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Arabia is the last of inhabited lands towards the south, and it is the only
country which produces frankincense, myrrh, cassia, cinnamon, and
laudanum. The Arabians do not get any of these, except the myrrh,
without trouble. The frankincense they procure by means of the gum
styrax, which the Greeks obtain from the Phoenicians; this they burn, and
thereby obtain the spice. For the trees which bear the frankincense are
guarded by winged serpents, small in size, and of varied colors, whereof
vast numbers hang about every tree. They are of the same kind as the
serpents that invade Egypt; and there is nothing but the smoke of the
styrax which will drive them from the trees. The Arabians say that the
whole world would swarm with these serpents, if they were not kept in
check in the way in which I know that vipers Such, then, is the way in
which the Arabians obtain their frankincense; their manner of collecting
the cassia is the following: They cover all their body and their face with
the hides of oxen and other skins, leaving only holes for the eyes, and thus
protected go in search of the cassia, which grows in a lake of no great
depth. All round the shores and in the lake itself there dwell a number of
winged animals, much resembling bats, which screech horribly, and are
very valiant. These creatures they must keep from their eyes all the while
that they gather the cassia.
Still more wonderful is the mode in which they collect the cinnamon.
Where the wood grows, and what country produces it, they cannot tell---
only some, following probability, relate that it comes from the country in
which Bacchus was brought up. Great birds, they say, bring the sticks
which we Greeks, taking the word from the Phoenicians, call cinnamon,
and carry them up into the air to make their nests. These are fastened with
a sort of mud to a sheer face of rock, where no foot of man is able to
climb. So the Arabians, to get the cinnamon, use the following artifice.
They cut all the oxen and asses and beasts of burthen that die in their land
into large pieces, which they carry with them into those regions, and Place
near the nests: then they withdraw to a distance, and the old birds,
swooping down, seize the pieces of meat and fly with them up to their
nests; which, not being able to support the weight, break off and fall to the
ground. Hereupon the Arabians return and collect the cinnamon, which is
afterwards carried from Arabia into other countries.
Concerning the spices of Arabia let no more be said. The whole country is
scented with them, and exhales an odor marvelously sweet. There are also
in Arabia two kinds of sheep worthy of admiration, the like of which is
nowhere else to be seen; the one kind has long tails, not less than three
cubits in length, which, if they were allowed to trail on the ground, would
be bruised and fall into sores. As it is, all the shepherds know enough of
carpentering to make little trucks for their sheep's tails. The trucks are
placed under the tails, each sheep having one to himself, and the tails are
then tied down upon them. The other kind has a broad tail, which is a cubit
across sometimes. are. . . .The Arabians wore the zeira, or long cloak,
fastened about them with a girdle; and carried at their right side long
bows, which when unstrung bent backwards.
The first people, next after the Syrians and Jews, who occupy this country
are husbandmen. These people are succeeded by a barren and sandy tract,
producing a few palms, the acanthus, and tamarisk; water is obtained by
digging [wells] as in Gedrosia. It is inhabited by Arabian Scenitae, who
breed camels [in the area just to the west of the Euphrates]. The extreme
parts towards the south, and opposite to Ethiopia, are watered by summer
showers, and are sowed twice, like the land in India. Its rivers are
exhausted in watering plains, and by running into lakes. The general
fertility of the country is very great; among other products, there is in
particular an abundant supply of honey; except horses, there are numerous
herds of animals, mules, and swine; birds also of every kind, except geese
and the gallinaceous tribe. Four of the most populous nations inhabit the
extremity of the above-mentioned country [i.e., modern Yemen]; namely,
the Minaei the part towards the Red Sea, whose largest city is Carna or
Carnana. Next to these are the Sabaeans, whose chief city is Mariaba
[Yemen proper, about the capital San'a]. The third nation are the
Cattabaneis, extending to the straits and the passage across the Arabian
Gulf [the area about modern Aden]. Their royal seat is called Tamna. The
Chatramotitae are the furthest of these nations towards the east [in modern
Hadramawt]. Their city is Sabata.
