'big'

(16) 'You are making a big mistake' ' '.

(17) 'You are making a large mistake',

-, ,
. ,
, . ,
, 'big' (16) ,

2.3.

79

, 'a big house', 'big' ,

, 'large'.
,
,
, , ,
, -. ,

.
. ,
. ,
, ,
. , ,
,
.

.

( ) (.
1.7).
,
.
, ,
, .
,
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, ,
,
,
, .
(
) 'big' 'large'
(
). , ,
, ,
(big) , , (large) .

, (, ,
)
'bachelor' '' ( 'bachelor') 'unmarried
man' ' '. (
, -

80

2.

, , , ,
. , ,

, . ,
, .)

, , ,
, ,
, . ,
,
, . (,
, 'unmarried' " ",
" ",
, , ,
, 'bachelor', 'unmarried'
, 'bachelor' 'unmarried'
.)
( )
,
,
. ,
,

. , ,
, 'huge' ', ', 'enormous'
', ', 'gigantic' '' 'colossal' '
' ,
, , 'very big' ' '
'very large' ' ', , ,
. 'huge',
'enormous', 'gigantic' 'colossal'
.
, , ,

.
,
,

.
, , 'statesman' ' (-

2.3.

81

) ' 'politician' ', ',

'thrifty' '' 'mean' '', 'stingy' '
' 'economical '', 'stink' ''
'stench' ', ' 'fragrance' ''
'smell' '', 'crafty' ', '
'cunning' ', ' 'skilful' '
' 'clever' '', .
,
, ,
( ). , ,
, 'bitch' '' 'swine' '',
, - , , ,
.
,
.
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.

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.
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.
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.

. ,
,
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, ,
,
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,
.

.
6 3113

82

2.
2.4.

,
, .
(full forms), , man '', came
'', green '', badly '',
(, empty) , , the, of, and '', to '', //''.
.
, ,
. ,

.
,

, 1950-
. (Fries 1952).

,
1960- .
, ,
, , (
)
.
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.
()
(
).
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.
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.
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,
, -

2.4.

83

(
)
, .
' '
,
' ' (form word), ' ()
' (function word), ' ' (grammatical word),
' ' (structural word).
,
.

( ), ,

.
,
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,
,
, , ,
.
' ' ' ',

.
,

, , . .
. , , to John '',

'give' , ,
, , ,
( ,
), ,
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/

( ),
, , . . ,
.
the. ,

.
6*

84

2.

,
, ,
. , (
,
) ,
,

. ,
, (Russell 1905),
, ,

, ,
. ,
.
, () .
, ,
, ,
( dog '' 'dog' '', ran
'' 'run' '' ).
, , the to (

),
. ,
.
, ,
, , ,
( ,

), ,
, the, of and, to if ,
. '',
.

, .
,
.
,
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, 'dog' ''
,

2.4.

85

,
'dog' .
the, of and, to if
, ,
, .

, ( )

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,
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.

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1.6:
?
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and, , ,
,
(clauses)" ,
2

. 2 . 176. . .

86

2.

. ,
, (. . )
, .
(ii)
, . , , , ( )
,
,
, .
(iii)
, .
(iv) , if to and,
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2.5.

87

-
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88

2.

)
,
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(syn-)
. '' (
''), ,

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.) ,
:
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, , , ,
).

.
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:
,
.

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) (, ),
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( ) .
,
. . ,
, (ungrammatical).
,

, , ( )
(meaningfulness). .

, -

2.5.

89

,
.
( ), ,
( ).

(clauses) ( ''
, ).

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90

2.

,

),
.

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(. . ) .
,
.
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, , ,
, . , child ''
children '', ('child'),
( "child").

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), -
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,
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.

.
(
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 3

3.0.
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, 'table' '' 'chair' '',

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.
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, '' '', -

92

3.

(sense),
.
, ,

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'', , '
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( , '
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3.2.
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3.1.

93

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94

3.

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3.1.

