Chapter 7.

Reproductive management and diseases in

naturally mated flocks

Introduction | Factors determining reproductive rate | Physiological, management & disease

factors affecting fertility up to mid-pregnancy | Abortion in ewes and prenatal diseases of
lambs | Health and management at lambing | Perinatal mortality | Management and diseases
of lactating ewes | Lamb management at and after marking | Diagnostic techniques used in
the field | The significance of low reproductive rates in self-replacing flocks | The
consequences of increasing reproductive rates above 'normal' levels | Investigation of low
reproductive rates | Recommended reading | General references

Return to Sheep Health & Production Index

Introduction

The reproductive capacity of grazing animals serves two essential functions. First, animals
are produced for sale, and this is often a fundamental production objective of the herd or flock
owner; and second, replacement animals are bred to maintain flock and herd size as older
animals die or are cast for age. In stud flocks and herds, reproduction also provides the
capacity to select animals with desired characteristics and to change the gene frequency of
heritable traits in the population.
In prime lamb flocks, the role of reproduction seems fairly clear - the higher the reproductive
rate, the more lambs are sold per ewe present. Higher reproductive rates have higher
biological efficiency, but this may or may not translate into increased economic efficiency - a
point which will be discussed further.
In self-replacing flocks, the role of reproduction involves both functions. In some flocks, all
male offspring are sold as lambs or hoggets. In many flocks, however, very few young
animals are sold and the major source of income is derived from the sale of wool.
Reproductive capacity chiefly serves to replace older animals which had been retained as
wool growers only or wool growers and breeders, in the case of ewes. Flock owners who view
themselves primarily as wool producers maintain a ewe flock chiefly to provide a source of
efficient wool growers - ie, wethers. The ewe flock is seen as a means to that end rather than
as a producer of sale sheep.
This chapter discusses reproduction in sheep in Australia and reviews the major veterinary
activities associated with reproductive management and diseases. The reproductive
performance of Australian sheep flocks is primarily limited by the relatively low genetic
potential of Merino ewes and the level of nutrition made available to them under normal
commercial management. Nutrition is often limiting because of the need to compromise
reproductive rate, on a per-ewe basis, for the sake of increasing overall productivity on a per-
hectare basis. Additionally, other husbandry strategies may adversely affect reproduction and
ultimately a compromise is reached which, hopefully, maximises profit rather than any one
index of sheep flock performance. It is essential that veterinarians who are requested to
investigate apparently poor reproductive performance are aware of all of the major factors
which influence reproductive rates, or there is a danger that much time and money could be
wasted on unnecessary investigations in search of some improbable disease.
The potential financial benefits for the producer from increasing reproductive rate are also
discussed to provide a context for planning rational veterinary intervention. A proper
evaluation of reproductive rate and its contribution to the economic performance of a sheep
flock requires a systems approach, as discussed in Chapter 3 of these notes. It is important to
review all of the ramifications of changes in reproductive performance for they are unlikely to
be limited to a change in numbers of sale sheep only.

Factors determining reproductive rate

Reproductive rate (RR) can be measured in a number of ways. Producers commonly report
lamb marking rates because accurate counts are made of lambs present at marking and,
under usual circumstances, the death rate of lambs between marking and weaning is low. The
rate is reported either as lambs marked per 100 ewes present at marking, or per 100 ewes
present at joining. It is important to know which number is used as the denominator - there will
often be up to 5 percentage points difference between the two figures.
A short-hand way to record the method of calculation is to use abbreviations; lambs marked
per ewe joined is written as LM/EJ. Lambing rates (LB/EJ) are rarely known in commercial
flocks, although estimates can be made if ultrasound pregnancy diagnosis is used.
In Australian Merino flocks, marking rates of 75% to 85% are commonly achieved and
considered satisfactory by most producers. In areas well suited to the health and productivity
of Merino sheep, such as the medium to low rainfall areas of southern Australia, marking
rates are commonly 85% to 95%, particularly in flocks of South Australian strain Merinos. In
areas not so well suited, either through nutritional limitations, predation or other environmental
effects, marking rates may be less than 70% and flock owners may find it difficult to maintain
the size of the ewe flock without retaining ewes into old age.
From a mathematical point of view, rather than a physiological one, marking rates are
determined by fertility, fecundity and the survival rate of lambs from birth to marking. By
definition, fertility is the proportion of ewes present at lambing which lamb; fecundity is the
average number of young born per lambing ewe. Fertility is sometimes reported as the
proportion of ewes detected pregnant in mid-pregnancy by ultrasound. This measure of
fertility is generally valid but ignores foetal losses beyond mid-pregnancy.

Fertility, fecundity and survival rate of lambs to marking age

The fertility of mature ewes is usually high; often over 90% of ewes conceive in a 5 week
joining period, provided no adverse factors, such as oestrogenic pastures, are operating. It
does vary, however, with breed, date of joining, duration of mating and other management
factors. Fecundity varies markedly with season, nutrition, age, breed, strain and bloodline.
Lamb survival rates also vary markedly. For Merinos, approximately 80% to 90% of single and
60% to 80% of twin-born lambs should survive, if conditions are good. Parity greater than two
is unusual in commercial Merino flocks and survival rate of triplet or higher parity lambs is
very low under paddock conditions.

Table 7.1 Two different combinations of fertility, fecundity and lamb survival rate

Fertility Fecundity Survival of Calculation Marking

Ewes pregnant Ewes with twins single, twins rate
(per 100 mated) per 100 pregnant
ewes)
88 10 90%, 80% 2 x 88 x .1 x .8 + 88 x .9 x 85%
.9 =
92 20 85%, 60% 2 x 92 x .2 x .6 + 92 x .8 x 85%
.85 =
As an illustration of how they contribute to marking rate, Table 7.1 shows two possible ways
by which an 85% marking rate can be achieved. Of the two examples, the second involves
higher lamb losses and is a less efficient process, both in biological and economic terms.
The fertility of a flock can be estimated by pregnancy testing and by observations at lambing
time. When fertility is low, however, it is instructive to further consider the factors which
contribute to fertility so that appropriate corrective action can be taken. Infertility is defined as
a failure to lamb. Because abortion in ewes is uncommon in Australia, it is generally true that
infertility results from failure to mate, failure of fertilization in ewes which do mate, or embryo
mortality, and is influenced by ovulation rate. Infertility or prenatal wastage, if measured by
pregnancy diagnosis in mid-pregnancy, must, therefore, be explained in terms of deficiencies
in the management of ewes and rams before and during joining. If fertility is recorded at
lambing, the abortion rate must be considered as contributing to the estimate of fertility.
Before we further examine problems in the management activities relevant to failures in
reproduction, some reproductive physiology must be revised .

Physiological, management & disease factors affecting fertility up to

mid-pregnancy

To achieve high fertility, ewes must ovulate and be mated, the rams that mate them must
have good semen quality and the maternal environment must be conducive for fertilization
and embryo development. If rams and ewes are in good health and free of some specific
disease conditions, the ovulation rate is the most labile determinant of fertility and the key
determinant of fecundity. In this section the factors which influence these components of
fertility will be discussed. Some of these factors are physiological and/or nutritional and are
most strongly controlled by flock husbandry decisions; some are specific disease entities
which operate independently of husbandry decisions; some involve aspects of physiology,
nutrition and disease.

Photoperiodicity in the ewe

On breeding properties a key management decision is when to join. The decision is usually
based upon consideration of (a) the optimal time for marketing the resulting progeny, such as
prime lambs, ram lambs, stud 2-tooth rams et cetera and (b) the reliability, quantity and
quality of pasture available at different times of the year to support late pregnant and lactating
ewes and to permit good lamb growth and weaning weights. (The inter-relationships are
discussed, with an example, in Chapter 3.) However, the decision should also take some
account of the underlying physiology of reproduction in the ewe and ram.
Sheep are short-day breeders and, in the breeding season, ewes cycle or return to oestrus
every 16-18 days. Figure 7.1 shows the incidence in Australia of spontaneous ovulation in
Merino, British breed-Merino crossbred (XB) and British breed ewes throughout the year. It
illustrates the pattern of photoperiodic regulation of breeding activity. Increasing daylength
synchronizes the onset of cyclic activity and decreasing daylength sustains this activity. Most
British breeds have a sharply defined breeding season, from late February to the end of June.
In these breeds and in XB ewes ovulation rate (OR) (and consequently also conception rate)
declines during the breeding season. For example, (Border Leicester x Merino) XB ewes
often exhibit a mean OR of about 1.7 in late February-March but only about 1.3 in May-June.

Figure 7.1 The incidence of ovulation in Merino, crossbred and British Breed sheep
throughout the year.