XVI.iv.3. All these cities are governed by one monarch, and are
flourishing. They are adorned with beautiful temples and palaces. Their
houses, in the mode of binding the timbers together, are like those in
Egypt. The four countries comprise a greater territory than the Delta of
Egypt. The son does not succeed the father in the throne, but the son who
is born in a family of the nobles first after the accession of the king. As
soon as any one is invested with the government, the pregnant wives of the
nobles are registered, and guardians are appointed to watch which of them
is first delivered of a son. The custom is to adopt and educate the child in a
princely manner as the future successor to the throne.
***
Zanimah] he first describes those who border upon the Arabian Gulf [Red
Sea], and are opposite to the Troglodytae. He says that Poseidium is
situated within the Bay of Heroöpolis [this is the modern Gulf of Suez],
and that continguous to Poseidium is a grove of palm trees, well-supplied
with water, which is highly-valued, because all the district around is burnt
up and is without water or shade. But there the fertility of the palm is
prodigious. A man and a woman are appointed by hereditary right to the
guardianship of the grove. They wear skins, and live on dates. They sleep
in huts built on trees, the place being infested with multitudes of wild
beasts.
Next is the island of Phocae [modern Sheduan], which has its name from
those animals [seals] which abound there. Near it is a promontory [modern
Ras Muhammad, near Sharm-el-shaykh], which extends towards Petra, of
the Arabians called Nabataei [in modern Jordan, about halfway between
Aqaba and the Dead Sea], and to the country of Palestine [the modern
state of Israel] , to this island [modern Jazirat Tiran] the Minaei, Gerrhaei,
and all the neighboring nations repair with loads of aromatics. Next is
another tract of sea-coast, formerly called the coast of the Maranitae [Cape
Pharan, near Ras Muhammad], some of whom were farmers, others
Scenitae; but at present it is occupied by Garindaei, who destroyed the
former possessors by treachery. They attacked those who were assembled
to celebrate some quinquennial festival, and put them to death; they then
attacked and exterminated the rest of the tribe [See: Diodorus Siculus
III.41].
Next are three desert islands, abounding with olive trees, not like those in
our own country, but an indigenous kind, which we call Ethiopic [black]
olives, the tears (or gum) of which have a medicinal virtue. Then follows a
stony beach, which is succeeded by a rugged coast, not easily navigated by
vessels, extending about 1000 stadia [modern Madyan in Saudi Arabia]. It
has few harbors and anchorages, for a rugged and lofty mountain stretches
parallel to it; then the parts at its base, extending into the sea, form rocks
under water, which, during the blowing of the Etesian winds and the
storms of that period, present dangers, when no assistance can be afforded
to vessels.
Next is a bay in which are some scattered islands , and continuous with the
bay are three lofty mounds [modern Jebel Seik, Jebel el-Hawene, and
Jebel Hester] of black sand. After these is Charmothas [modern Umm
Lajj], a harbor, about 100 stadia in circumference, with a narrow entrance
very dangerous for all kinds of vessels. A river empties itself into it. In the
middle is a well-wooded island, adapted for cultivation [modern Al
Hassan]. Then follows a rugged coast, and after that are some bays and a
country belonging to nomads, who live by their camels [the modern Hejaz,
opposite Mecca and Medina]. They fight from their backs; they travel
upon them, and subsist on their milk and flesh. A river flows through their
country, which brings down gold dust, but they are ignorant how to make
any use of it. They are called Debae; some of them are nomads, others
farmers. I do not mention the greater part of the names of these nations, on
account of the obscurity of the people, and because the pronunciation of
them is strange and uncouth.
Near these people is a nation more civilized [the Minaei], who inhabit a
district with a more temperate climate; for it is well-watered, and has
frequent showers. Fossil gold is found there, not in the form of dust, but in
lumps, which do not require much purification. The least pieces are of the
size of a nut, the middle size of a medlar, the largest of a walnut. These are
pierced and arranged alternately with transparent stones strung on threads
and formed into collars. They are worn round the neck and wrists. They
sell the gold to their neighbors at a cheap rate, exchanging it for three
times the quantity of brass, and double the quantity of iron, through
ignorance of the mode of working the gold, and the scarcity of the
commodities received in exchange, which are more necessary for the
purposes of life.
them as far as Syria and Mesopotamia. When the carriers become drowsy
by the odor of the aromatics, the drowsiness is removed by the fumes of
asphalt and of oat's beard.