95

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96

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3.1.

97

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98

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3.2.

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100

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3.2.

101

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102

3.

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'dog' ''
: ' ' (domesticated
canine mammal) '
' (common four-legged flesh-eating animal).
Collins Dictionary of the English Language (1979),
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978).
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, , (p. viii-iv),
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3.2.

103

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105

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106

3.

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3.3. ( )

107

'gold' '', 'salt' '').

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108

3.

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3.3. ( )

109

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110

3.

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111

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112

3.

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3.4.

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114

3.

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3.4.

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116

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118

4.

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4.1.

119

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120

4.

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4.2.

123

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124

4.

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4.2.

125

'CANINE', 'FELINE',
'BOVINE' . .
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126

4.

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4.2.

127

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128

4.

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4.3.

129

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9 3113

130

4.

,
- ,
. 'male child' '
' 'female child' ' '
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', "That girl is now an adult" '
' ( "That child is now an adult" '
') .

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4.3.

131

(maidens)),
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132

4.

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4.4.

133

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134

4.

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'female' ' ') FEMALE (
, "female")
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'all girls' ' ', 'girl' ''.
'girl' (. . "girl") "human" x
"female" x "non-adult" ("" " " "
"), . (4) 4.2.
:
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4.4.

135

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136

4.

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4.4.

137

,

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'.
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138

4.

. .), , "x is married

to " ' ' " is married to x" '
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4.5.

139

4.5.

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;
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,
()
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''
'baby horse' '-'.

140

4.

,
. ,

,
.
'rancid' '
, ' 'addled' ''. ,
, 'rancid'
'butter' ' ', a 'addled' 'egg' '' (
'brain' ''). ,
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(29) "I saw an animal" i i ' '.

.
( ).

4.5.

141

, , 'dog'
'animal',
. .
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( 'bachelor')
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(33) 'bachelor' => 'man' ''.
, ,
- -

142

4.

. ,
'bachelor' ''
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:
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4.5.

143

, , (35),
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, (i) 'married' ''
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(z) () ()", . , ,
(
,

144

4.

''), .

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148

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149

.

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150

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5.2.

151

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' ( )
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' ( ).
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152

5.

, ,

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(7b) *Green ideas sleeps furiously ' ',

5.2.

153

(8b) *Drinks quadniplicity procrastination '

',
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154

5.

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5.3.

155

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156

5.

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5.5.

157

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; (iv)
.

158

5.

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1815 ',

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5.5.

159

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160

5.

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5.6.

161

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162

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(17) 'John Smith is not married' ' '

(18) 'John Smith is a bachelor' ' '

5.7.

163

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164

5.

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5.8.

165

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, .

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166

5.

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5.8.

167

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 6

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6.1.

169

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',
(4) 'This book has not been read by me' '
'.
:
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 6.

170

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,

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6.1.

171

, (1) (2)
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172

6.

this book ' ' (1).

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6.2.

173

.
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174

6.

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6.2.

175

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176

6.

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6.3. - (1)

177

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178

6.

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6.3. - (1)

179

,
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'

(15) 'John missed the train and arrived late' '

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180

6.

. 9
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and,
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6.3. - (1)

181

.

. ,
either-or:
... vel... vel... ... aut... aut ... .
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;
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(16) Students who do not arrive in time or have not completed all their assign
ments will he refused admission to the examination ',
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182

6.

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aut- () (either) ...
or ... .

bi
() ... ...
.

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.

6.4. - (2):

183

(
) , "p
q", "p q",
- ,
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(19) 'If Lady Godiva had blue eyes, Ann's parents have bought her a Porsche'
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, 'Either he did not
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q . ,

184

6.

q
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(" ")
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6.5. - (3):

185

6.5. - (3):
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(20) 'John is unfriendly' ' ',
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(21) 'John is not friendly' ' ',
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(22) 'John is friendly' ' ',

186

6.