In the Merino ewe there is spasmodic andvariable spontaneous breeding activity at other
times of the year. The level of activity and depth of anoestrus is markedly influenced by
type/bloodline and environment. More importantly, the introduction of rams outside the
breeding season will usually cause the majority of Merino ewes to cycle. The manipulation of
the ’ram effect’ is discussed in Chapter 8. Table 7.2 contrasts typical results of spring and
autumn joinings, in terms of several indices of reproductive performance. To interpret these
data, assume that the ewes werejoined for 6 weeks with 2% rams; that spring means
October/November and autumnmeans March/April. The ORs in these ewes were about 1.2
and 1.5 in spring and autumn, respectively. The table shows clearly the superiority of
in-season joinings for Merinos. Nevertheless, for other economically more important reasons,
Merinos are often joined out-of-season. A summer joining in December/January produces a
result intermediate to those shown in Table 7.2. Merino studs in NSW commonly sell flock
rams as 2-tooths at sale times late in the year. This results in pressure to join in summer
rather than autumn, to produce rams which are better grown at sale. The proportion of ewes
which lamb after spring and summer joinings can sometimes be increased by extending the
period of joining by 2-4 weeks and can certainly be increased by utilizing certain controlled
breeding techniques (Chapter 8). Merino ewes are not joined early in the non-breeding
season since lambings in December-February are not desired. This is fortunate, since in
July-September the ewes are in deeper anoestrus and exhibit quite unsatisfactory
reproductive performance.

Table 7.2 : Effect of time of mating on reproductive performance of Merino ewes at

Trangie, NSW (averages of 4-6 easons)

Time of joining Unmated Wet ewes Twins % Lambs Lambs weaned

ewes % % mothered % (of ewes joined)
%
Spring 18 72 12 76 67
Autumn 5 88 38 113 100
Advantage to autumn+13 +16 +26 +37 +33
mating

Effects of bodyweight and nutrition on ewe fertility and ovulation rate

In mature Merino ewes there is a good correlation between bodyweight and OR. Of course
suitable bodyweights for joining mature ewes will depend on the Merino type/bloodline. For
medium wool Merino types a target of 45-50 kg is often recommended. For Merinos in
general, it is probably more useful to specify target condition scores (3-4) rather than target
bodyweights. Bodyweight influences fertility as well as OR. Thus a number of studies have
suggested that over a specified weight range in adult Merinos every kilogram increase in
weight at joining yields about an extra lamb per 100 ewes lambing and two extra lambs per
100 ewes joined. Ovulation rates in maiden or 2-tooth Merino ewes are generally low, so that
here the relationship between bodyweight and OR is not so obvious. On the other hand,
bodyweight is usually the key determinant of fertility in maiden flocks.

Flushing ewes

Flushing is the practice of increasing the feed available to ewes prior to and during joining, to
raise OR and fertility. Table 7.3 shows some effects of flushing on bodyweight and twinning
rate in spring and autumn joined Merinos. Note that flushing had a large impact on OR in
autumn joined ewes. As already noted, OR is higher in autumn and more responsive to
nutritional manipulation. Of course many clients with Merino flocks are not desirous of large
increases in the twinning rate and, consequentially, higher lamb losses but rather seek to
utilize some degree of flushing to increase the proportion of ewes which lamb (fertility). Giving
additional feed to ewes which are 3 score or less over several weeks can be expected to
raise both bodyweight and OR. However, OR is more sensitive to changes in feeding, and
following the commencement of flushing, increased OR can often be seen before any change
in bodyweight can be detected. Flushing Merino ewes with lupins has become popular. The
ewes typically receive lupin grains at the rate of 500 g per day. Increases in OR can be seen
within 7 days of commencing feeding. It is usually recommended that ewe flocks be fed grain
for one week prior to and during the first 3 weeks of joining. The responses obtained vary
considerably between flocks. In flocks which respond well, the OR increases by 0.3-0.4, and
the % ewes lambing by 10-15%. Methods for feeding out lupins and the possible occurrence
of lupinosis are discussed elsewhere. The mechanism by which flushing affects OR remains
unclear, but appears to involve elevated plasma insulin levels.

Table 7.3 : Effect of flushing on lambing in Merinos

Time of joining Treatment No of ewes Increase in Ewes with

lambing body weight twins %
Spring Flushed* 295 3.5” 5
NIL 297 3.0 7
Autumn Flushed* 324 3.0 15
NIL 324 1.0 6

* 3 weeks prior to joining and first 3 weeks of joining

” increase in kg during period of flushing

Effect of ewe age on fertility and ovulation rate

Both the ovulation rate of ewes and their maternal ability increase with age. Ovulation rate
peaks at 5 to 7 years of age. Mature ewes out-compete maiden ewes for the attention of rams
at joining. Compared to mature (22 years or more) ewes, maiden ewes have a shorter oestrus
and less overt oestrous behaviour, are less attractive to rams and are mated on fewer
occasions during each oestrus. These effects all contribute to the lower fertility of maiden
ewes compared to older ewes. The inexperience and age of maiden ewes contribute to their
poorer maternal ability and the lower survival rate of lambs born to maiden ewes.

Ovulation without oestrus

Some ovulations in the ewe are unaccompanied by oestrus and, hence, mating. Such
ovulations occur at the onset of puberty, at the start and perhaps the end of each breeding
season and, in the case of Merinos, quite commonly during spring and summer. Silent heats
occur when ovulation is not immediately preceded by a period of progesterone priming in the
brain. Within the breeding season this priming is reliably supplied by the corpus luteum of the
previous oestrous cycle. Note that this ’luteal progesterone’ has other important roles,
permitting normal functioning of the new corpus luteum and uterine endometrium after the
next ovulation. Whereas ovulation without oestrus is quite common, oestrus without ovulation
appears to be very unusual.
Failure of fertilization due to maternal factors

Fertilization may fail due to faults in the maternal reproductive tract environment. Pasture
oestrogens interfere with sperm transport through the cervix, as detailed below. Various
controlled breeding techniques (eg synchronization of oestrus with progestagen sponges and
superovulation of donor ewes for MOET) also alter cervical function and impair sperm
transport. Many studies have indicated that in naturally cyclic ewes which ovulate more than
one ovum, fertilization is nearly always ’all-or-none’, ie if a ewe ovulates three ova, the
outcome is three zygotes or no zygotes.
Little is known about possible causes of defective oocytes in ewes where natural ovulation
and mating occur, and their occurrence is probably rare.

Phyto-oestrogenic infertility

Phyto-oestrogenic infertility in ewes occurs as a result of the oestrogenic activity of isoflavone

metabolites which are found mainly in the laminae of green legumes, notably some cultivars
of subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) and red clover (T pratense). Temporary
infertility occurs when ewes are mated on green oestrogenic clover. The reduction in fertility
recovers to normal levels within a few weeks of removal from the pasture. Permanent
infertility (’clover disease’) occurs when the ewes graze such pastures for extended periods,
leading to permanent changes in the reproductive tract. While the most severe forms of this
disease are rarely seen now, sub-clinical permanent infertility is probably very common.

Pathophysiology

Chronic phyto-oestrogenism is histologically a syndrome of masculinisation. Transsexual

differentiation of glandular and epithelial tissues leads to reproductive disorders in ewes and
urinary tract problems in wethers. Rams do not appear to be affected.

Biochemistry

Two of the ingested isoflavones, formononetin and daidzein, are converted in the rumen to
equol. Equol is absorbed and most of it is conjugated in the plasma with glucuronic acid. The
small proportion of unconjugated equol is strongly oestrogenic and is the major active
oestrogen responsible for clover infertility[1].

Oestrogenic cultivars

The ’sub-clover’ cultivars with the highest isoflavone levels are Yarloop, Dwalganup and
Dinninup. Medium levels are found in Geraldton and Tallarook.

Permanent infertility
The abnormalities induced by the chronic ingestion of phyto-oestrogens are totally different
from those of temporary infertility and are not an extension of the responses occurring during
episodes of temporary infertility[2]. The principal lesions causing lower reproductive rates
occur in the cervix. These lesions, which present no clinical signs, are the most important
abnormalities occurring in sub-clinical permanent infertility.

Cervical changes

The superficial epithelium of the cervix of ewes exposed chronically to oestrogenic clovers
contains a lower proportion of stratified squamous and mucus cells and a greater proportion
of single layered columnar cells. The changes in the cervix are, in effect, a transdifferentiation
of the endocervix so that it resembles endometrium[2]. As a consequence of both structural
changes and a loss of ability to respond to endogenous oestrogen, the cervical mucus in
affected ewes is very watery; it has a decreased spinnbarkheit (visco-elasticity). Without this
normal mucus structure, sperm transport through the cervix is greatly impaired[3]. There is a
large decrease in the number of sperm reaching the oviducts of clover-affected ewes.

Uterine changes

Chronically affected ewes develop endometrial cysts as a result of cystic hyperplasia of the
endometrium. This may be complicated by a bacterial endometritis. The endometrial
pathology, however, appears to have less effect on conception rates than the poor sperm
transport.

Dystocia

Clover affected ewes often suffer from dystocia due to secondary uterine inertia consequent
on a failure of the cervix to dilate. Septic metritis is a common sequel.

Lactation in maiden ewes and wethers

The mammary secretion varies from a yellow viscous fluid to apparently normal milk. The
degree of teat elongation in wethers has been used as an index of pasture oestrogenicity but
may be too sensitive to distinguish differing levels of oestrogenic intake.

Other effects on wethers

Uroliths containing crystals of equol metabolites can obstruct the urethra, particularly at the
urethral process. The squamous metaplasia of the prostate and bulbourethral glands which
also occurs in wethers grazing oestrogenic pastures may contribute to the formation of
crystals and may encourage obstruction in the pelvic urethra[1].