Mariaba, the capital of the Sabaeans [the same as Saba], is situated upon a
mountain, well wooded. A king resides there, who determines absolutely
all disputes and other matters; but he is forbidden to leave his palace, or if
he does so, the rabble immediately assail him with stones, according to the
direction of an oracle. He himself, and those about his person, pass their
lives in effeminate voluptuousness. The people cultivate the ground, or
follow the trade of dealing in aromatics, both the indigenous sort and those
brought from Ethiopia; in order to procure them, they sail through the
straits in vessels covered with skins. There is such an abundance of these
aromatics, that cinnamon, cassia, and other spices are used by them
instead of sticks and firewood.
By the trade in these aromatics both the Sabaeans and the Gerrhaei have
become the richest of all the tribes, and possess a great quantity of
wrought articles in gold and silver, as couches, tripods, basins, drinking-
vessels, to which we must add the costly magnificence of their houses; for
the doors, walls, and roofs are variegated with inlaid ivory, gold, silver,
and precious stones. . .
XVI.iv.21. The Nabataeans and Sabaeans, situated above Syria, are the
first people who occupy Arabia Felix. They were frequently in the habit of
overrunning this country before the Romans became masters of it, but at
present both they and the Syrians are subject to the Romans.
XVI.iv.22. The late expedition of the Romans against the Arabians, under
the command of Aelius Gallus, has made us acquainted with many
peculiarities of the country. Augustus Caesar despatched this general to
explore the nature of these places and their inhabitants, as well as those of
Ethiopia, for he observed that Troglodytica, which is contiguous to Egypt,
bordered upon Ethiopia; and that the Arabian Gulf was extremely narrow
where it separates the Arabians from the Troglodytae. It was his intention
either to conciliate or subdue the Arabians. He was also influenced by the
report which had prevailed from all time, that this people were very
wealthy, and exchanged their aromatics and precious stones for silver and
gold, but never expended with foreigners any part of what they received in
exchange. He hoped to acquire either opulent friends, or to overcome
opulent enemies. He was, moreover, encouraged to undertake this
enterprise by the expectation of assistance from the Nabataeans, who
promised to cooperate with him in everything.
XVI.iv.23. Upon these inducements Gallus set out on the expedition. But
he was deceived by Syllaeus, the king's minister of the Nabataeans, who
had promised to be his guide on march, and to assist him in the execution
of his design. Syllaeus was, however, treacherous throughout; for he
neither guided them by a safe course by sea along the coast, nor by a safe
road for the army as he promised, but exposed both fleet and the army to
danger by directing them where there was no road, or the road was
impracticable, where they were obliged to make long circuits, or to pass
through tracts of country destitute of everything; he led the fleet along a
rocky coast without harbors, or to places abounding with rocks concealed
under water, or with shallows. In places of this description particularly, the
flowing and ebbing of the tide did them the most harm.
The first mistake consisted in building long vessels of war at a time when
there was no war, nor any likely to occur at sea. For the Arabians, being
mostly engaged in traffic and commerce, are not a very warlike people
even on land, much less so at sea. Gallus, notwithstanding, built not less
than eighty biremes and triremes and galleys at Cleopatris [also called
Arsinoë, and near Heroöpolis] near the old canal which leads from the
Nile. When he discovered his mistake, he constructed a hundred and thirty
vessels of burden, in which he embarked with about ten thousand infantry,
collected from Egypt, consisting of Romans and allies, among whom were
five hundred Jews and a thousand Nabataeans, under the command of
Syllaeus. After enduring great hardships and distress, he arrived on the
fifteenth day at Leuce-Come [modern Hanak], a large mart in the territory
of the Nabataeans, with the loss of many of his vessels, some with all their
crews, in consequence of the difficulty of the navigation, but by no
opposition from an enemy. These misfortunes were occasioned by the
perfidy of Syllaeus, who insisted that there was no road for an army by
land to Leuce-Come, to which and from which place the camel traders
travel with ease and in safety from Petra, and back to Petra, with so large a
body of men and camels as to differ in no respect from an army.