. "John is unfriendly"
"John is friendly" "John is
hostile" ' ( )'. (

,
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'
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6.5. - (3):

187

(24) 'Students do not pay the full entrance fee' '

',
(
).
('non-students'),
('do not pay' ' '),
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, ,

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,
(26), (26),

(28) "Someone telephoned and someone did not telephone" "-
- ".
,
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(29)'John did not telephone' ' '.

(25), (26) (27) ,
, (25) (27)
.

188

6.

(25) (29) ,
( ,
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6.5. - (3):

189

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'
( ).

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190

6.

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6.6. ,

191

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192

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6.6. ,

193

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194

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196

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197

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198

6.

- .
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6.7.

199

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200

6.

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6.7.

201

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 6.

202

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6.7.

203

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204

6.

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6.7.

205

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206

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6.7.

207

).
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208

6.

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6.8. -

209

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210

6.

,
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6.8. -

211

'now' '' 'at this very moment' '

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212

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6.8. -

213

"
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216

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7.1.

217

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218

7.

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219

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220

7.

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221

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222

7.

,
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(2), 'old' ('') 'men' ('
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7.2.

223

,
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224

7.

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7.3.

225

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226

7.

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227

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228

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7.3.

229

, ,
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230

7.

, , ,

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7.4.

231

'buxom' ', '

, 'girl' ', ', 'woman' '', Mass' ',
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("housewifei") ,
, ("housewife2")
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232

7.

. ( ),
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7.4.

233

, 'frighten'
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234

7.

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7.4.

235

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236

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238

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240

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242

7.

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244

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7.6.

245

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246

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242

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7.6.

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244

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7.6.

245

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246

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7.6.

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 8.

252

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8.1.

253

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254

8.

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8.1.

255

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256

8.

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8.2.

257

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17 3113

258

8.

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(12) 'The postman was bitten by the dog' ' '.

8.2.

259

, 7,
,

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260

8.

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8.2.

261

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262

8.

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263

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264

8.

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8.3.
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8.3.

265

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266

8.

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.


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8.3.

267

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268

8.

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8.4. ,

269

.

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270

8.

,
,
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8.4. ,

271

. 6, Is the door open? that is the

question that I refuse to ask ' ? ,
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(. 6.7).
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"--" "--"
.

272

8.

, , ,
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: (
component of commitment) (" ")
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8.4. ,

273

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274

8.

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276

9. ; -

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9.1.

277

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278

9. ; -

,
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(1) 'I have not seen Mary' ' ',

, ,
(2) / have not seen Mary
( have not haven V
).

. .
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'I have not seen Mary'. ,
, :
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she should be. ' () ? . .
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Peter hasn't either 'Peter has not seen Mary'
' ' (, , She is never here when
she should be ' is never here when she should
be here' ' , '.

9.2. () (a text)?

279

,
,
,
.
, / haven't 'I have not
seen Mary' ' ' , have not been to
Switserland' ' ' 'I have not got any
money' ' ' , . . ,
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280

9. ; -

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,
:
(4) Peter hasn't either. I haven't. Have you seen Mary? ' . .
() ?'
,
:
(5) Have you seen Mary? I haven 7 seen Mary. Peter hasn V seen Mary (either)
Maty is never here when she should he here. ' () ?
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9.2. () (a text)?

281

. .), ,
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(6) She is never here when she should he

. , she' ''
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292

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294

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9.5.

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296

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298

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9.5.

299

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300

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9.5.

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302

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9.5.

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304

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306

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10.1.

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314

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10.1.

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316

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318

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10.2.

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320

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10.2.

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322

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10.2.

323

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 10.

324

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10.2.

325

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326

10.

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.

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10.2.

327

, ' ' ' ', ''

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328

10.

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(10) 'It be raining (now/yesterday/tomorrow)' ' (//)',

(10) 'It is raining (now)' ' ()'
(10b) 'It was 'raining (yesterday)' ' ()'
(10c) It will be raining (tomorrow)' ' ()'

10.3.