Effects on fertility
While the lesions of ’permanent infertility’ are indeed permanent, the infertility is not complete.
Affected ewes can still produce lambs. The effect of the phyto-oestrogens is to reduce the
probability of each ewe conceiving under normal flock management and hence to reduce the
flock’s reproductive capacity. Although the classical ’clover disease’ is now rarely seen, on
properties where it does occur ewe survival rates are reduced by conditions such as hydrops
uteri, dystocia and uterine prolapse. With both the severe form and the sub-clinical form,
phyto-oestrogens have their predominant effect on the number of ewes lambing. As the
effects accumulate, ewe conception rates progressively decline with age.

Diagnosis

Phyto-oestrogenic infertility must be differentiated from other common causes of low marking
percentages, particularly under-nutrition of ewes at joining and in late pregnancy, infertility of
rams, particularly that caused by ovine brucellosis, and high perinatal lamb mortalities from a
variety of causes. Pregnancy diagnosis of ewes and examination of the rams will assist the
diagnosis.
Classical clover disease can be diagnosed by the presence of clinical signs in ewes and
wethers, the high incidence of dystocia and the history of severely depressed marking rates.
Sub-clinical permanent infertility is more difficult to diagnose because clinical signs are absent
and the history is often unremarkable - marking rates may be lowered by only 10% to 20%.
Definitive diagnosis will be made on the cervical histopathology of a sample (minimum of 12)
of older ewes from the flock[4] and the agronomic identification of a significant content of
oestrogenic cultivars of T subterraneum in the pastures.

Control

The long term solution is pasture renovation - to replace the oestrogenic cultivars. This is
neither easy nor cheap; the cost of the problem must be weighed up against the potential loss
of often very productive pastures[5].
Short term control includes the assessment of the risk associated with each pasture on the
farm. The young ewes (weaners and hoggets) are grazed on the least oestrogenic pastures
during the times of the year when the pastures are green. Dry ewes (never to be mated),
wethers and old ewes (with short breeding futures) are grazed on the high risk pastures.
Extension of the breeding season by leaving the ram in with the ewes for long periods may
increase the lambing percentage and is practised on some properties to allow the production
of sufficient ewe hoggets for breeder replacements.

Temporary infertility

Ewes grazed on green oestrogenic pastures during joining may show reduced conception
rates. The effects of the phyto-oestrogens include a reduction in the incidence of oestrus,
interference with ovum transport and a reduction in sperm transport[6]. Some experiments
have also shown a negative effect on ovulation rate[7]. Some of the effects of grazing plant
oestrogens may persist for 3 weeks after removal from the pasture but not for 5 weeks[7].
Coumestans in Medicago spp

Coumestans in lucerne (Medicago sativa) and some other medic species are also oestrogenic
but their effects are always temporary. They reduce ovulation rate during the period that ewes
are grazing them but the effects disappear upon removal. Lucerne often develops high
coumestan levels late in its growing season[8].

Photoperiodicity in the ram

The full transformation from spermatogonia to spermatozoa through several intermediate cell
types and both mitotic and meiotic cell divisions is called the spermatogenic cycle and takes
about 49 days in the ram. Hence, to get the best responses, treatments applied to rams to
improve their production of sperm should begin 7-8 weeks before joining. Rams are also
short-day breeders, but seasonality is less marked in the ram than the ewe. Merino rams will
generally perform satisfactorily at all times of the year. The degree of seasonality in rams of
different breeds can be estimated from the difference between maximum and minimum testis
volume (or weight) during the annual cycle. The ratios of minimum to maximum volumes for
Merino and Romney rams are about 0.8 and 0.5, respectively. The rams of some British
breeds perform quite poorly out-of-season.

Bodyweight, nutrition and fertility in the ram

There are important relationships between nutrition, condition score, testis size, libido, semen
quality and semen volume in mature rams. A condition score of 3-4 at the commencement of
joining is recommended. At this time, Merino rams should have at least 400 ml of testes or a
scrotal circumference of 30 cm. Good active rams lose condition during joining, especially
during the first three weeks (or ewe cycle length). This is associated with reduced grazing.
The same rams should not be used for successive joinings, unless they are given a spell of
6-8 weeks, with adequate feeding. Excessive feeding resulting in obesity may reduce libido,
whereas inadequate nutrition certainly reduces testis size, libido and semen volume. In
general, plane of nutrition has little influence on semen quality. Each gram of testes in
Merinos produces on average about 20 x 10[6] spermatozoa per day. However, high planes of
nutrition also increase the rate of spermatozoa production per gram of testes; so that
additional feeding increases sperm production more than the increase in testicular weight
would suggest. Lupin supplementation is often used to increase ram testes volume and
fertilizing ability. A supplement fed at the rate of 500 g lupin grain per day for 8-10 weeks can
increase testes volume in Merinos from around 400 ml to about 600 ml. This should enable
the use of fewer rams at joining, and the saving related to purchasing fewer rams easily
covers the cost of feeding the supplement.

Puberty and age effects in rams

Well grown Merino ram lambs reach puberty at around 6 months of age and by 12 months
can produce ejaculates containing a high concentration of highly motile spermatozoa.
However, the process of sexual maturation is slow, and 22 -year-old rams usually produce
considerably more spermatozoa than 12 -year-olds. Young rams are less experienced at
mating behaviour than older rams and are subject to social domination by older rams if they
are used in mixed age ram syndicates. The question of how long rams should be retained has
genetic, economic and disease control implications, but as a general rule producers should
aim to replace 1/4 -1/3 of rams annually.

Husbandry procedures and ram fertility

Heat stress decreases semen quality. This occurs commonly in shedded rams (Merinos and
British breeds) where ventilation and temperature control are inadequate. Under paddock
conditions heat stress is uncommon in Merinos but more common in British breeds. The
difference is explained in part by the more pendulous nature of the Merino’s scrotum.
Testicular temperature should be 5EC lower than body temperature in Merinos. Merino rams
with heavy skin wrinkle have a relatively poor ability to control testicular temperature and
should not be used where joining coincides with high temperatures.
Semen quality often declines for some weeks after shearing. For example, this phenomenon
is seen if shearing coincides with hot weather or is associated with dipping in certain
chemicals. Merino rams are best shorn twice a year and first joined when they are carrying
3-4 months wool. The scrotum should not be shorn. Keeping rams in good general health and
free of infectious disease is an important component of reproductive management. It is also
one of the easiest. The ram team is a numerically small component of the sheep flock so it is
relatively inexpensive to provide them with excellent nutrition and health care. Failure of the
rams to perform satisfactorily is rarely a cause of severely low reproductive rates. More often,
poor ram performance is only a contributing factor to reproductive wastage.

Management of joining

Ewes

Ewes are sometimes joined in age groups or, more commonly, the maidens are joined as a
separate mob. Maidens tend to be poor competitors with older, more experienced ewes
exhibiting a longer and stronger oestrus. However, experience varies, and some producers
obtain satisfactory or good fertility in the maidens when all ewes are joined as a single mob.
Maiden medium wool Merinos should have reached a bodyweight of 40-45 kg at joining to
ensure reasonable fertility.
Merino ewes may be usefully crutched just prior to joining, but it unwise to join recently shorn
ewes. For about 10 weeks after shearing, shorn ewes are less sexually attractive to rams
than are woolly ewes.

Ewes and rams

It is preferable to organize the farm management calendar so that few, if any, procedures
need to be carried out on the ewes or rams during the joining period. Repeated mustering,
yarding and handling interferes with ram-ewe contact and may reduce flock mating activity
and fertility. It is worth keeping in mind also the possibility that chemicals employed to control
parasites and other diseases just before or during joining may interfere with fertilization or
embryo development.

Duration of joining

In practice, management decisions about the joining ratio and duration of joining are
considered together, since they are somewhat interrelated. It is not easy to determine in
advance on a particular property the minimal number of rams and minimum length of joining
period which will result in good flock fertility. For in-season joinings, where the ewes should be
cycling regularly, 6 weeks is adequate. This gives each ewe 2 or 3 opportunities to become
pregnant, depending on how soon after the commencement of joining that oestrus occurs. For
out-of-season joinings, where most or all the ewes are in anoestrus at the commencement of
joining, a period of 8 weeks is required, and this is sometimes increased to 10 weeks. The
optimal duration of joining is probably always a compromise between seeking to maximize
flock fertility and avoiding the several management penalties associated with prolonged
lambings. These include such problems as the reduced efficiencies of vaccinations and
drenching, the greater unevenness of the lambs at marking and weaning and the inferior
condition and fertility of some ewes at the next joining.

Composition of ram syndicates

A group of rams which is joined to one mob of ewes is termed a ram syndicate. Normal
practice is for syndicates to consist of some mature, experienced rams and some (maiden or
12 inexperienced rams. Under these conditions, the dominance behaviour of older rams will
generally ensure the young rams are under-represented in successful matings. Some
producers join young rams separately from older rams but this may lead to slightly reduced
fertility in the flock. In the interests of maximising flock fertility, maiden rams should probably
be omitted from syndicates joined to maiden ewes and it is unwise to mate syndicates
composed only of maiden rams to mobs of maiden ewes.

