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Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331 – 346

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Discovery of the Ordovician Millbrig K-bentonite Bed in the


Trenton Group of New York State: implications for regional
correlation and sequence stratigraphy in eastern North America
Charles E. Mitchell a,*, Soumava Adhya b, Stig M. Bergström c,
Michael P. Joy a, John W. Delano b
a
Department of Geology, The University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
b
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, The University at Albany, State University of New York, Albany, NY 12222, USA
c
Department of Geological Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
Received 12 January 2003; accepted 23 February 2004

Abstract

The Ordovician (Chatfieldian) Millbrig K-bentonite Bed is a key stratigraphic marker horizon that is regionally synchronous
over much of eastern and central North America. This prominent marker is an independent source of correlation among the
major chronostratigraphic and sequence stratigraphic units in this region. The general stratigraphic position of the Millbrig K-
bentonite has suggested to some authors that it is identical with the Hounsfield K-bentonite at Dexter, New York (the traditional
type area of the Middle Ordovician, or Mohawkian Series in North America), but previously available geochemical and
biostratigraphical evidence has been insufficient to confirm this correlation. Analyses of apatites and melt inclusions in quartz
phenocrysts from the Millbrig K-bentonite at eight localities in Kentucky, Missouri, Virginia, and Pennsylvania and the
Hounsfield K-bentonite at its type locality at Dexter, New York, using high-precision electron microprobe analysis techniques
shows that the Millbrig and the Hounsfield have identical apatite and melt inclusion chemistry indicating a geochemical
correlation. This correlation is supported by conodont biostratigraphy, and d13C isotope chemostratigraphy. The new data
demonstrate that the Millbrig K-bentonite, and therefore the base of the Chatfieldian Stage of the North American Mohawkian
Series (by definition), lies very close to the base of the traditional Rocklandian Stage of New York. Furthermore, the Millbrig K-
bentonite Bed lies in close proximity to the base of the Taconic supersequence over much of the Midcontinent region and in
particular lies just below the M5 sequence boundary recognized in Kentucky and Tennessee. Our results permit extension of the
Chatfieldian sequences into New York State and southern Ontario, and contributes to the resolution of the long-standing
uncertainty about the position of the base of the Trenton Group in Ontario. Furthermore, viewed in a broad context of regional
stratigraphic relations, we conclude that our results suggest that the persistent correlation difficulties reflect diachronous effects
of widespread changes in oceanographic circulation patterns that emerged during Taconic Orogeny. Finally, regional differences
in the timing and character of sequence bounding surfaces and facies similarities summarized here suggest that the causes of
relative sea level change during the Chatfieldian may have been primarily tectonoeustatic mechanisms.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Late Ordovician; Taconic basin; Trenton Group; Sequence stratigraphy; Tectonoeustasy

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: cem@geology.buffalo.edu (C.E. Mitchell).

0031-0182/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.02.037
332 C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346

1. Introduction Ordovician K-bentonites have long been known


from southern Canada (Kay, 1931, 1935, 1937) and
Beds of altered volcanic ash, known as K-benton- eastern and central USA (Kolata et al., 1996). The
ite, are widespread in Lower Paleozoic stratigraphic majority of these ash beds occur in the Turinian and
successions in eastern and central North America. Chatfieldian Stages of the North American Mohaw-
Because these beds were deposited very rapidly, kian (upper Middle Ordovician) Series. Kolata et al.
probably within days, they are event beds that have (1998) have referred collectively to this suite of beds
an extraordinarily high potential for precise chrono- as the ‘Hagan K-bentonite complex.’ In terms of the
stratigraphic correlation both locally and regionally. If traditional British succession, the Hagan K-bentonite
an individual bed can be correlated over broad dis- complex occupies a position in the middle of the
tances, it provides a powerful tool with which to test Caradoc Series, and within the emerging global Or-
correlations based on physical or faunal criteria. dovician chronostratigraphic units (Webby, 1998), it
Recent progress in development of geochemical anal- occurs within the still unnamed lower stage of the
ysis methods has greatly improved our ability to Upper Ordovician Series.
chemically fingerprint individual ash beds and conse- One of the two thickest and most widespread of the
quently, these techniques have enhanced the correla- Hagan K-bentonite beds is the Millbrig K-bentonite
tive value of K-bentonites in local and regional (Fig. 1; Haynes, 1994; Kolata et al., 1996, 1998). Leslie
stratigraphy. and Bergström (1995b) selected this bed as the base of

Fig. 1. Regional map of the east-central United States and adjoining Canada with line of section for Fig. 7, and major geological features of the
study region. Patterned area is the distribution of the Millbrig K-bentonite Bed (from Kolata et al., 1996). A: Adirondack Arch; J: Jessamine
Dome; N: Nashville Dome. Numbered sites are: (1) upper Mississippi Valley, Iowa, Illinois, and Minnesota; (2) Sebree Trough (subsurface), SE
Indiana, SW Ohio, and northern Kentucky; (3) Jessamine Dome, Kentucky; (4) Hagan area, SW Virginia; (5) Strasburg area, NW Virginia; (6)
Reedsville area, Central Pennsylvania; (7) Mohawk Valley, Central New York State; (8) Watertown region, Black River Valley, New York State;
(9) Ottawa area, east-central Ontario, Canada; (10) Lake Simcoe area, west-central Ontario, Canada.
C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346 333