329

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330

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10.3.

331

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)'.
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332

10.

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10.3.

333

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334

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10.3.

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336

10.

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10.4.

337

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:
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338

10.

cantat chante
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10.4.

339

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340

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10.4.

341

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342

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10.5. ,

343

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344

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10.5. ,

345

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 10.

346

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: "There is some epistemically possible world in which he

comes". , . , (18)
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5
: "There is some deontically possible world in which he
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: " ,
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10.5. ,

347

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348

10.

('may'
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10.5. ,

349

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350

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10.5. ,

351

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'). ,

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352

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10.6.

353

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354

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10.6.

355

,
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, .
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), , ',
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356

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10.6.

357

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.
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! , . ,
, (23) : ' may come'
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358

10.

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10.6.

359

, 7, ,
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, ,
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. , 1,
.
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5 Lyons 1981
, ,
;
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. ,
, , Leach 1974, Nilsen,
Nilsen 1975, Hurford, Heasley 1983 Palmer 1981
. ,
,
, , Frawley 1992 Hoffmann 1993:

;
( ). Allan I986
, ,
. Lyons 1977

,
.
( ),
Asher 1994.
Bright 1992, Collinge 1990 Newmeyer
1988, 1988b, 1988c, 1988d.
, ,
, Cruse 1986:

361

,
, .
Ullmann 1962,

. Baldinger 1980
, Ullmann 1962,
. Aitchison 1987
;
, 2 ,
;
.
,

Hudson 1995.
Lehrer, Kittay 1992.
, :
. Nida 1975, Dowty 1979; . Lehrer 1974;
. Lakoff 1987, Taylor 1989.

, Jackendoff 1983, 1990 Wierzbicka 1980,
1992. . Clark 1993.
,
( ) .
2
() ;
1993 Chierchia, McConnell-Ginet 1990.

(Chomsky 1965)
,
, . Fodor 1977; .
Lyons 1991a; Radford 1988.
Montague
1974, .
Hughes, Cresswell 1968.
( , ,
. .) . Allwood . 1977.

Huddleston 1984.
,
Quirk . 1985.
. Craig 1986.
. Comrie 1985, 1986, Dahl 1985, (
) Palmer 1986, Coates 1983, R. Matthews 1991, Horn
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. Brown 1990,
Crystal 1976.
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4, . Leech 1983, Levinson 1983, Horn 1988.
: . Austin 1962/1975,
Searle 1969, 1979, Katz 1972, Recanati 1987;
. Grice 1989; . Sperber, Wilson 1986, Smith 1982, Blakemore 1987,
Huang 1994, Levinson (forthcoming). . Jarvella, Klein 1982;
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( ) . Lakoff, Johnson 1980, Ortony 1979.
(
,
) . Brown, Yule 1983, Halliday, Hassan 1976, Beaugrande,
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,
, ,
: Alston 1964, Lehrer, Lehrer 1970, Olshevsky 1969, Parkinson
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Martinich 1985.

. , ,
.
, , ,
,

.


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288289,
293, 298, 303
, 19
,

, 343

, 291
, 254

, 262
,
282287
-, 275308
, 306308

, 20
, 287, 306
307

382

,
52, 275, 282287
, 298, 302
303
- , 52
, 282,285
, 52
, 185
, 186
, 198
, 125,165,178
,
, 294
, 326
(sentenceradical), 220
, 199
, 53,
269, 287,301302
, 212
, , 107108, 136
, . ., 138
, 137

( ),
110,148149,266,295,307
,
311

, 316
- ,
93
, 104105,
109111
, 39
,.,
, 40, 83, 84, 170,
181,193,194,202,312,337,355

, 181182

, 193,194
, , 133

, 64,67,68,93,95
,
230,231
, ,
127
, 69
, 42, 64, 65
, 88,227
, 88
, 122,
236237
, 74,
283