Joining ratio

As a general rule, rams seem able to cover ewes adequately at a ratio of 1% rams to ewes.
With autumn joinings it may be useful to reduce the number of rams after the first 18 days;
surplus rams can then be used for joining to other flocks, if required. This practice is unwise
with out-of-season joinings. The problem with using 1% rams routinely is that there are
several circumstances where 1% is probably not enough. Examples to consider are where:

• the rams are in poor condition with low testes volume or are excessively obese
• the ram syndicate contains a high proportion of 12 -year-old or very old rams
• the joining period is less than 6 weeks
• the ewes are maidens
 • joining occurs during spring and summer, especially if British breed rams are used
• joining takes place in rough and scrubby terrain and/or at very low stocking rates
• flocks are very small and the use of one or two rams only may be risky
• some degree of oestrus synchronization occurs, as a result of the ram effect or the
use of controlled breeding techniques.

Joining ratios should be increased above 1% where one or more of these circumstances are
present; it is unusual but sometimes the case that 2% rams are not enough. In practice, many
producers simply run 2% of rams with their ewe flocks and leave it at that. If some of the
circumstances listed above do not apply, this policy could be quite wasteful. As already
mentioned, the joining ratio can be reduced somewhat if rams to be used for joining have
been selected on the basis of a thorough soundness examination, testicular volume and
perhaps serving capacity tests.

Failure of fertilization due to too few rams

When adequate rams are employed, nearly all ova should be fertilized (probably >95%). As
the joining ratio diminishes, conception rates will tend to fall. Table 7.4 shows the percentages
of ewes in a flock which will lamb following joinings of one, two and three cycle lengths. A
conception rate of 70% (% ewes lambing to one oestrus) is quite satisfactory for Merinos. As
conception rate decreases with diminishing rams so too does the % of ewes lambing, but note
how the effect of conception rate on % lambing is moderated by increasing the length of the
joining period. Most of the reduction in conception rate is due to oestrous ewes not being
mated at all; but some of the reduction may be associated with failure of fertilization in mated
ewes. The data in Table 7.4 are probably a little in error; where the conception rates to the
first cycle were only 60 and 50%, due to too few rams, they probably rose to around 70% for
the second and third cycles (by which time the ’functional’ joining ratio was much increased).
Table 7.4 : Fertilization and the effect of decreasing ram power
Percent % of ewes lambing
conception to 1 cycle 2 cycles 3 cycles
each cycle
70 70 91 97
60 60 84 94
50 50 75 88

Failure of fertilization due to other ram factors

As already noted, where natural mating is well managed nearly all ova should be fertilized.
Failure of the ram to deposit into the vagina adequate normal, motile sperm may be a
problem. This could possibly result from the use of too few, overworked rams. However, it is
more likely that the problem is related to abnormalities of the testes and/or male reproductive
tract, due to infectious diseases or injury. Note, however, that rams with brucellosis and some
other genital infections can often still produce ejaculates with good numbers of normal, motile
sperm. Defective spermatozoa commonly result from excessive heating of rams. Some rams
routinely produce ejaculates of low quality for no obvious reason.
Non-specific abnormalities of the epididymis which affect ram fertility

A spermatocoele is a cystic dilatation of the epididymal duct with the accumulation of sperm in
the cyst. It follows acquired or congenital occlusion of the duct. If extravasation of sperm
occurs the stromal tissue produces a characteristic granulomatous response. Spermatic
granulomas which develop secondarily to congenital occlusion are usually in the head of the
epididymis. Congenital obstruction in rams and goats is not uncommon and is usually
unilateral.
Obstruction of the epididymal duct in the head, body or tail leads only slowly to testicular
degeneration. The efferent ducts are able to resorb most of the products of the seminiferous
epithelium except sperm. Obstruction of the efferent ducts, on the other hand, leads rapidly to
testicular atrophy[9].
Spermatic granulomas which develop secondary to bacterial infection are usually found in the
tail of the epididymis because the majority of bacterial infections start and are most severe at
that site. The two most common bacterial infections of epididymes in Australian sheep flocks
are those caused by Brucella ovis and by Actinobacillus seminis. The palpable lesion of the
epididymis typical of Br ovis infection is, in fact, a spermatic granuloma in the tail of the
epididymis. Spermatic granulomas following obstruction of the duct caused by trauma has
been reported in Dorset rams[10].

Epididymitis caused by Brucella ovis infection (Ovine brucellosis, OB)

Epididymitis caused by Br ovis is the most common lesion of the genitalia of Merino rams
culled from Australian flocks. In one survey, epididymitis was identified in 19% of rams and Br
ovis was associated with 47% of those[11]. There is a lower flock prevalence of infection in
Merinos than in British breeds. The prevalence of infection on some properties may exceed
50% of rams but this is uncommon. Generally, fertility is not compromised until the proportion
of rams with chronic, palpable lesions exceeds 10% to 20%. Economic wastage occurs from
extension of the lambing period[12][14], reduction of lambing percentage and an increased
size and rate of turnover of the ram team[14].

Epidemiology

Rams can become infected as young as 4 months of age[15]. Transmission of infection

occurs mainly from ram to ram, via the ewe’s vagina principally but also by homosexual
activity between rams[16]. Rams can become infected by inoculation of mucosal surfaces
including the prepuce, conjunctiva and nasal mucosa. Infection in ewes is usually short-lived.
Experimental infection of ewes at mating[12][17][18] indicate that infection can persist in the
ewe, leading to returns to service, abortion, birth of weak lambs and perinatal mortality. The
incidence of infection in the field is, however, low and the role of persistently infected ewes in
the maintenance of infection in the ram flock is insignificant. In chronically infected rams,
active excretion of bacteria in semen probably persists indefinitely.

Pathogenesis[12]
Following a bacteraemia there is localization in the epididymis, usually unilaterally and in the
tail, producing degenerative, inflammatory and proliferative changes. The resulting sperm
stasis and epithelial damage may result in extravasation of sperm with subsequent spermatic
granuloma formation. Histopathological and bacteriological studies suggest that the
epididymal tail, ampulla ductus deferens and seminal vesicles are the most frequently
involved sites of infection; the testis and the head of the epididymis are involved less
frequently[19][20].
Seroconversion (as detected by the warm CFT) occurs 10 to 66 days after artificial infection,
earlier with more sensitive testing procedures[21]. Semen culture is generally positive 5 to 10
weeks post-infection[21] and lesions caused by the initial infection are usually palpable from 9
weeks onwards. (Both of these events can occur sooner than this - positive semen culture
and clinically palpable lesions may be detected as soon as 4 weeks post-infection[16].) Some
challenged rams never develop any evidence of infection, others develop serological
evidence only. These rams recover and are said to have had ’abortive’ infections[22].
Serological reactions decline in recovered animals over a period of 4 to 5 months. In animals
which remain chronically infected, serological responses remain relatively constant[15].

Clinical findings

A deterioration in semen quality occurs early in the disease, and the semen contains many
leucocytes. In the acute stages of the disease, there is oedema and inflammation of the
epididymis and tunics, palpable as a general swelling and loss of definition of the scrotal
contents. There is a systemic reaction which is rarely detected. Regression of the acute
syndrome is followed by a latent period of 2 to 3 months before chronic lesions with palpable
abnormalities develop in one or both sides of the scrotum.
The usual chronic lesion is an enlargement of one or both the epididymes, usually in the tail,
which is hard due to fibrosis. The epididymis may be 2 to 3 times normal size or even more.
There is no orchitis and initially the testes feel normal, but degeneration and atrophy lead to a
decline in the size and firmness of the testes. Less commonly, the enlargement and
hardening may involve more of the epididymis, or the head only or may not involve the
epididymis at all, being restricted to one or more of the accessory sex glands.

Diagnosis

The presence in a flock of a prevalence of chronic epididymal lesions greater than 5% is

suggestive of brucellosis. Lesions of chronic epididymitis must be differentiated from those
caused by trauma and other bacteria, particularly Actinobacillus seminis. Lesions caused by
A seminis generally show a more acute reaction and are located in the head of the epididymis
more frequently than lesions caused by Br ovis. Either semen examination and demonstration
of the weakly acid fast bacilli in smears or semen culture for Br ovis is necessary for a
definitivediagnosis. Neither test is particularly sensitive, primarily because of intermittent
shedding of the organism by infected rams, and culture may be the more sensitive technique
when laboratory procedures are commenced soon after sample collection[23][24].
The CF test has long been used in Australia and New Zealand to eradicate the disease from
flocks. In 1983, an ELISA test was developed with a specificity comparable to the warm CF
test (0.5% false positives) but significantly more sensitive[25]. (The increased sensitivity,
however, means that some CF negative, ELISA positive rams are detected which will never
excrete Br ovis and will eventually become ELISA negative.)
If an investigation is carried out soon after Br ovis is introduced a high proportion of rams
which will never become excretors may be detected serologically. This fact should be
considered when planning eradication programs. Testing immediately after joining or soon
after sexual activity has started in flocks of young rams, could lead to the identification and
culling of recently infected animals, many of which will ultimately recover and become
serologically negative.
Rams with low CFT titres (1:8 or 1:16) are frequently found to be uninfected and are,
probably, recovering from abortive infections. Currently, it is recommended that low titre
positive animals with no palpable lesions be isolated from other rams and re-tested after 4
weeks. Persistent low titres may warrant the slaughter and detailed necropsy examination of
the rams so that the status of the flock can be determined[26].