the North American Chatfieldian Stage of the upper Despite its widespread geographic distribution, the
Mohawkian Series. It has been identified in outcrops, Millbrig K-bentonite has until now not been positively
drill-cores, and wireline-logs throughout the central identified within the upper Middle Ordovician rock
and eastern United States and southwestern Ontario succession in the New York State – southern Ontario
(Haynes, 1994; Kolata et al., 1986, 1996, 1998). It may region. Kay (1931) correlated his Hounsfield K-ben-
also be equivalent, in part, to the Kinnekulle K-ben- tonite Bed, which has its type section near Dexter,
tonite Bed in Baltoscandia (Huff et al., 1992, 1999) New York (Fig. 2), with the Millbrig K-bentonite in
although this has been questioned (Haynes et al., 1995). the Spechts Ferry Member of Decorah Formation in
In recent years, sequence stratigraphic concepts the Upper Mississippi Valley. Although Conkin
have been successfully applied to the Middle and (1990, 1991) and Schirnick (1990) supported Kay’s
Upper Ordovician rocks within the Mohawkian suc- (1931) correlation, which was based mainly on stra-
cession of the North American mid continent, particu- tigraphy, most subsequent authors have disregarded
larly along the western margin of the Taconic foreland this correlation because it lacked a definitive chemical
basin (e.g., Holland and Patzkowsky, 1996, 1997; Pope test proving that these ash layers represented the same
and Read, 1997a,b). The Millbrig K-bentonite Bed in eruption event (Kolata et al., 1996).
particular lies very close to a major stratigraphic The purpose of our study is twofold. First, we
sequence boundary that is intimately related to the utilize high-precision geochemical fingerprinting
transition from peripheral uplift to large-scale subsi- techniques on apatite and melt inclusions in quartz
dence within the Taconic foreland basin (unconformity to test whether or not the Hounsfield K-bentonite is, in
B of Rodgers, 1971; see also Ettensohn, 1991). Be- fact, identical with the Millbrig K-bentonite. As we
cause of the rapidly changing paleoceanographic con- document below, our results suggest that these units
ditions, patterns of facies and faunal distribution in this are part of the same event bed. Secondly, we take this
interval were complex, and, consequently, detailed opportunity to reexamine regional correlations and
regional correlations based on biostratigraphy and their implications for stratigraphic sequence develop-
lithostratigraphy have remained controversial and not ment along the western margin of the Taconic fore-
well established. Thus, the Millbrig K-bentonite pro- land basin (Fig. 1). A series of regional stratigraphic
vides a key marker for use in extending this strati- sequences have been defined in the Cincinnati arch
graphic framework both into more proximal parts of the region (e.g., Holland and Patzkowsky, 1996; Pope and
basin and onto the surrounding craton. Read, 1997a,b) that appear to have wide potential for

Fig. 2. Index map encompassing regions 8 – 10 in Fig. 1, showing location of specific New York State – Ontario Mohawkian localities mentioned
in the text.
334 C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346

refined correlation and increased understanding of the Chaumont Formation (see Appendix A for more
sedimentological and paleontological history of east- precise locality data). Kay named the irregular, 1– 2-
ern North America. Precise time lines of the sort cm-thick K-bentonite that is present about 2 m above
offered by K-bentonite event beds provide crucial the base of this section the ‘Hounsfield Metabenton-
independent evidence for these sequence correlations. ite’ and correlated the K-bentonite-bearing interval
Based on the extension of the Millbrig K-bentonite with the Glenburnie Shale of the Kingston, Ontario
Bed in to New York and central Ontario described region (Fig. 3). Subsequently, Kay (1935) revised his
here and a synthesis of published and new biostrati- interpretation of the stratigraphic relations and indi-
graphic data, we conclude that the Mohawkian cated that the Hounsfield K-bentonite is located in the
sequences can be extended into the northern Taconic Rockland Formation—in a part of this unit that is now
foreland basin. Differing patterns of sequence devel- recognized as the Selby Formation (Fig. 3), which
opment down dip and along strike within the Taconic most authors (e.g., Kay, 1937, 1968; Schopf, 1966;
foreland basin suggest that the principle control on Fisher, 1977; Conkin, 1991; Dix et al., 1997) include
accommodation space growth and facies distribution as the basal unit of the Trenton Group. This formation
in these sequences was tectonoeustatic in origin rather assignment has been accepted by most subsequent
than glacioeustatic. workers (e.g., Schopf, 1966; Johnsen, 1971; Cameron
and Mangion, 1977; Fisher, 1977; Conkin, 1991).
Biostratigraphic data bearing on the correlation
2. Stratigraphic position of the Hounsfield K- of the Dexter Quarry section are limited. Schopf
bentonite Bed (1966) sampled the quarry and the adjacent roadside
exposures for conodonts and Hart (1986) described
Kay (1931) considered the relatively thin Mohaw- chitinozoans from those samples. Fig. 4 shows the
kian succession exposed in the Dexter Quarry section, ranges for the most biostratigraphically useful chiti-
New York (Fig. 2), to lie within the middle part of his nozoan and conodont taxa, with species names