, 74, 283
, 11, 79,
100,113117,119122,147
, 361, 362
,
6768,76,96,221
,
6768, 76, 9697, 221
, 117

, 104105
, 48,64,69
, 48
49,58,192
, 48
, 11,
120


, 118

, 64, 69,70, 85

(19671968), 253
, , 27

() , 32
, 21,
218,328,359
, 362

, 1718, 22, 26,31


, 10,
11,215
, 9, 18, 27


1930 1950-
, 31
, 21, 27
, 218
, 284
, 81, 118
, 9,119
( ),
90
(self), 354
, 319, 320
322, 323324, 325
, 10,118

, 168
, 311
, 21, 236,
318,334,344
, 135,165,223
,
168,175176
, 177

, 135
, 148, 156,
161,165,254
, 102
, 240,
315316
, 343

, 352359

,
354357
, 257265, 283
, 262
, 321,327
, Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English, 102

383
, 323, 328
, 46
, 182

, 38
, 110
, 95
, 60
, 60
, 93
(), 206
,
55
, 89
, 246
, 89,115
, 312

, 187,188
, 318
, 1760
, 353, 354
, 152,297301
, 362
,
297298,300
, 297,300
, 76
, 2225, 35, 37, 49, 64,
93
, 22

, 341343
, 26, 96
, 152

, 133,246
( ),
133,246
, 133, 190, 270,
271,318,351352
, 361
, 270, 272, 309, 310,
344
, 361
, 247

384

, 345,352
, 291
, 336

, 343352

, 335336
,
, 343352
, 73, 195, 209,
304, 348

, 291
, 272
,
, 272
, 29,261
, 29,196
, , 214, 216, 223,
236, 243244
, 223,
236240,244245,311

, 237238
, 236

-
, 238239
,
175,
238240, 345
, 361

, 46,330
, 119,120
, 362

, 73

, 70
, 105,106,129

()
,271
, 106,113,341

, 90,191,272,309
, 361
, 206,208
, 195
, 191196,
269


, 272
, ,
210,309
,

,
343352
,

, 191196,348

, 211,292,309

, 191196
, 343
, 76
, 73,329, 330
()
, 35
,
28
,
, 63


, 29,51

,
324326

,
200,256
, 58
(


), 95

, 46
- ,
193,239


, 89
- ,
28
, 11,120
, 17,
18,22,2631
, 22, 23, 35, 40,
56, 200, 219, 258, 291, 312,
323, 326, 355

, 133134
,
, 136
, 344345, 350
351
, 345
,
294,296,308
, 362
, 11,12,33

,
222

, 222
(
, ),
12,111,165
, 317

,305
(, empty)
, 8285, 90, 93
,
,
8285

(ill-formedness),
88,138,153,154,230235
, 291
, 327
-,
, 210
, 245
-, 2830
25 3113

385
,
9,11,24,58,59,193,196,201


, 353
, 340
, 140,142
, 160161
, 83
- , 323324
, 107
(,

), 57, 7576, 80, 111, 150,
163,165,166,325
,

, 164

, 25

, 7576
, 254, 256, 265, 267, 268,
274, 286
(), 220,242
(denotes), 94
,
( ), 107
, 353

, 346
, 346
347,350351

, 346

, 9899
, 35, 39, 70,
341

(commitment),
272273, 347
, . ., 101
, 203
, 127

386
- ,
50, 56,158,220,243
, 64,7175
, 75
, 74, 75
, 75, 76

, 7273
, 4244
(
) , 29

(), 20, 136,

158,164,203,298,324
,
, 340,341
, 13, 124,
187,189,344
, 332
,
332
,
332
, 253, 266
(,
) , 91116

,
101
,
, 114
, 94
,
, 84
, 158,
313316
, 191,
194
,
45,70
, 70,306
(), 40,41
, 99,
320
(ostension), 320
. ., 251