Eradication

Isolation of old rams from young rams - in commercial flocks, brucellosis can be readily
eradicated by isolating the existing, infected ram flock, purchasing replacement rams from
accredited OB free studs and keeping them at all times separate from the old rams.
Eradication from the older rams can be attempted, by test and slaughter, or they can be used
for mating and cast for age progressively over 3 to 4 years. There is a significant danger that
the infected rams will gain access to the young rams and cause a breakdown, so the shorter
the duration of the ’two flock’ system the safer.
Test and slaughter - in ram breeding flocks, a program of test (ELISA serology) and slaughter
will successfully eradicate brucellosis provided new cases are detected before they
commence excretion of Br ovis organisms, which can occur as soon as 4 weeks post-
infection[16]. Serial testing should be performed, therefore, every 3 weeks and all positive
reactors slaughtered[27]. Any older rams with lesions of epididymitis should be culled
regardless of the serological result because some false negative results can occur with
chronically infected animals[21]. Infection of ewes is potentially a source of breakdown during
eradication but this is rarely a problem of any practical significance.
Vaccination, but NIA - vaccination against OB has been used in Australia as a control
measure. The usual practice was the simultaneous administration of a formalin-killed Br ovis
saline-in-oil emulsion and Br abortus strain 19 vaccine although the equal efficacy of some Br
ovis vaccines when administered twice, 2 weeks apart, was demonstrated[28]. Vaccination is
no longer used for control in Australia but is used as an eradication method in New Zealand.

Accredited OB free flock scheme

A voluntary accreditation scheme for ram breeders was introduced into NSW in 1981. In
flocks desiring accreditation, all rams, cryptorchids and teasers over 4 months of age are
examined by palpation of the scrotal contents and those over 10 months of age are
serologically tested. Initial accreditation requires 2 consecutive negative tests at an interval of
60 to 180 days, and inspection of the boundary fencing to ensure it is adequate. Subsequent
testing, performed annually for 3 years then biennially, involves the palpation of all rams,
cryptorchids and teasers over 10 months and blood testing of all over 22 months of age. In
large ram flocks, provisions exist for testing a sample of the sale rams, rather than the entire
flock, provided the retained stud sires have been tested and found clean.
The testing procedure is performed by private practitioners and the register of accredited
flocks is maintained by NSW Agriculture. The flock owner pays all costs incurred by the
practitioner and the laboratory. Similar programs operate in all other Australian states[29].

Other causes of epididymitis

Actinobacillus seminis

A seminis causes chronic epididymitis in rams and polyarthritis in lambs. Unlike brucellosis,
orchitis may also be present. The organism may be a common inhabitant of the genital tract
of normal rams and ewes. Some rams, however, develop an epididymitis which is clinically
indistinguishable from brucellosis. Most of these remain fertile but at reduced levels. Serology
can be used but many normal animals have antibodies.
A seminis is very closely related to Histophilus ovis and one may be a variant of the other[30].
H ovis has also been reported as causing epididymitis, suppurative arthritis in lambs and
mastitis.

Miscellaneous infections

Actinobacillus pyogenes, A ligneriesi, A actinomycetes-comitans, Corynebacterium

pseudotuberculosis, Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, Escherichia coli (causing abscessation with
fistula formation in the scrotum and orchitis[31] and Br abortus (strain 19) have been reported
in sporadic cases of epididymitis.

Testicular abnormalities

Cryptorchidism

In sheep this appears to be a sex-limited trait inherited as a recessive gene with a low degree
of penetrance or as a threshold polygenic trait.

Hypoplasia

Testicular hypoplasia occurs in rams and can be either unilateral or bilateral. Both unilateral or
bilateral forms may have an inherited basis. Hypoplasia of the testes has been associated
with zinc deficiency.
Degeneration

The testicular germinal epithelium is very sensitive to many adverse influences. Degeneration
may be unilateral or bilateral, often reflecting whether the cause is systemic or local. The
degenerated testis may remain a normal size but be soft and flabby or become small and
firm. Softness and flabbiness often indicate rapidly progressing degeneration. Fibrosis takes a
long time to develop. There follows a reduction in sperm production and the semen becomes
thin and milky or watery. Regeneration can occur but takes longer than the degeneration.
The causes can be grouped under a number of headings :-

• Thermal - maintaining rams at 35EC for 4 days to 1 month leads to a loss of motility,
increased proportion of abnormal sperm, decreased concentration of sperm and
ultimately cessation of spermatogenesis
• Local or systemic infection - fever, toxaemia or local inflammation
• Nutritional deficiencies - vitamin A, phosphorus, severe deficiencies of protein or
energy which lead to very low condition score (1-12)
• Vascular lesions
• Obstructive lesions of the efferent tubules - the backpressure leads rapidly to
degeneration of seminiferous epithelium. The testes degenerate but are enlarged with
fluid

Other lesions of the male genitalia

Balanoposthitis

Balanoposthitis is principally a problem of wethers but also occurs in rams. A special disease
of Border Leicester rams - balanitis - has been reported.

Varicocoele

A varicocoele is a dilatation of the spermatic vein and is usually of little or no significance.

Bilateral varicocoeles of long duration may adversely affect semen quality (possibly due to
anoxia) or, if large enough, incapacitate rams for walking due to pain. They do, however,
increase in size very slowly and rarely reach large proportions.

Scrotal mange

Mange of the scrotum, caused by Chorioptes bovis, is associated with seminal degeneration
and testicular atrophy[32]. (See also the section on skin diseases.)

Embryo mortality

Except in occasional flocks a large majority of prenatal mortality occurs in embryos and not in
foetuses (ie, during the interval from fertilization to attachment). More specifically, about
20-30% of all fertilized ova are lost in the first month and very few losses occur after about
day 35. In the majority of cases the embryos are lost before they would normally exert their
anti-luteolytic activity on the uterine endometrium and ovary (i.e. the ewes return to oestrus
after 16-18 days). This implies that the embryos must be dead or at least retarded by about
day 12, since the normal anti-luteolytic signal acts on days 12-13. Hence, in the field,
embryonic death cannot be distinguished from failure of fertilization, even where harnesses
and crayons are used. Less commonly, embryo loss in specific flocks or geographical regions
may be associated with delayed returns to oestrus (or apparent failure to return to oestrus,
depending on the length of the joining period). This is seen most clearly in the case of
selenium deficiency.

Aetiology

The reasons for most embryo losses in commercial flocks are unknown. Some losses are
attributable to intrinsic faults within the embryo and hence are desirable (rather than the
subsequent abortion or birth of abnormal foetuses). There is evidence that some embryo loss
may result from the fertilization of ova by heat damaged spermatozoa. However, in vitro
culture and in vivo embryo transfer studies suggest that most losses are due to failures in the
uterine environment. Faulty nutrition, abnormal temperatures, endocrine imbalances and
asynchronous development of embryo and endometrium have all been suggested as causes.
It takes a severe nutritional insult, more than can normally be experienced in the field, to kill
sheep embryos. However, deficiencies of zinc, iodine and selenium have occasionally been
implicated. Again, the environment of the ewe has to be very hot before embryo losses occur.
A progesterone influence on the uterus is essential, but within a fairly wide range of plasma
concentrations it seems to have no controlling influence. Experiments involving the transfer of
embryos between asynchronous donors and recipients have clearly indicated that embryos
will not survive and develop in inappropriate endocrine and endometrial environments.
However, the extent to which ’asynchronous development’ may occur after natural mating in
commercial flocks remains unclear. Studies in countries where ewe lambs are mated in their
first year of life clearly implicate age as a factor, with low embryo survival rates in ewes less
than 12 months of age. However, studies of 12-year-old maidens in Australia have not
revealed any differences from adult sheep.

Partial or full embryo loss

It is useful to distinguish between full and partial embryo loss after multiple ovulation. In the
latter case (sometimes designated PFMO), the pregnancy proceeds with no outward signs of
loss. PFMO becomes more important as mean flock OR increases. Eggs ovulated as singles
seem to have a higher chance of surviving than eggs ovulated as twins, etc. For example, if
the mean OR in a Merino flock is 1.3, you might expect about 10-15% of lambing ewes to give
birth to twins. Nevertheless, it follows that flock fertility should generally increase with
increasing OR. Typical conception rates to one oestrus in Merino and XB ewes with mean
ovulation rates of 1.2 and 1.7 are about 70% and 80% respectively. The causes of PFMO are
not understood. Supplementary progestagens given before day 12 have reduced PFMO in
some but not all studies. Such treatments cannot presently be recommended. Some
researchers consider PFMO to be a physiological adaptation rather than a problem, i.e. the
ewe (or the uterus) has mechanisms to reduce the number of embryos to match uterine
capacity. However, since the uterus in the Booroola Merino ewe seems quite capable of
supporting the development of up to five foetuses, this explanation is not very convincing.

The relative importance of embryo mortality

In individual flocks experiencing an infertility problem, the relative importance of failure to

mate, failure of fertilization and embryo mortality will obviously vary. Sometimes failure to
mate is the main problem, especially with out-of-season joinings. Provided mating occurs and
there is adequate ram power, embryo loss is usually considerably more important than failure
of fertilization. Thus with normal return rates of 20-30% (depending mainly on OR?) only one
third or less of returns seem to be due to failure of fertilization. However, this statement will be
incorrect where pasture oestrogens are involved or some controlled breeding procedures are
employed.