Fig. 3. Correlation chart showing (from left to right): North American stages, conodont chronozones (Sweet, 1984, 1988), the lithostratigraphic
nomenclature for the study interval in: the study region of New York State at the time when the Hounsfield K-bentonite was described (Kay,
1931), the usage employed here for New York (adapted from Cameron and Mangion, 1973); central Kentucky lithostratigraphy (Cressman,
1973) and sequence stratigraphy (Holland and Patzkowsky, 1996); and the Lake Simcoe regions of Ontario (see Melchin et al., 1994). Shaded
portion corresponds to the lower part of the Trenton Group as defined locally. H: Stratigraphic position of the Hounsfield K-bentonite (heavy
arrow) and Kay’s (1931) suggested location (dashed arrow) at the level of the Glenburnie Shale; GICE: Guttenberg d13C excursion; M: Millbrig
K-bentonite; D: Deicke K-bentonite; MR and MH are prominent K-bentonites in the Lake Simcoe area employed as marker beds by Liberty
(1969). See text for further discussion.
C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346 335

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic column of the succession in the Dexter Quarry and adjacent road cut (modified from Conkin, 1991) and ranges of selected
conodont (white bars) and chitinozoan species (shaded bar) in the Dexter Quarry section below covered interval and in the nearby roadside
section (above covered interval). Data updated from Schopf (1966) and Hart (1986). Scales in meters (note differences in scale). Hounsfield K-
bentonite ( = Millbrig K-bentonite) is at the level of the black bar within the Selby Formation. Lithologies are shale (shaded bars), wackestones
(narrow, crosshatched bars), and packstone to grainstone (wide crosshatched bars); bar height is scaled to bed thickness. Total Napanee
thickness exposed in the Game Farm Road cut is about 9 m. Base of the Dexter Quarry section is taken as the persistent pond level.

updated to reflect current conodont taxonomy. The tus. This led Sweet (1984, 1988) to correlate these
data suggest that the rocks at this locality are rocks with his Belodina compressa Chronozone (Fig.
referable to the Phragmodus undatus Chronozone 3)—a correlation which is similar to that advocated by
(Sweet, 1984, 1988) of the uppermost Turinian Cornell and Brett (2001) who, based on event beds
through lower Chatfieldian stages (Leslie and Berg- and cycles, regarded the Hounsfield K-bentonite to be
ström, 1995b). The Selby conodont fauna (Fig. 4) is the same as the K-bentonite in the Glenburnie Shale.
strikingly similar to that in the Curdsville Member Leslie (2000) has demonstrated, however, that Ph.
of the Lexington Limestone of Kentucky (Berg- undatus and several other species that had been
ström and Sweet, 1966; Richardson and Bergström, considered to be restricted to Rocklandian and youn-
2003), which overlies the Millbrig K-bentonite. In ger rocks, in fact, appear rarely in rocks as low as
contrast, relatively abundant and excellently pre- those of the upper Lowville Limestone in eastern
served conodonts in a sample of the Glenburnie North America (Fig. 3). Similarly, Sweet (1987) found
Shale at its type locality (Kay, 1929) at the Glen- that in the upper Mississippi Valley the Ph. undatus
burnie Quarry (Fig. 2), include Belodina compressa Chronozone includes the stratigraphic interval bearing
and abundant elements of ‘‘fibrous’’ conodonts but the widespread Deicke and Millbrig K-bentonites.
no specimens of Ph. undatus, Rhodesognathus ele- Thus, the entire Watertown – Coboconk succession
gans, Icriodella superba, and other taxa that first appears to fall within the Ph. undatus Chronozone
appear in the Ph. undatus Chronozone (Bergström, (Fig. 3). Although we suspect that this interval with
unpublished data). rare deeper water conodonts is likely to be of similar
Conodont correlation of the late Turinian in eastern age throughout the study region and that the Glen-
North America is complicated by the facies depen- burnie Shale is older than the Hounsfield K-bentonite
dence of key species (Winder, 1960; Sweet et al., Bed, clearly additional, more certain means are need-
1971). The Glenburnie conodont fauna is like that ed to confirm these relationships. As we discuss
found in other late Turinian sites in the northeastern below, event bed correlations represent an important
Midcontinent region in the dominance by ‘‘fibrous’’ additional source of inference that is relevant to this
conodonts and in the absence of Phragmodus unda- problem.
336 C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346