, 253
, 255

, 253
, 161,
251,253,257
(persons),

(individuals), 273
, 82
/ (of
the world) (

), 246
, 331
, ,
(refer to), 91, 94,
311
( ),
294,295
, 116

() , 116
(
D V), 220
, 165,178,185191
, 361

, 178

, 187
, 94, 213
, 342

, 139
, 182
183
,
2930,31,272,357

, 51

, 107
, , 107,108,136


, 335
, 326, 327,
349

, 173

, 334, 341

, 291
-


'meaning' 'mean', 56
, 155156
, 155156
(
), 288
, 128, 132, 137, 203
204, 220
,76
(

), 23,
24
,

, 114
,
254, 255, 265, 266
, 256,
265267
. , 66, 319
/ (
) (type /
token), 6667
,
50,275,278,281
, 25, 30, 47, 49,
196,197, 209, 252253, 294
, 25,30,38,47,49,
196,197,209,252253,294
()
, 272
, 226
229, 237
25*

387

, 139, 140,142
(
),
41,44
, 174
, 254
,
, 30
, 64,75
, 75
, 82
87

,
, 8488, 90
(authority), 273

,
329
, 188, 202,209
, , 157
, 37
()
, 199,225
, 171, 172, 179
, . ., 201

, 82
, 294296, 300,
301,307,316
, 117, 118,
132, 139140, 141, 142144,
235
, 235

,
139144
(truthfulness), 295

, 235
, 268
, 224,230
,
224,230
(well-formedness), 154
, 24, 37, 59, 217, 247,
255,269, 293, 323, 359

388

, 360, 362
, 9, 299,
306, 325
(clause)

, ,
176177, 192
(clauses)
, 89

, 8889, 176, 191192


, 89
, 185, 187
,311
, 82, 85, 93, 127, 153,
342343

, 260


, 275277

,
, 52

(),
147167
, 5253
,
5059, 252257
-,262263
,
277

(clauses), 176177
,
157160

, 9
,
,
(purporting)
(
), 159

, 134
, 170, 201, 204,
205, 293, 297, 302,314315
,
188,314
(), 52
,
, 148
150
( ), 341
,
, 114
, 191, 265
266, 271
(instances),
66

,
156157,160161
, 293, 294
306

,

, 291
,
-, 210
, (
'', '
' ''), 50,252
, 6768
, 33, 34, 35
37
, 28
, 58,118,132,157
-, 258

, 157160, 283

, 344346

, 157
,
157160


, 291, 348,
353
,
24,58
,
163,229
, 339
, 118,
168213,251
, 281282
, 157160, 283
, 172,
186,190, 196197,269,278

,
, 362
, 29
, 51
, 51, 59,
180,286287,357

, 196197

,


, 342343
-
, 322323, 326327
(primary) ,
255
() ,
13,48,39,50,152,279
, 172

,
172177
, 165167, 232
233,246,296,302303,314
, 165167

(), 110,131
, 109,111, 112
, 30, 37, 50, 251252
(
'', ''
''), 50, 252

389
, 40, 69, 7273,
159, 193, 315, 322, 330333,
335, 338, 349
- , 330
331,335
(direct-discourse), 26,
199, 207
, 112, 115
, 9, 21,
27
, 89
(
), 29,196
,
, 245
(conversation),
, 4750
, 202
/ (
, tokens),
6667, 259260
, 98, , 111,
141
, , 151,156, 161
, , 84, 98103, 121,
151,223


, 23
,353

, 106, 113, 341

, 106, 113

(
),
23

(

), 23
, 342
, , 156
, 185
, 183, 302
, 281,300

390
(

), 133
, 262

, 317

, 55,91,94,108
, 58
, 310
, 285
, 24, 91, 9495, 309,
310318,351
, 219, 239240
, 315

, 243245
, 91,
243244
,
285
, 23
, 252
, 251
274
,25,186
, 81
, 197
(gender), 92,104
, . ., , 77,102
, 35, 195
, 5657, 83, 182,
291,312,326
() ,
336337, 339340
, 354, 356, 357
, 303