Abortion in ewes and prenatal diseases of lambs

Depending on the stage of gestation at which it occurs, abortion can contribute to infertility or
to perinatal mortality. Generally, abortion is an uncommon cause of reproductive wastage in
sheep in Australia. It appears to be more important in countries where more intensive systems
of lambing management are used and, when abortion storms do occur in Australia, they are
often associated with unusually high stocking densities. As well as causing sporadic
outbreaks of abortion and neonatal lamb deaths, many of the causative agents probably also
cause a low level of undetected losses on many farms. One would particularly expect this to
be the case with toxoplasmosis.

Toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite. Its asexual cycle can occur
in most warm-blooded animals but the sexual cycle occurs only in cats. Wild rodents, with
encysted bradyzoites in brain and muscle, act as a reservoir of infection which is spread and
enormously amplified by cats. Cat faeces can contain 106 oocysts/g. Theoretically, 50g of cat
faeces can provide 250,000 sheep-infective doses[33]. Susceptible sheep become infected
and remain so always after ingesting oocysts. Infection of the placenta and conceptus occurs
when a susceptible sheep ingests oocysts when pregnant. The outcome of infection depends
on the stage of pregnancy :

• Infection in early pregnancy 6 foetal resorption

• Infection in mid pregnancy 6 birth of stillborn or weak lambs, the cotyledons
containing small white foci of necrosis, the intercotyledonary membranes remain
unaffected
• Infection in late pregnancy 6 persistently infected but clinically normal lambs, both
 ewe and lamb immune to further challenge

Diagnostic aids - Histopathology of selected foetal and placental tissues reveals characteristic
lesions. Serology of ewes is of little use because Toxoplasma titres are frequently high in
ewes which have not aborted but may be low in ewes aborting due to toxoplasmosis at the
time of abortion. Serology of non-autolyzed foetal lambs is, however, useful as a diagnosis of
congenital toxoplasmosis, particularly on a flock basis rather than an individual basis[34].
Definitive diagnosis requires the demonstration of T gondii in fixed tissue sections or bioassay
in mice.
Control - Infection is from contaminated feedstuffs and pasture, there is no significant sheep
to sheep transmission. Prevention of infection, therefore, involves the reduction in
contamination by cats. Young cats pose the greatest threat - oocysts are usually produced
during initial infection which occurs as the young cat starts to catch and eat small animals. If
the environment is contaminated, sheep can be exposed to infection 2 to 3 months before
joining to reduce the incidence of mid-pregnancy infections. The vaccine ’Toxovax’ has been
used in NZ[35].

Campylobacteriosis

Campylobacter fetus ss fetus is transmitted by ingestion. The bacteria survive in the gall
bladder and gut of infected sheep and crows and magpies can become infected for several
months and thus become vectors[36]. Outbreaks of abortion are usually preceded by a period
of high stocking, particularly in winter and spring, but also after periods of hand-feeding in
summer and autumn[37]. If the flock has been previously exposed, the older ewes do not
abort but the younger ones do. Abortion occurs in the 3rd, 4th or 5th month of gestation.
Sometimes an abortion storm follows 2 to 3 weeks after the first, sporadic abortion. Ewes may
retain their membranes and develop metritis. Aborting ewes develop good immunity and are
unlikely to abort from this cause again. The disease has occurred repeatedly on some
farms[38].
Diagnostic aids - Some aborted lambs have ’rosette-like’ necrotic foci in the liver and this can
be a useful differential feature from toxoplasmosis. Definitive diagnosis is based on isolation
of organisms from aborted membranes and the foetal stomach.
Control - Aborted ewes should be removed from the lambing flock. Hand-feeding should be
stopped or changed to a new area each feed. The ewes should be ’spread-out’ into clean
paddocks. Ewe hoggets can be grazed on lambing paddocks after an abortion storm in order
to infect them while non-pregnant. The vaccine ’Campylovexin’ has been used in NZ[39].

Salmonellosis

The Salmonella Reference Laboratory in Adelaide reports that, in Australia, the salmonella
serovars most commonly isolated from sheep are S typhimurium and S bovis-morbificans.
There are a number of other serovars involved in outbreaks from time to time. S dublin, a
common cattle isolate, occurs much less commonly in sheep. Outbreaks of salmonellosis in
pregnant ewes will usually cause abortion in a large proportion of ewes in addition to signs of
enteric infection. In one report, four outbreaks of S typhimurium infection in WA affecting
autumn lambing ewes were characterised by significant mortality of ewes (8% to 18% of the
mob), diarrhoea, foetid dark red vaginal discharge, foetal death, abortion, retained foetal
membranes, septicaemia and high fever[40]. It is likely that in Australia abortion will usually be
accompanied by clinical illness in the ewe. In the UK, S abortus-ovis and S montevideo have
caused numerous outbreaks of ovine abortion in which other clinical signs in the ewe are
largely inapparent[41]. S abortus-ovis has declined in importance in the UK since 1975[42]
and the serovar is not present in Australia. S montevideo is isolated from sheep only rarely in
Australia. Outbreaks of Salmonella abortion are usually associated with stressful conditions,
including overcrowding, hand-feeding, undernutrition and pregnancy, as is the case in enteric
salmonellosis in non-pregnant sheep (discussed further in Chapter 16).
Diagnosis - The usual presence of clinical signs related to gastro-enteritis and septicaemia,
including high fever, usually differentiate abortion caused by Salmonella spp from that caused
by Toxoplasma and Campylobacter. Confirmation follows isolation of the organisms from the
foetal stomach and placenta.
Treatment and control - Separation of affected ewes from unaffected ewes and a reduction in
stocking rate of the latter may reduce the incidence of new cases but is unlikely to stop them
altogether. Affected sheep can be treated with antibiotics as a life-saving measure. Antibiotic
resistance is frequent in Salmonella isolates, but least likely for ampicillin,
trimethoprin/sulphadiazine, tetracyclines and neomycin. Oral medication with furazolidone,
continued for up to 7 days, may be attempted to prevent salmonellosis in in-contact sheep but
caution must be exercised to avoid overdosage.

Listeriosis

Listeria ivanovii (formerly L monocytogenes serotype V) is the causative agent. It is often

present in the gut of normal sheep and can survive and multiply in faecal material and soil.
The feeding of silage, particularly silage with a pH above 5.5, is often associated with
outbreaks of listeriosis. The disease occurs commonly under wet, muddy conditions and its
occurrence is sporadic and unpredictable[43]. It is probably a cause of widespread losses
from abortion and perinatal death but with a generally low flock prevalence[44]. Listeriosis is a
zoonosis.
Diagnosis - Listerial abortion is characterised by foetal loss at 32 - 5 months of gestation. The
organism can be isolated from the foetus (liver and lungs) and placenta.
Control - Antibiotics are not generally effective. Effective control involves changing the
predisposing conditions but abortions will continue for some time.

Enzootic abortion

Chlamydia psittaci is a specialised, antigenically complex, intracellular bacterium. Infections of

sheep causing polyarthritis, pneumonia, and kerato-conjunctivitis are widespread in Australia,
but enzootic abortion is rare[45][46]. The disease is common overseas.
Aborting ewes remain chronically infected but do not abort again. Vast numbers of infectious
chlamydial elementary bodies are shed at the time of abortion which remain a potent source
of infection for animals and man[33].

Brucellosis

Br ovis can cause an increase in ’returns to service’, foetal mortality and the birth of low
bodyweight lambs with a reduced chance of survival when OB infected rams are mated to
uninfected ewes. The infection is more likely to be a cause of perinatal mortality than of
abortion, although sporadic abortion does occur[47]. The main result of infection is a
placentitis which interferes with foetal nutrition. Lambs born from infected ewes are usually of
normal gestational age but of significantly lower birthweight.
Infection does not appear to persist in the ewe flock. Although the placentas from infected
ewes are a source of Br ovis organisms and the vaginal discharge of infected ewes contain
brucellae for up to 10 days after parturition, the ewes do not appear to be a significant source
of infection to other ewes or to rams[48]. It appears that it is necessary for the ram flock to
remain infected for the disease to appear from year to year in the ewe flock[49].

Ovine Pestivirus

This virus causes Border Disease (Hairy Shaker Disease, hypomyelinogenesis congenita),
embryonic death and abortion. The virus is serologically similar to the pestivirus of BVD-MD.
The disease has been reproduced in sheep with cattle-derived virus. There is a range of
strains of which most, if not all, will infect both cattle and sheep. Nevertheless, there are some
differences in host-affinity, pathogenicity and cross-immunity between strains[50].
Infection of ewes less than 50 days pregnant commonly results in abortion due to placental
degeneration. Infection at 50 to 80 days can result in foetal death and abortion or the birth of
live or dead lambs with hairy coats and varying degrees of hypomyelinogenesis, cerebellar
and cerebral dysgenesis, arthrogryposis, kyphosis and brachygnathia.
Generally only a few ewes in the flock abort. Affected lambs born alive fail to thrive and die
from complicating illness.