3. Analytical techniques Mitchell et al. (1994). In Fig. 5, we present the


compositional range of 2 of the 10 elements analyzed
Routine sample preparation techniques for melt for apatites and melt inclusions to demonstrate our
inclusion in quartz were followed (Hanson, 1995; ability to chemically distinguish the Millbrig and the
Hanson et al., 1996; Dannenmann, 1997). Euhedral Hounsfield from stratigraphically similar K-bentonites.
apatite phenocrysts, separated from the bromoform Each geometric field represents a fingerprinted K-
sink fractions, were mounted in specially designed bentonite horizon and covers the total range of com-
aluminum cylinders and polished using 0.3 and 0.05 positional variation for all the samples collected from
Am Gamma alumina. Electron microprobe analyses more than one locality, i.e., suites of matching beds. In
were performed using a JEOL 733 Superprobe located some cases, we found a unique compositional field
at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. High-precision representing a unique bed from one locality.
techniques developed for rhyolitic glasses were used The Millbrig K-bentonite from all the localities
for analyzing melt inclusions in quartz (Hanson et al., studied (Appendix A) contains at least two significant
1996). Elements (e.g., Mg, Ti, Cl, Fe, Ca, Mn, Na, compositional groups (Figs. 5A and 6). Discriminating
and K), which are known to be good discriminators elements supporting this observation are Fe, Mn, Cl,
for rhyolitic glasses (Hanson et al., 1996; Adhya et al., and Mg in apatites, and Ca, Mg, and Cl in melt
1999), were used for melt inclusion analysis. inclusions. The Millbrig signature has the following
A new high-precision technique was developed for characteristics demonstrated by the MnO vs. Cl (Fig.
apatite analyses. Ten elements (Ca, Na, Mn, Fe, P, 5A), MnO vs. FeO (Fig. 5A) plots for apatite, and CaO
Mg, F, Cl, Si, and Sr) were analyzed in two packages. vs. MgO (Fig. 6B) plots for melt inclusions: (a)
In the first package, major elements Ca, P, and F were apatites show two distinct compositional groups while
analyzed at a lower specimen current (30 nA at 15 kV the melt inclusion shows two conspicuous trends; (b)
acceleration voltage) for 20 s counting time (on peaks) the chemical signature of one of the two apatite
and with 30 Am beam diameter. Fluorine was ana- compositional groups consists of a low MnO with
lyzed six times to monitor any major increase in the k high Cl and FeO abundances, while the other group
ratio (X-ray intensity counts/s/nA) as described in consists of a high MnO with lower Cl and FeO
Stormer et al. (1993). In general, no major variation abundances (Figs. 5A and 6A); (c) the low MnO
in the F X-ray intensity was observed. All 10 elements apatite compositional group shows a greater range in
were analyzed in the second package at a higher Cl and FeO compositions (Figs. 5A and 6A); (d) for
specimen current (250 nA at 15 kV acceleration melt inclusions, one compositional trend comprises
voltage) for 180 s counting time on peaks with 30 less than 20% of the data points with lower CaO and a
Am beam diameter. The high beam current and long steep slope for CaO – FeO trend line; the other trend
counting times resulted in better counting statistics consisting of majority of the data points, shows a
and higher analytical precision than that possible in gentler CaO –FeO trend line slope and a higher CaO
standard procedures. Eight elements (Mn, Cl, Fe, Sr, abundance (Fig. 6B).
Na, Mg, F, and Si) were found to be good discrim- Chemical compositions of the apatite and melt
inators for apatite fingerprinting (Adhya et al., 1999). inclusion from the Hounsfield K-bentonite show two
Apatites and melt inclusions in quartz phenocrysts compositional groups that are identical to those in the
from the Millbrig and the Hounsfield samples (Ap- Millbrig K-bentonite based on the same discriminating
pendix A) were treated under similar laboratory con- elements (i.e., Fe, Mn, Cl, and Mg in apatites, and Ca,
ditions and analyzed using identical analytical Mg, and Cl in melt inclusions). The MnO vs. Cl and
techniques. FeO (Figs. 5A and 6A), and CaO vs. MgO (Fig. 6B)
plots for apatite and melt inclusions, respectively,
demonstrate the distinctive chemical similarity be-
4. Geochemical correlation tween the Hounsfield and the Millbrig K-bentonites.
All elements analyzed for apatites as well as melt
To avoid fortuitous similarities between isolated K- inclusions from the Hounsfield K-bentonite show a
bentonites we employed similar approaches as taken by close match with those of the Millbrig K-bentonites.
C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346 337

Fig. 5. XY plots of absolute abundances (wt.%) of (A) MnO vs. Cl compositions of apatite and (B) TiO2 vs. Cl compositions of melt inclusions in
quartz phenocrysts from the major upper Middle Ordovician K-bentonites from Mohawk and Black River valleys, New York; central
Pennsylvania; northern and western Virginia; and central Kentucky. The compositional fields correspond to the fingerprinted K-bentonites and
represent suites of matching samples collected from more than one locality (some cases of unique bed from only one locality are reported). Some
fields showing significant overlaps can be distinguished by the variance and covariance patterns and also by the abundances of other elements
analyzed. Indices used to identify the relevant K-bentonites are Millbrig: solid black; Hounsfield: diagonal stripes; Deicke: vertical ruling; an un-
named K-bentonite stratigraphically close to Millbrig: horizontal stripes. The diagram demonstrates our ability to geochemically distinguish
Millbrig and Hounsfield from other K-bentonites from similar stratigraphic level. Numerical values adjacent to the boxes indicate the number of
individual apatite or melt inclusion analysis included within that field; precision bar F 3r. Note: (B) was modified after Mitchell et al. (1994).

Fig. 6. XY plots of absolute abundances (wt.%) of (A) MnO vs. FeO in apatite and (B) CaO vs. MgO in melt inclusions from Millbrig and
Hounsfield K-bentonite samples at selected localities. The diagrams demonstrate the presence of two conspicuous compositional groups for the
Millbrig apatites and melt inclusions in quartz. The Hounsfield K-bentonite samples show identical compositional groups revealed by apatite
and melt inclusion chemistries indicating a confident match. Each point represents a single analysis; precision bar F 3r.
338 C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346