, 203
, 280281, 287,296
, 204
, 204
, 75
, 224,
230

, 224, 230

( ),
24
,
, 9, 299, 306, 325
,
, 340341
,
, 24
, 214,
240
, 11
, 11,140
, 361
, 348
(
), 52

( ), 43
(
), 234
, 117118
, 230
, 93,
111116
,
224,226,234235, 247
, 224
230

,
235
, 136
138
, 27
, 319
, 119
, 194, 196
(
), 306
, . ., 253
(), 206
, 50
, 19
,
, 13


, 142
, 152
,
88
, 76
81
, 64,7681, 305

, 139
, 119120
, 171, 176
, 69

(), 225

,
134135
, 33,3537
, 276,
277
, 51
, 340
, 287

, 338
, 304
, 83
, 337340
, 140,184,288,298
, 132138
, 132
, 136
(), 132

,
91116
,
6390
, 3847
(), 255
, 63
(,
), 66
, 4143, 64, 6667, 89,
9394,101103
, 115,
116

391

, 77
, 64, 98
, 9899
(), 64, 85, 88,
227
, 85, 8890
, 69,120, 210,236
, 40,
47

(complex)
, 172
(compound)
, 172
, 172
, 172

()
, 83,93
( )
, 133
, 24,92, 9598
, 9495, 219,
239240
, 24,
9598
, 122,
234, 237
, 95, 117,
139
, 139
144
, -

, 158
, 328, 334, 338, 340341
, 340
, 139

, 177
,
, 354355
, , 206207
(incidental), 334
, , 34, 36,
105,251
-, 287

392
, 275308

(saving the appearances), 107,
213,217,223,244
, 273
, 255, 308
, 60,155

, 273, 292293, 326

, 148
, 269

,
64, 8081, 326
, 7879

, 178, 222
( ,
), 294,296
,
76
, 25,49
,

, 51
,
,
49
( ,
), 271
, 23,
47, 151
, 195
, 59, 81
, 184, 298
, 117

( ), 224, 235
, 105106, 117
120

, 117
, 117,
120122

, 119
, 117

, 117-122
, 119120
, 120
, 83
, 117144
, (), 232

, 347
, 195
196, 327, 346351

, 347348,351, 358
, 273
,
338,341
,
352359
, 291
, 272273
, 328
, 352
356
,
309,310359
, 193

, 31,352
- ,
355
, 194196
, , 82
( ), 341,
343

, 204
, 189
,
189190
, , 105, 112,121
/ , 326
, 165, 296
, 165167

, 275308
()
(a text), 279281
()
(text), 281282
,
, 362
, (conversation)
, 4754
, 49
, 278
, 276
277,278279
, 169
, 169
172
,

,
342343

() , 335
, 335336
,

, 339343
-
, 126
, 218
, 261
, 323
, 83,
9798, 222, 253, 264
,

, 147148
,
, 262

, 160
, 125128, 220,
245
, 239240, 242,
310,359

393
(),
57,161,251274,282,308,356
-
, 273
274

(clause-type), 192

(clause-type),
, 191
197
, 191
, 195
196,348
, 191
196,270

(clause-type) ,
191197
(), 66,260,262
()

(), 4547

()
, 7679
(
), 171
/ ,
260261

()

, 70
, 306
( ),
320,321
(point of
reference), 241,310,322
, 71, 83,
90,106,176
, 177
, 226

, 228
-
, , . 7.1,

394
171, 175, 177, 201, 214, 220,
224, 227 . 7.1
,

, 236237

()
, 143

, 37, 251
, 196
-
, 330, 332
, 25,171172
, , 102
(indication), 30

,
319321
(),
322, 326, 327, 343
, 322,
343
(indicates), 30
, 36

,

, 352
,
268269

, 121, 123, 129131,
134, 141
, , 105,112,121
(, perfor
mance), 9, 32, 34, 36, 37, 252,
253
(use) ,
160
(use),
, 9, 5657
, 30, 82, 87
, 112
, 273