Akabane Disease

The virus enters the blood through an insect bite; viraemia is followed by invasion of the
placenta and foetus. The principal vector is the biting midge Culicoides brevitarsis. Immunity
lasts for years, although cross protection with the other related arbovirus Aino may not
exist[51]. There is some evidence that the sheep foetus is only susceptible to infection
between 30 and 36 days. Lambs are aborted or born with congenital defects, including
microencephaly, hydrocephalus, arthrogryposis, kyphosis and cerebellar agenesis[52].

Table 7.5 Summary of infectious abortion of ewes

Cause Transmission Time and Clinical Diagnostic Serology Prophylaxis

 incidence characteristics tests
Toxoplasma Ingestion ofLast 8Small whiteHistopathology Sabin Expose non-
gondii oocysts fromweeks, necrotic foci inof foetus orFeldman dyepregnant
cat faeces typically lastcotyledons, placenta test, Indirectewes
10 days,intercotyledonary Fluor Deal with
stillborn orareas unaffected, antibody testfarm cats
weak lambsmummified and aMonensin
Up to 40%foetuses number ofVaccination
abort others
Campylobacter Ingestion Last 12Severe Isolation ofAgglutination Expose non-
fetus weeks, endometritis inorganisms fromtest pregnant
typically 2ewes; 40% offoetal stomach ewes(good
to 6 weeksfoetuses with flock
pre-term ’rosette’ lesions immunity)
5% to 30%in liver, Vaccination
abort thickenned
intercotyledonary
area
Salmonella sppIngestion Last 6Metritis, Isolation ofAgglutination Avoid
weeks septicaemia, organisms fromtest predisposing
Up to 40%mortality in ewesfoetal stomach conditions
abort usually
Listeria ivanoviiIngestion Last 6Metritis, Isolation ofNone Avoid feeding
? inhalationweeks andsepticaemia inorganisms from (poor) silage
? coitus post-partum some ewes foetal tissues
lamb deaths
2% to 20%
abort
Brucella ovis Coitus, Late Epididymitis inIsolation ofCF test ofEliminate
ingestion abortion butrams organisms fromewes andinfection in
usually low foetal stomach,rams rams
birthweight placenta Br ovis
lambs vaccine,
Very low twice or with
incidence Br abortus
strain 19
Pestivirus Ingestion at 12Low ’Hairy shaker’Virus isolation,Not useful Remove
to 80 daysincidence, lambs histopthology surviving
gestation variable of foetal lambs from
timing nervous flock, as they
system shed virus
Vaccination
Akabane virus Insect, Variable ’Dummy’ andHistopathology, Agglutination
particularly C timing andarthrogrypotic virus isolationtest
brevitarsis premature lambs also born not possible
weak lambs
Chlamydia Ingestion Last 3No premonitoryChlamydial Serology ofUsually
psittaci weeks sign, necroticEBs inlittle useimmune after
placentitis, thick,cotyledon because abortion
leathery smears antibodies Vaccination
intercotyledonary widespread
area, foetus
looks normal,
none mummified
Br melitensis Ingestion etc Last 10Dull greyFoetal stomachCF test Vaccination
weeks cotyledons isolation
Rift ValleyMosquito Heavy mortalityViral antigen inSeveral tests Vaccination
fever in lambs blood
Wesselsbron Mosquito
dis

Abortion caused by Histophilus ovis

This organism has been isolated from sporadic ovine abortions in Victoria. It is more usually
associated with polysynovitis and septicaemia of lambs and epididymitis/orchitis of rams.

Romulosis

Onion grass (Romulea rosea var australis previously R bulbocodium) occurs in unimproved
and low fertility pastures in some areas of south-eastern Australia. Ingestion of the plant, or a
fungus (Helminthosporium) infesting the plant, has been associated with infertility and
abortion in sheep in Victoria[53]. Infertility is characterised by extremely low (even near zero)
lambing rates in one year, with normal rates in the previous and subsequent years. Abortion, if
it occurs, does so in mid-pregnancy. Surviving full-term lambs may have long bone
deformities[54]. Nervous signs, including posterior paresis, may occur in flocks experiencing
onion grass poisoning.

Health and management at lambing

Nutrition

Implantation in the ewe is a diffuse, gradual process that involves only the superficial tissues
of the endometrium. Initially the trophoblast adheres to the epithelium lining the caruncles.
Firm attachment is not apparent until around day 30. The growth of the cotyledonary placenta
proceeds rapidly after day 40 and exceeds foetal growth until about days 90-100. After this
time the mass of cotyledons tends to decline slowly, until term. At day 90 a typical single
Merino foetus weighs about 500 g. Thereafter its growth rate accelerates, to maximum rates
of about 70-80 g per day during days 120-140 and at term it weighs 3-5 kg. The maintenance
of pregnancy requires an adequate supply of progesterone. Initially progesterone comes from
the corpus luteum, but after about day 50 the cotyledons are the principal source of this
steroid.
There are probably no nutritional requirements specific to pregnancy until about day 90. Plane
of nutrition prior to day 90 may influence placental weight, but variation in feeding at this stage
has relatively little influence on lamb birthweight. Commencing at about this stage ewes
require additional nutrients to support adequate foetal growth and at the same time maintain a
satisfactory ewe condition score. During the last 3-4 weeks of gestation nutrients are also
required to support mammogenesis.

Table 7.6 : Effect of level of nutrition of grazing ewes during the last 5 weeks of
pregnancy on birth weights
 Level of Liveweight Birth weights (kg)
nutrition change of Singles Twins
ewes (kg)*
High 11.4 4.7 4.0
Medium 5.7 4.6 3.8
Low 0.0 4.4 3.3

* liveweight change includes weight of uterus and contents

Table 7.6 gives some data for the birthweights of single and twin lambs as well as changes in
ewe liveweight associated with three different levels of nutrition during only the last five weeks
of pregnancy. Note that at this late stage of gestation, adjustments to feeding had a greater
influence on the birthweights of twin rather than single lambs. It would be interesting to know
also how these three levels of feeding influenced udder development and maternal behaviour
in the ewes at lambing. As noted above, the optimization of lamb birthweights may require
that adjustments to feeding commence at least eight weeks before lambing.
Undernutrition of ewes in late pregnancy leads to a spectrum of disease ranging from minor
losses of production, to increased lamb mortality, reduced lactation and, at the most obvious,
to mortalities of ewes. Many of the syndromes which are sub-clinical at lambing time have
serious consequences in later weeks and months - including death of lambs at a few weeks of
age from malnutrition/parasitism, poor growth rate of lambs to weaning, difficulties in weaner
management in summer and autumn as a consequence of low weaning weights, and poor
wool production and subsequent reproductive performance from the ewes. Pregnancy
toxaemia is the clinical ’tip’ of a sub-clinical ’iceberg’.

Pregnancy Toxaemia

This is a disease of ewes in late pregnancy characterised by dullness, inappetence and

recumbency which, unless treated early, progresses to death. The condition arises when
dietary and body reserve sources of glycogenic precursors are unable to meet the glucose
requirements of the ewe and the foetus or foetuses.

Predisposing factors

Restriction of feed intake or low feed quality in late pregnancy, especially in ewes with
multiple foetuses, are the usual predisposing factors. In general terms, the disease occurs
when the energy balance of the ewe and the foetuses is disturbed and so factors which
increase foetal requirements or decrease the ewe’s intake are relevant risk factors. These
include :

• twin or triplet pregnancy, rather than single

• older ewes, rather than maiden ewes
• low feed quality or quantity in the last 4 weeks of pregnancy, particularly if nutritional
status at joining was high
• sudden interruptions of feed intake for ’at-risk’ ewes
• yarding for crutching or shearing and, particularly, holding off feed for more than 12
hours
 • intercurrent disease such as foot abscess, footrot or hypocalcaemia
• digestive disturbance, such as acidosis from supplementary feeding with grain
• overfatness in ewes, which appears to reduce feed intake in late pregnancy