Apatite and quartz phenocrysts involve substantially ognized in New York State –Ontario region, namely
different crystallization kinetics and the process of the Rocklandian, Kirkfieldian, and Shermanian stages.
melt inclusion entrapment introduces yet a third Leslie and Bergström (1995b) defined the base of the
dynamic. Since it is very unlikely that a fortuitous Chatfieldian Stage as the base of the Millbrig K-
match in one of these systems would coincide with a bentonite in a stratotype section near Chatfield, Min-
fortuitous match in the other, the correspondence in nesota (Fig. 7). This level is near the base of the
compositional similarities (in both the mode and Plectodina tenuis Chronozone of Sweet (1984, 1988)
covariance patterns) shown by melt inclusions and (see also Leslie, 2000). Data available at that time were
apatite chemistry greatly enhances the reliability of insufficient to make a precise correlation between the
the geochemical correlation. We conclude that our Chatfieldian and the New York succession. The pres-
geochemical data indicate that the Millbrig and the ent data demonstrate that in the Dexter Quarry, the
Hounsfield K-bentonites were produced by the same Millbrig K-bentonite is about 1 – 1.5 m above the
volcanic event or events. traditional base of the Rocklandian Substage (Figs. 2
and 7). This direct event bed correlation from the type
area of the Chatfieldian stage into the historical type
5. Chronostratigraphic significance area of the Middle Ordovician in North America
provides a secure basis for adoption of the Chatfieldian
An accurate understanding of the precise temporal Stage as a replacement for the ‘‘Trentonian’’ or Rock-
relations among strata from disparate regions is funda- land through Shermanian stages.
mental to our ability to reconstruct past environments Recent studies have shown that d13C excursions
and diversity histories, or, in this instance, to gauge the can be used as a powerful chronostratigraphic tool
interplay of local tectonic and global controls on (e.g., Saltzman et al., 1998; Saltzman, 2001). Our
stratigraphic sequence development and their effects stratigraphic conclusions are consistent with recently
on the Taconic foreland basin history. In this section, developed isotope chemostratigraphy at the Dexter
we discuss the implications of the Hounsfield – Mill- Quarry and in Kentucky. As shown by Bergström et
brig identity for Ordovician chronostratigraphy. This, al. (2001), the apparently global Guttenberg d13C
unfortunately, is a complex and detailed topic that is excursion (GICE) (Ludvigson et al., 1996; Ainsaar et
difficult to summarize in broad terms, but one that is an al., 1999) is present in the Napanee Limestone above
essential preliminary to the more general issues that we the Millbrig K-bentonite at the Dexter Quarry (Fig. 2).
wish to examine. The GICE anomaly starts in the lowermost Logana
The discovery of the Millbrig K-bentonite in the Member of the Lexington Limestone of Kentucky
historical type area of the North American Middle (Saltzman et al., 2001), which is about 8 m above
Ordovician chronostratigraphic succession provides an the Millbrig K-bentonite. The Millbrig/GICE relations
opportunity to resolve the long-standing confusion are substantially the same in the stratigraphically more
about the temporal relations between the Black River condensed succession in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
and Trenton groups and their correlation with the For instance, in northeastern Iowa – southwestern Wis-
North American stages and substages in this interval consin (Ludvigson et al., 1996, their Fig. 4), about 2– 3
(Fig. 2). The stratigraphic nomenclature of the m of strata of the Spechts Ferry Member of the
Mohawkian Series in the New York State – Ontario Decorah Shale separates the Millbrig K-bentonite from
region has had a very complex history that reflects the the initiation level of the GICE.
evolution of stratigraphic practice as well as the facies
complexity of the carbonate succession (Cameron and
Mangion, 1977; Fisher, 1977; Sweet, 1988; Mitchell et 6. Geographic extension of Chatfieldian
al., 1994). In an effort to remedy some of the problems stratigraphic sequences along the margins
of the stage nomenclature in the Mohawkian Series, of the Taconic foreland basin
Leslie and Bergström (1995a,b) proposed a new stage,
the Chatfieldian Stage, as a substitute for three rela- Based mainly on studies in Kentucky and central
tively short and poorly defined stages originally rec- Tennessee, Holland and Patzkowsky (1996, 1997)
C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346 339

Fig. 7. Chronostratigraphic cross section showing the distribution of facies and regional unconformities from (A) the upper Mississippi Valley
into the Taconic foreland basin (left to right) and (B) northeast along strike within the foreland basin and then (at region 7) across strike back
onto the Laurentian midcontinent (see Fig. 1 for location of the section line and explanation of numbered regions along the section top). Sources
of data are discussed in the text.

and Pope and Read (1997a,b) distinguished a set of pre-Lexington erosion has removed the Millbrig as
sequences through the Middle and Upper Ordovician well as part of the upper Tyrone Limestone (Cress-
(Fig. 7). The base of the M5 sequence of Holland man, 1973). Accordingly, the base of the M5 se-
and Patzkowsky, which coincides with the discon- quence ought to correspond to a level at or above the
formity between the Tyrone Limestone and the Millbrig K-bentonite in the Dexter Quarry. The
Lexington Limestone, is at, or slightly above, the approximately 1.5-m-thick Selby Formation succes-
Millbrig K-bentonite. In some sections, post-Tyrone, sion above the ash layer does not exhibit any clear
340 C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346