, 36

, 101
, 100,105
, 59, 147,
162165

, 81
, 147
- ,
8587, 168169, 180, 289,
293,316

, 273274
, 241247
, 238
240
, 11,355,359
-
, 55, 58, 148, 160, 162
165,197,199,212,217,359
-

, 164
()
, 2526,3941


, 3839
(),
13
(
), 191, 195196,
304
,
275
, 25, 30, 38, 47, 49,
196, 197, 209, 252253
, 25, 30,
3839,47, 49,196197, 253
(assertions), 190
191,211,264265,268,348
(statements), 53,191,
255,268
,
, 269274
,
102,103


, 160161,
271
, 157, 165
, 262
(
, ), 100, 104,
110
. ., ,
306
''- , 94
, 246247
, 362
, 98104
, 57,
156,253
, 10, 21, 31, 168,
200,238,288,319
, 9, 21, 22,
27, 91, 98, 147, 156, 196, 245,
317
, 362
, 185
, 40, 83,330
, . .
, 224, 235,
. ,
,
, 25, 264
(
), 4546, 260
, 262
, 45,
70
, 38, 69

(), 38,226,227,236
, 117,120, 122,226,227
, 38
, 3847
, 195196
, 120
, 45, 47,
63

, 47, 73
, 253

395

, 24

, 216218, 221, 223,
224
, 175
, 361
, 1011,
37,68,175,213,251,333
,
214218
, 361

, 214215

, 70
, 83

( ), 334
, 63,66
, 65
71,219220
, 278
, 306
, 67,68
, 67

, 252
, 22, 3335,
5657, 182,291,312,355
tu/vous , 326
, 158
, 337
, 196
, , 200,243, 274
(Sinn
Bedeutung), 219,239
, , 218
, ., 82
, 253
-
, 177191
-
, 177182, 220,
345

396

, 100,
104,110
, 127,178,242
, 195196
, 201
202
()
, 5253,198,256
(), 206
, , 31, 57, 151, 153,
201, 225, 233, 237, 242, 353
,
224, 225, 228, 232, 237
,
34,36,251
,
225
- ,
171,175,177,201,214,220,
224, 227
, , ,
110,114
(
, ), , 112,
131
() (), 51, 171,
260

, 153
, 39
, 82, 85
, 329, 330
, 7275
, 7779,81
. ., 152
(
), 90
() ,
334
, 323
, 107,114

,
, 360362
, 191,
196
, 148
, 354355
, 321, 328
(
, tokens), 66,260, 263


, 352
, 208213

,
181182

,
255256, 265, 271
, 5860,
8081

, 58, 81
, 97, 107,239,240

, 318
, 241

, 31, 35
, 161
,
160161
,
58
, 98, 99, 102, 104, 298,
327, 335, 350, 353354
, 129
132
,
, 115116
, 241
, 244,
346348, 350352
, 347
, 356
, 194

, 270272

(commitment), 270272
, 347348
, 136
, 43
, 7576
, 307
, 284
, 326
(), 220
, 110,112,
131
, 220
(sentencekernel), 220,225
(language)
(language)

, 3234
, 27,
3235
, 29, 35
,
(), 8

, 194196

, 358

( ),
334
- , 326
, 308
.

, 33, 253, 277,

356357

, 120, 253

397
,
35,120,253
, 36

, 308
, 83
, 257,264
, 36
, 326
() ,
, 12, 70
and,
and, 178181
and/but,
,
289291,
302303
Bedeutung (), 219,239
But/and,
,
289291,
302303
'Cogito ergo sum' (), 355
dicto/de re ,
245,318
du/Sie . /
de

langage, 3435
langue, 3435, 36, 251
,37,251
(),219,239
tabula rasa , 100, 113
tu/usted . /

tu/vous . /

*- (mfr-questions), 202
'-, 202
-, 198,203208