XVI.iv.24. Another cause of the failure of the expedition was the fact of
king Obodas not paying much attention to public affairs, and especially to
those relative to war (as is the custom with all Arabian kings), but placed
everything in the power of Syllaeus the minister. His whole conduct in
command of the army was perfidious, and his object was, as I suppose, to
examine as a spy the state of the country and to destroy, in concert with
the Romans, certain cities and tribes; and when the Romans should be
consumed by famine, fatigue, and disease, and by all the evils which he
had treacherously contrived, to declare himself master of the whole
country. Gallus, however, arrived at Leuce-Come, with the army laboring
under stomacacce and scelotyrbe, diseases of the country, the former
affecting the mouth, the other the legs, with a kind of paralysis, caused by
the water and the plants (which the soldiers had used in their food). He
was therefore compelled to pass the summer and the winter there, for the
recovery of the sick.
The next country to which he came belonged to the nomads, and was in
great part a complete desert [the Debae]. It was called Ararene. The king
of the country was Sabos. Gallus spent fifty days in passing through this
territory, for want of roads, and came to a city of the Negrani [probably
Mecca], and to a fertile country peacefully disposed. The king had fled,
and the city was taken at the first onset. After a march of six days from
thence, he came to the river [in the land of the Minae]. Here the barbarians
attacked the Romans, and lost about ten thousand men; the Romans lost
only two men. For the barbarians were entirely inexperienced in war, and
used their weapons unskillfully, which were bows, spears, swords, and
slings; but the greater part of them wielded a double-edged axe.
Immediately afterwards he took the city called Asca [probably modern Al-
Lith], which had been abandoned by the king. He thence came to a city
Athrula [modern Abha?], and took it without resistance; having placed a
garrison there, and collected provisions for the march, consisting of grain
and dates he proceeded to a city Marsiaba, belonging to the nation of the
Rhammanitae, who were subjects of Ilasarus [in modern Yemen, east of
modern San'a]. He assaulted and besieged it for six days, but raised the
siege in consequence of a scarcity of water. He was two days' march from
the aromatic regions, as he was informed by his prisoners.
from one family to another, but each workman continues to exercise that
of his father. The greater part of their wine is made from the palm.
A man's brothers are held in more respect than his children. The
descendants of the royal family succeed as kings, and are invested with
other governments, according to primogeniture. Property is common
among all the relations. The eldest is the chief. There is one wife among
them all. He who enters the house before any of the rest, has intercourse
with her having placed his staff at the door; for it is a necessary custom
which every one is compelled to observe, to carry a staff. The woman,
however, passes the night with the eldest. Hence the male children are all
brothers. They have sexual intercourse also with their mothers. Adultery is
punished with death, but an adulterer must belong to another family.
The houses are sumptuous, and of stone. The cities are without walls, on
account of the peace which prevails among them. A great part of the
country is fertile, and produces everything except oil of olives; the oil of
sesame is used instead. The sheep have white fleeces, their oxen are large;
but the country produces no horses. Camels are the substitute for horses,
and perform the labor. They wear no tunics, but have a girdle about their
loins, and walk abroad in sandals. The dress of the kings is the same, but
the color is purple.
Some merchandise is altogether imported into the country, others are not
altogether imports, especially as some articles are native products, as gold
and silver, and many of the aromatics; but brass and iron, purple garments,
styrax, saffron, and costus (or white cinnamon), pieces of sculpture,
paintings, pieces of statues, are not to be procured in the country. They
look upon the bodies of the dead as no better than dung, according to the
words of Heracleitus, "dead bodies more fit to be cast out than dung;"
wherefore they bury even their kings beside dung-heaps. They worship the
sun, and construct the altar on the top of a house, pouring out libations and
burning frankincense upon it every day.
Book XIV.4: At this time also the Saracens, a race whom it is never
desirable to have either for friends or enemies, ranging up and down the
country, if ever they found anything, plundered it in a moment, like
rapacious hawks who, if from on high they behold any prey, carry it off
with a rapid swoop, or, if they fail in their attempt, do not tarry. And
although, in recounting the career of the Prince Marcus, and once or twice
subsequently, I remember having discussed the manners of this people,
nevertheless I will now briefly enumerate a few more particulars
concerning them.