lithologic evidence of the M5 sequence boundary, Formation and possibly to the correlative contact in
and it most likely falls in the approximately 9-m- the Ottawa region (see Dix et al., 1997, who refer to
thick covered interval between the top of the quarry the overlying unit as the Bobcaygeon Formation).
and the base of the Napanee Formation outcrop in The base of the Coboconk Formation in the Ottawa
the nearby road cut. region, like the base of the Watertown Formation in
Patterns of stratigraphic omission associated with New York, is sharp and disconformable (Dix et al.,
the Selby –Napanee formation contact in the Black 1997). The Coboconk Formation in both the Lake
River Valley suggest that this surface is a significant Simcoe and Ottawa regions contains an abundant and
regional unconformity (Kay, 1937; Cameron and diverse shelly fauna that has marked affinities to the
Mangion, 1977; Fisher, 1977). The contact is every- succeeding Trenton Group fauna (Liberty, 1969) and
where abrupt and coincides with a striking change differs sharply from the dominantly restricted-water,
from coralgal, peletal wakestones and packstones of peritidal character of the underlying Gull River –Low-
the Selby Formation to brachiopod, bryozoan pack- ville formations. Thus, the Watertown – Coboconk
stones and interbedded shales of the Napanee Forma- succession appears to comprise a distinct package of
tion (Cameron and Mangion, 1977). Holland and rock above the Lowville– Gull River strata and below
Patzkowsky (1996) and Pope and Read (1997a) noted those of the M5 sequence. The stratigraphic position
that throughout much of the central and southern of the K-bentonite in the Glenburnie Shale suggests
Appalachians the base of the M5 sequence marks a that this bed may be the Deicke K-bentonite. This
shift from tropical style carbonates to more temperate- identification needs to be verified by chemical finger-
like carbonates—precisely the kind of change printing, but if it is correct, the Deicke and the
exhibited by the faunas and carbonate grain types Millbrig in New York State –southern Ontario would
across the base of the Napanee Formation in the Black have the same relations to units in the Black River –
River Valley. The data at hand suggest that the base of Trenton Groups as in Kentucky. In that case, the
M5 sequence most likely lies at the base of the unconformity below the Watertown Formation may
Napanee Limestone in the study region. This level correspond to the M4 sequence boundary of Holland
may conveniently be taken as the base of the Trenton and Patzkowsky (1996, 1997). The presence of spe-
Group following the recommendation of Cameron and cies characteristic of the Phragmodus undatus Chro-
Mangion (1977). nozone in the uppermost Lowville Limestone at City
Correlation between the Black River and Trenton Brook, in New York State (Leslie, 2000, supplemental
group succession of the Black River Valley –King- database) supports this correlation since the base of
ston region with those of the Lake Simcoe and the chronozone appears to fall within the upper part of
Ottawa regions has long been controversial. Our M3 in the Kentucky – Tennessee succession (Holland
correlations among these rocks (Fig. 7) largely and Patzkowsky, 1996, 1997). Further detailed work
follow Brookfield (1988), Melchin et al. (1994), of the lithofacies of the upper Black River Group
Dix et al. (1997), and Sharma et al. (2003). Tropical strata will be needed to determine if these formation
carbonate sediments of the Gull River and Coboconk contacts do indeed represent sequence boundaries.
formations are overlain disconformably by the lower
Kirkfield Formation, which rapidly becomes domi-
nated by more cool-water, temperate-type packstones 7. Possible causes of relative sea level change and
and grainstones that alternate with thin shale beds formation of the Taconic sequences
(Melchin et al., 1994). These diversely fossiliferous
grainstones were deposited in a strongly storm dom- The rocks bearing the Millbrig K-bentonite (the
inated ramp succession (see also McFarland et al., M4 sequence of Holland and Patzkowsky 1996,
1999) similar to that of the lower units of the 1997)) and the overlying strata comprise the second
Trenton Group succession in New York and Ken- order Taconic supersequence (Pope and Read,
tucky. Thus, this facies contrast appears to support 1997a,b; see especially Fig. 2, Pope and Read,
the extension of the M5 sequence into the Lake 1997b). This succession includes the main mass of
Simcoe area with its base at the base of the Kirkfield the Taconic foreland basin fill (the Martinsburg suc-
C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346 341

cession and its equivalents) and marks the onset of difficult to trace into the Taconic foreland basin
tectonically driven subsidence during the Taconic (where local tectonically driven subsidence over-
phase of orogenic activity along the Appalachian whelmed other sources of relative sea level change)
margin (Rodgers, 1971). Broad regional tilting is to be expected (Holland and Patzkowsky, 1996).
effected eastern Laurentia during this interval (Coak- The boundaries are also difficult to trace farther onto
ley and Gurnis, 1995; Howell and van der Pluijim, the craton into the Upper Mississippi Valley, however.
1999), and was the main cause of the long-term The succession in this later area is more complete than
growth of the accommodation space that is now the more eastern succession rather than less so (see
occupied by Taconic supersequence strata (Holland Kolata et al., 2001; although this may reflect lack of
and Patzkowsky, 1997). What is considerably less detailed study specifically directed at this question),
clear is the source of the more short-term (1– 3 million and carbonates are again replaced by mudstone and
years long), 20 – 60 m cycles of relative sea level clay-rich strata (Fig. 7).
change that is recorded in the Chatfieldian and youn- A similar pattern is repeated in the northern part
ger stratigraphic sequences that make up the super- of the section shown in Fig. 7. The unconformities
sequence succession. In particular, it is unclear bounding the interval that appears to correspond to
whether these are the result of glacioeustatic or the M4 sequence have their maximum duration in
teconoeustatic driving mechanisms (see, for example, the region around the Adirondack Dome in New
discussions in Pope and Reed, 1997a; Holland and York (they merge in the central Mohawk Valley,
Patzkowsky, 1997). A complete review of this subject region 7, Figs. 1 and 7, completely cutting out the
is beyond the scope of the present paper, however, our M4 sequence). To the northwest, into the Black
results do present an opportunity to reconsider the River Valley of NY and the adjoining Kingston
problem for this interval at least. Ontario area (region 8, (Figs. 1, 2, and 7)), the
Facies differentiation within the Laurentian plat- M4 and M5 sequences become more complete (see
form increased dramatically coincident with the onset Fisher, 1977; Cameron and Mangion, 1977). The
of Taconic foreland subsidence (Borella and Osborne, M4 strata of the Ottawa Embayment (region 9)
1978; Keith, 1989). Changes included the replace- closely correspond in facies character and strati-
ment of carbonate mudstone-dominated, keep-up graphic succession to those of the New York –King-
cycles of the Black River Group by mixed grainstone ston region and are distinctly different from the
and shale-dominated catch-up cycles of the Trenton coeval succession farther from the Taconic basin in
Group along the western margin of the Taconic basin the Lake Simcoe area (region 10; Melchin et al.,
and formation of shale-dominated Sebree Trough, and 1994; Dix et al., 1997). However, Dix et al. (1997)
the adjacent cratonic carbonate banks (Galena Shelf point out that this pattern of affinity in the Ottawa
and Lexington Platform; see Keith, 1989; Mitchell Embayment reversed during deposition of the M5
and Bergström, 1991; Pope and Reed, 1997a). The succession, when they come to resemble those of
precise age and lateral relations of the Sebree Trough the Lake Simcoe region and differ sharply from the
fill is still under debate, but all the recent work on Trenton Group strata of New York. Dix et al. (1997)
these rocks agrees that the facies differentiation dis- argued that this changing pattern of facies affinity
played in the region appear likely to have arisen in argued for strong tectonic effects on regional facies
part as a result of sediment starvation on the western development. Although concerned primarily with
margin of the Sebree Trough and far-field tectonic slightly younger strata and a more localized study
effects of deformational events in the Taconic Orogen region, Joy et al. (2000) and Jacobi and Mitchell
(Quinlan and Beaumont, 1984; Pope et al., 1997; (2002), documented the presence of strong local
Kolata et al., 2001; Ettensohn et al., 2002). structural control on facies and unconformity devel-
The sequence bounding unconformities of the M4 opment in the central Mohawk Valley region of
and M5 sequences are prominent features on the New York State.
Jessamine and Nashville domes (Figs. 1 and 7), where Taken together, these observations suggest the
they were first recognized (Holland and Patzkowsky, following hypothesis. The Chatfieldian sequences
1996, 1997; Pope and Read, 1997a,b). That they are developed in synchrony with episodes of uplift along
342 C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346

the periphery of the Taconic basin and locally varying mentological patterns also suggest that the Sebree
patterns of subsidence both within the basin and Trough supplied cool nutrient-rich water to the epeiric
farther into the craton. Uplift was particularly prom- seas over the Laurentian mid-continent at this time
inent on the Nashville, Jessamine, and Adirondack (Cressman, 1973; Holland and Patzkowsky, 1997;
domes, and there led to regression, exposure, and Kolata et al., 2001; Ettensohn et al., 2002). Elements
development of a Type I sequence boundary. This of the ‘‘Trenton’’ conodont fauna first appear in strata
uplift may have been driven as a flexural response to deposited bordering the Sebree Trough in the upper
strong subsidence within the Taconic foreland basin Mississippi Valley and in the Nashville – Jessamine
and may have been accompanied by falling eustatic domes region (Leslie and Bergström, 1995a) and
sea level that also contributed to sequence boundary graptolite faunas apparently migrated into the Taconic
development. Relative sea level rise during periods of foreland basin via this route (Mitchell and Bergström,
relative tectonic quiescence reinforced local subsi- 1991; Goldman et al., 1999).
dence patterns (or variations in sediment supply rate, Although the typical ‘‘Black River’’ fauna remained
or both), and resulted in sediment starved submarine the dominant community in the New York – Ontario
unconformities (e.g., within the Sebree Trough and portion of the Laurentian epeiric sea during deposition
along the margin of the Lexington – Trenton shelf in of the M4 succession, relatively more offshore or deep
central Pennsylvania and New York; Fig. 7). In short, water taxa, ‘‘Trenton’’ taxa (such as the elements of the
we suggest that the regional patterns of heterogeneity Phragmodus undatus conodont fauna), appeared rarely
in subsidence pattern and facies history raise the in these rocks as temporary epiboles, perhaps in asso-
strong possibility that the Chatfieldian sequences of ciation with unusual cold upwelling water currents.
eastern Laurentia may have been primarily a response With the arrival of the principal basin deepening late in
to tectonoeustatic mechanisms. the M4 interval and in full force along with the M5
transgression, the main Trenton fauna migrated into the
regions surrounding the Taconic basin and then dia-
8. Oceanographic change and Trenton Group chronously up into the Laurentian epeiric sea. Together
biogeography with the associated lithofacies changes, these faunal
changes formed the distinctive units recognized col-
Several recent studies have emphasized the substan- lectively as the Trenton Group in eastern Laurentia
tial faunal and environmental changes that took place during the Chatfieldian Stage.
across eastern Laurentia in concert with development
of the Taconic foreland basin (see, for example, Patz-
kowsky and Holland, 1996; Holland and Patzkowsky, 9. Concluding remarks
1997; Pope and Read, 1997a; Goldman et al., 1999).
Our data on the Millbrig K-bentonite distribution and The Millbrig and the Deicke K-bentonites have
the correlations of the enclosing rocks suggest an been traced widely in central and eastern North
explanation for the equivocal affinities of the M4 America (Kolata et al., 1996), however, their location
sequence fauna in New York and Ontario. These in the Ordovician successions in southern Ontario,
equivocal faunal affinities may represent the biogeo- Quebec, and New York State, the type region of the
graphic effects of oceanographic changes in the North American upper Middle Ordovician, has
Taconic foreland—effects that arose in the distal parts remained uncertain. The identification of the Millbrig
of the basin where subsidence had yet to bring about a K-bentonite in a classical section in New York by
persistent change in water depth. means of modern geochemical analysis has important
Neodymium isotopic data (obtained from cono- consequences for solving controversial correlation
donts) suggest that the epicratonic water masses over problems not only in New York State – Ontario but
eastern Laurentia during deposition of the M4 se- in Ordovician successions across much of the North
quence had a distinctly different composition than did American Midcontinent, particularly in terms of rec-
Taconic basin seas, suggesting limited exchange be- ognition of the Rocklandian Substage and regional
tween these reservoirs (Holmden et al., 1998). Sedi- correlations of the Mohawkian stratigraphic sequen-
C.E. Mitchell et al. / Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 210 (2004) 331–346 343