Among these tribes, whose primary origin is derived from the cataracts of
the Nile and the borders of the Blemmyae, all the men are warriors of
equal rank; half naked, clad in colored cloaks down to the waist,
overrunning different countries, with the aid of swift and active horses and
speedy camels, alike in times of peace and war. Nor does any member of
their tribe ever take plow in hand or cultivate a tree, or seek food by the
tillage of the land; but they are perpetually wandering over various and
extensive districts, having no home, no fixed abode or laws; nor can they
endure to remain long in the same climate, no one district or country
pleasing them for a continuance.
Their life is one continued wandering; their wives are hired, on special
covenant, for a fixed time; and that there may be some appearance of
marriage in the business, the intended wife, under the name of a dowry,
offers a spear and a tent to her husband, with a right to quit him after a
fixed day, if she should choose to do so. And it is inconceivable with what
eagerness the individuals of both sexes give themselves up to matrimonial
pleasures.
But as long as they live they wander about with such extensive and
perpetual migrations, that the woman is married in one place, brings forth
her children in another, and rears them at a distance from either place, no
opportunity of remaining quiet being ever granted to her. They all live on
venison, and are further supported on a great abundance of milk, and on
many kinds of herbs, and on whatever birds they can catch by fowling.
And we have seen a great many of them wholly ignorant of the use of
either corn or wine.
The boundaries of Palestine extend toward the east to the sea which is
called the Red Sea. Now this sea, beginning at India, comes to an end at
this point in the Roman domain. And there is a city called Aelas [modern
Aqaba] on its shore, where the sea comes to an end, as I have said, and
becomes a very narrow gulf. And as one sails into the sea from there [i.e.,
sailing Southwest, from Aqaba to the Red Sea], the Egyptian mountains
lie on the right, extending toward the south; on the other side a country
deserted by men extends northward to an indefinite distance; and the land
on both sides is visible as one sails in as far as the island called Iotabe, not
less than one thousand stades distant from the city of Aelas. On this island
Hebrews had lived from of old in autonomy, but in the reign of this
Justinian they have become subject to the Romans. From there on there
comes a great open sea. And those who sail into this part of it no longer
see the land on the right, but they always anchor along the left coast when
night comes on. For it is impossible to navigate in the darkness on this sea,
since it is everywhere full of shoals. But there are harbors there and great
numbers of them, not made by the hand of man, but by the natural contour
of the land, and for this reason it is not difficult for mariners to find
anchorage wherever they happen to be.
many other nations are said to be settled as far as the man-eating Saracens.
Beyond these are the nations of India.
For the sea which one traverses beyond this point as far as the shore and
the city of Aelas has received the name of the Arabian Gulf, inasmuch as
the country which extends from here to the limits of the city of Gaza used
to be called in olden times Arabia, since the king of the Arabs had his
palace in early times in the city of Petrae. Now the harbor of the Omeritae
from they are accustomed to put to sea for the voyage to Ethiopia is called
Bulicas [modern Al-Hudaydah?]; and at the end of the sail across the sea
they always put in at the harbor of the Adulitae. But the city of Adulis
[near modern Asmara] is removed from the harbor a distance of twenty
stades (for it lacks only so much of being on the sea), while from the city
of Auxomis it is a journey of twelve days.
All the boats which are found in India and on this sea are not made in the
same manner as are other ships. For neither are they smeared with pitch,
nor with any other substance, nor indeed are the planks fastened together
by iron nails going through and through, but they are bound together with
a kind of cording. The reason is not as most persons suppose, that there are
certain rocks there which draw the iron to themselves (for witness the fact
that when the Roman vessels sail from Aelas into this sea, although they
are fitted with much iron, no such thing has ever happened to them), but
rather because the Indians and the Ethiopians possess neither iron nor any
other thing suitable for such purposes. Furthermore, they are not even able
to buy any of these things from the Romans since this is explicitly
forbidden to all by law; for death is the punishment for one who is caught.