ces. We expect that additional work on K-bentonites bentonite at the Dexter Quarry forms a 1.5-cm-
in combination with detailed sequence stratigraphy, thick, white clay layer approximately 1.4 m below
biostratigraphy, and chemostratigrahy will clarify the top of the quarry (Kay, 1931; Conkin, 1991)
some of the remaining correlation problems between within a 4 – 5-m-thick succession that most likely
these regions that have been controversial for more spans the upper part of the Watertown Formation
than a century. Furthermore, this work will provide and the lower part of the Selby Formation. Follow-
the additional temporal constrains that are crucial for ing a covered interval of about 9 m, 8 m of Trenton
reconstructing both depositional history and its under- Group rocks belonging to the Napanee and Kings
lying causes. Falls formations crop out along the nearby Game
Farm Road.
Conodont samples from the Glenburnie Shale were
Acknowledgements obtained by SMB from the type locality of this unit at
Glenburnie Quarry on Cole Hill Road, Kingston
We thank Dave Wark and Kiera Becker for their Township, Frontenac County, Ontario (see also, Con-
supervision of microprobe analyses. Steve Leslie kin, 1991, for a measured section).
provided data and helpful suggestions about conodont
correlations. This work was supported by a collabo-
rative research grant from the National Science References
Foundation to John W. Delano (EAR96-27872) and
Charles E. Mitchell (EAR96-27978) and a grant to Adhya, S., Joy, M.P., Mitchell, C.E., Delano, J.W., 1999. Geochem-
ical fingerprinting of the Ordovician Millbrig K-bentonite.
Mitchell (ACS 31873AC8) from the donors of the Abstracts With Programs - Geological Society of America 31
Petroleum Research Fund, administered by the (2), A1.
American Chemical Society. Ainsaar, L., Meidla, T., Martma, T., 1999. Evidence for a wide-
spread carbon isotopic event associated with late Middle Or-
dovician sedimentological and faunal changes in Estonia.
Geological Magazine 136, 49 – 62.
Appendix A . Sample localities Bergström, S.M., Sweet, W.C., 1966. Conodonts from the Lexing-
ton Limestone (Middle Ordovician) of Kentucky and its lateral
Millbrig K-bentonite samples were collected from equivalents in Ohio and Indiana. Bulletin of American Paleon-
the following localities: Shakertown, KY (locality tology 50 (229), 441.
Bergström, S.M., Saltzman, M.R., Huff, W.D., Kolata, D.R., 2001.
47 of Kolata et al., 1996); St. Louis, MO (locality
The Guttenberg (Chatfieldian, Ordovician) 13 C excursion
60 of Kolata et al., 1986); Hagan, VA (locality 1 of (GICE): significance for North American and trans-Atlantic
Haynes, 1994); Tazewell, VA (locality 60 of Kolata chronostratigraphic correlations and for assessment of the age
et al., 1996); Catawba, VA (locality 15 of Haynes, relations between the North American Millbrig and the Balto-
1994); Daleville, VA (locality 16 of Haynes, 1994); scandic Kinnekulle K-bentonites. Abstracts With Programs -
Union Furnace, PA (locality 68 of Kolata et al., Geological Society of America 33, A78.
Borella, P.E., Osborne, R.H., 1978. Late Middle and early Late
1996); Reedsville, PA (State Highway Route 322 Ordovician history of the Cincinnati arch province, central Ken-
exit ramp for State Route 655 near Reedsville tucky to central Tennessee. Geological Society of America Bul-
where the newly expanded roadcut on the SW side letin 89, 1559 – 1573.
of the highway exposes the upper Nealmont, Sal- Brookfield, M.E., 1988. A mid-Ordovician temperate carbonate
ona, and Coburn formations and 104 m of the shelf - the Black River and Trenton Limestone groups of south-
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Antes Shale). Cameron, B., Mangion, S., 1977. Depositional environments and
The type section of the Hounsfield K-bentonite is revised stratigraphy along the Black River – Trenton boundary
in the now abandoned and heavily overgrown in New York and Ontario. American Journal of Science 277,
Dexter Quarry on Game Farm Road about 3.2 km 486 – 502.
east of Dexter, Jefferson County, NY. The succes- Coakley, B., Gurnis, M., 1995. Far-field tilting of Laurentia during
the Ordovician and constraints on the evolution of a slab under
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