Such then is the description of the so-called Red Sea and of the land which
lies on either side of it. . . .
At about the time of this war Ellesthaeus, the king of the Ethiopians, who
was a Christian and a most devoted adherent of this faith, discovered that a
number of the Omeritae on the opposite mainland [modern Yemen] were
oppressing the Christians there outrageously; many of these rascals were
Jews, and many of them held in reverence the old faith which men of the
present day call Hellenic [i.e., pagan]. He therefore collected a fleet of
ships and an army and came against them, and he conquered them in battle
and slew both the king and many of the Omeritae. He then set up in his
stead a Christian king, an Omeritae by birth, by name Esimiphaeus, and,
after ordaining that he should pay a tribute to the Ethiopians every year, he
returned to his home. In this Ethiopian army many slaves and all who were
readily disposed to crime were quite unwilling to follow the king back, but
were left behind and remained there because of their desire for the land of
the Omeritae; for it is an extremely goodly land.
These fellows at a time not long after this, in company with certain others,
rose against the king Esimiphaeus and put him in confinement in one of
the fortresses there, and established another king over the Omeritae,
Abramus by name. Now this Abramus was a Christian, but a slave of a
Roman citizen who was engaged in the business of shipping in the city of
Adulis in Ethiopia. When Ellesthaeus learned this, he was eager to punish
Abramus together with those who had revolted with him for their injustice
to Esimiphaeus, and he sent against them an army of three thousand men
with one of his relatives as commander. This army, once there, was no
longer willing to return home, but they wished to remain where they were
in a goodly land, and so without the knowledge of their commander they
opened negotiations with Abramus; then when they came to an
engagement with their opponents, just as the fighting began, they killed
their commander and joined the ranks of the enemy, and so remained
there. But Ellesthaeus was greatly moved with anger and sent still another
army against them; this force engaged with Abramus and his men, and,
after suffering a severe defeat in the battle, straightway returned home.
Thereafter the king of the Ethiopians became afraid, and sent no further
expeditions against Abramus. After the death of Ellesthaeus, Abramus
agreed to pay tribute to the king of the Ethiopians who succeeded him, and
in this way he strengthened his rule. But this happened at a later time.
At that time, when Ellesthaeus was reigning over the Ethiopians, and
Esimiphaeus over the Omeritae, the Emperor Justinian sent an
ambassador, Julianus, demanding that both nations on account of their
community of religion should make common cause with the Romans in
the war against the Persians; for he purposed that the Ethiopians, by
purchasing silk from India and selling it among the Romans, might
themselves gain much money, while cause the Romans to profit in only
one way, namely, that they be no longer compelled to pay over their
money to their enemy (this is the silk of which they are accustomed to
make the garments which of old the Greeks called "Medic," but which at
the present time they name "Seric" [from Lat. serica, as coming from the
Chinese (Seres)]). As for the Omeritae, it was desired that they should
establish Caï sus, the fugitive, as captain over the Maddeni, and with a
great army of their own people and of the Maddene Saracens make an
invasion into the land of the Persians. This Caï sus was by birth of the
captain's rank and an exceptionally able warrior, but he had killed one of
the relatives of Esimiphaeus and was a fugitive in a land which is utterly
destitute of human habitation.
So each king, promising to put this demand into effect, dismissed the
ambassador, but neither one of them did the things agreed upon by them.
For it was impossible for the Ethiopians to buy silk from the Indians, for
the Persian merchants always locate themselves at the very harbors where
the Indian ships first put in (since they inhabit the adjoining country), and
are accustomed to buy the whole cargoes; and it seemed to the Omeritae a
difficult thing to cross a country which was a desert and which extended
so far that a long time was required for the journey across it, and then to
go against such a people much more warlike than themselves. Later on
Abramus too, when at length he had established his power most securely,
promised the Emperor Justinian many times to invade the land of Persia,
but only once began the journey and then straightway turned back. Such
then were the relations which the Romans had with the Ethiopians and the
Omeritae.
Sources:
From:
Dio Cassius, The Roman History, Vol. V, trans. Ernest Cary (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1917), pp. 269, 271