Pathogenesis

Ruminal digestion of all carbohydrates, from simple sugars and starches to cellulose,
pentosans and pectins, produces for absorption volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Three of these,
acetic, propionic and butyric, provide most of the energy supply for the animal. Acetic acid
predominates, with approximately 4 moles produced for every mole of propionic acid. Butyric
acid is largely converted to the ketone bodies acetoacetate and ß—hydroxybutyrate in the
ruminal epithelium[55].
Acetate and propionate metabolism - Acetate is rapidly metabolised via the TCA cycle in
skeletal muscle, heart and kidney to produce energy in those tissues. Acetate is also used for
fat synthesis in adipose tissues. When alternative energy producing substrates are
insufficient, lipolysis releases free fatty acids (FFAs) for energy production.
Propionate is, in contrast, gluconeogenic. It is rapidly converted to glucose in the liver and
kidney cortex. Propionate is the major source of glucose in the ruminant; amino acids, lactic
acid and glycerol released from fat stores are minor sources[56]. 60% to 70% of the oxidative
energy production of sheep uses acetate, ketones, glucose and FFAs as substrates. The
energy requirements of the brain, eye, erythrocytes and mammary gland (for the production of
lactose) must be met by glucose.
Blood glucose, free fatty acid and hyperketonaemia - There is an inverse relationship
between blood glucose concentration and that of FFAs. When blood glucose levels are low,
plasma FFA concentration rises. These FFAs are oxidised in peripheral tissues and in the
liver, producing acetyl-CoA. The raised plasma concentration of FFAs also leads to increased
hepatic lipogenesis, raising liver fat levels. Acetyl-CoA can enter the TCA cycle but some is
diverted to the synthesis of the ketone bodies acetoacetate and ß—hydroxybutyrate. With
increased fat mobilization, the supply of FFA to the liver increases; an increasing proportion of
this FFA is converted to ketone bodies, producing hyperketonaemia, and reconverted to fat,
producing fatty infiltration of the liver.
Foetal requirement for glucose - Foetal blood concentrations of acetate and ketone bodies
are low relative to maternal concentrations. The foetus, however, has a high requirement for
glucose and will take up 8 to 9g per kg of foetal weight per day. 5kg of foetus require
approximately 45g of glucose daily. For comparison, a dietary intake of 750g of roughage -
sufficient to maintain a non-pregnant ewe - will provide about 110g of glucose. Maternal
hypoglycaemia is readily induced in ewes in late pregnancy because of the high foetal
demand for glucose and the limited amounts produced by gluconeogenesis from propionate
and amino acids. The foetus is also highly efficient at capturing maternal glucose - foetal
blood levels may remain near normal even when the ewe is severely hypoglycaemic and has
virtually no liver glycogen reserves.
Figure 7.2 Relationship between diet and hyperketonaemia in twin-bearing ewes fed
chopped hay. 0.75 kg/day is maintenance for the non-pregnant ewe.

Insufficiency of glucose precursors - When glucose deficiency occurs, oxaloacetate is

diverted from energy production in the TCA cycle to gluconeogenesis. Under these
conditions, energy production in the liver is shifted to oxidation of FFAs with the production of
acetyl-CoA. Without the TCA cycle to utilize acetyl-CoA, the ketone bodies acetoacetate and
ß-hydroxybutyrate are formed. Hypoglycaemia and hyperketon-aemia, therefore, occur
simultaneously, preceded slightly by an increase in plasma FFA concentration.
Development of clinical signs - Severe hypoglycaemia, hyperketonaemia and weight loss can
occur in ewes without the development of clinical pregnancy toxaemia. All the reasons for the
development of clinical signs in some cases of hyper-ketonaemia and not in others are not
clear.
The relationship between diet, stage of pregnancy and ketonaemia is illustrated in Figure 7.2.
Hypoglycaemia is expected to develop similarly. The degree to which these changes occur
depends on the degree of undernutrition and the foetal load. In most field situations, some
degree of hypoglycaemia is inevitable in multiple-bearing ewes because their voluntary feed
intakes are unlikely to allow the ingestion of sufficient roughage to meet the total demand for
energy substrates without using body reserves.
Elevated plasma cortisol - Although hypoglycaemia and hyperketonaemia do not consistently
lead to the development of clinical disease, one consistent association is the presence of
elevated blood cortisol levels in ewes with clinical signs - a feature not present in
hyperketonaemic, but clinically normal ewes. The high level of serum cortisol is a feature of
the ovine disease not present in bovine ketosis and which, among other things, may lead to
the wool break in affected but surviving ewes.
Progression to irreversibility - The development of clinical signs amounts to a metabolic
collapse following a period of precarious nutritional balance. Excessive production of ketone
bodies produces an acidosis. Prolonged urinary excretion results in loss of sodium and
potassium and a lowering of plasma alkali reserve[56]. With sudden cessation of dietary
intake the hyperketonaemia worsens, exacerbating the CNS depression. Ewes become
comatose, dehydrated, anuric and uraemic.
Clinical signs

In an affected flock, pregnancy toxaemia usually appears as a continuing outbreak over a

period of 2 to 3 weeks, with a few ewes developing clinical signs each day. The course of the
disease is usually 4 to 7 days although ewes are not always observed in the early stages.
Affected ewes separate from the mob and, initially, stand with head low and appearing
depressed. They do not graze and are easily approached. They appear blind but may make
some movement to face an approaching dog or human or to walk away. The gait is staggery
and weak and they collapse readily, particularly as the disease progresses.
The pupillary light reflex is diminished and the eye preservation reflex is absent. Ruminal
movements are normal or reduced. They are usually constipated, disinterested in food and
become more sleepy as the disease progresses. Recumbency follows 2 or 3 days after the
ewes are first observed to separate from the flock. Death follows in a further few days.
Signs of nervous derangement may be observed at all stages of the disease. These include
muscle tremors of the face, jaw champing and lateral or dorsal head flexion. There may even
be tonic-clonic convulsions. Foetal death is a sequel when the disease is prolonged.

Clinical pathology

The presence of ketone bodies in the plasma and urine may be detected using sodium
nitroprusside reagents (AcetestR tablets, KetostixR test strips). Ten fold dilution of urine before
testing is recommended to reduce the possibility of false positive reactions. In advanced
cases, plasma bicarbonate concentrations are measurably reduced and BUN concentrations
elevated. Terminally, ewes may become hyperglycaemic.

Necropsy

The presence of two or more near-term foetuses is common. The liver is fatty and pale yellow,
friable and greasy on cut section. The adrenal glands are enlarged.

Diagnosis

The disease must be differentiated from hypocalcaemia, which is more characterised by

paralysis and muscle weakness and, if uncomplicated, responds to treatment with calcium
borogluconate. Pregnancy toxaemia is, however, often superimposed on hypocalcaemia
unless it is treated promptly.

Treatment

The response to treatment depends on the manner in which the disease developed and the
duration of time which passes before treatment is instituted. A small proportion of cases will
recover spontaneously without treatment, either because dietary intake recommences or
because the foetuses are born or die in utero. In this latter case, of course, death from
septicaemia is also a likely outcome.
In cases which have occurred following sustained undernutrition treatment is of little value,
possibly because acidosis and renal failure are present from the outset. If heroic treatment is
commenced, intravenous electrolytes, possibly with potassium iodide, bicarbonate solutions,
glucose and insulin as indicated, are rational therapies. Oral administration of glucose
precursors (propylene glycol, glycerine) are successful at raising blood glucose
concentrations but rarely lead to clinical recovery. In fact, many cases are so advanced when
presented that hyperglycaemia may be present before treatment can start.
In those cases where the clinical signs have developed as a result of more sudden
deprivation, treatment is more likely to be successful. Treatment, to have any chance of
success, must commence early and be vigorous and frequent. Once cases advance to
permanent recumbency, treatment is unlikely to succeed.
Concentrated oral rehydration solutions, containing glucose, glycine, NaCl, KH2PO4,
potassium citrate and citric acid have been shown to be more effective at raising plasma
glucose concentrations than the same amount of glucose administered alone. A field trial
using the concentrated oral rehydration solution (160ml every 4 to 8 hours) reported that 90%
of ewes classified as having mild signs and 55% of those with severe signs recovered
completely, producing live lambs[57]. Mild signs were separation from the flock, disinclination
to move, anorexia. Severe signs were one or more of blindness, drowsiness or excess
salivation. No other treatment was compared in the field trial.
Recommended treatments include :

• Rehydration solutions per os, eg Vy-Trate (SmithKline Beecham), 160ml every 4-6
hrs
• Glucose, 40% by injection. The requirements of the ewe and foetuses could approach
200g daily
• Glycerin, 120ml every 6 to 8 hours. Glycerin is digested to glucose precursors in the
rumen. There are proprietary formulations containing glycerin
• Corticosteroids, such as 10 mg of dexamethasone, to induce abortion
• Anabolic steroids; 30 mg of trenbolone acetate given intravenously[58]
• Caesarean section

Prevention

Supplementary feeding with high energy foodstuffs will reduce the incidence of pregnancy
toxaemia. Preferably, the need for supplementation is foreseen before any cases occur; the
need being recognised from an assessment of the quantity and quality of the available
pasture. Often, however, supplementation is introduced or increased after some ewes have
succumbed.
Feeding rates of cereal grains may vary between 400 and 700 g daily depending on the
degree of nutritional deficiency. Hay is unlikely to provide sufficient energy density
(megajoules of ME per kg of dry matter or MD) to prevent the development of pregnancy
toxaemia in high risk flocks. Methods of feeding grain and, particularly, the need for care in
introduction were discussed in the section on hand feeding.
The existence of pregnancy toxaemia in a flock is suggestive of (probably more) important
sub-clinical losses of production from high lamb mortalities, poor lamb growth and poor ewe
health and production. This subject is discussed by Foot (1983).
In light of that, producers who chronically suffer from the disease in their flocks or who
frequently need to take action to prevent it, should possibly consider changing management
strategies. If the disease is related to poor pasture quality, lambing at a time when feed quality
is higher will probably be advantageous. If the disease is related to low pasture availability,
decreasing the stocking rate of the ewes is advisable. If pregnancy toxaemia is related to
husbandry procedures (crutching, shearing etc), changes should be made to ensure the ewes
have shorter periods off-feed and less disturbance close to lambing.
Identification of ewes with multiple pregnancies by ultrasound scanning can be used to form
mobs of multiple-bearers which receive differential treatment. While this strategy is highly
successful, it is probably too expensive unless the twinning rate is very high and the ewes
particularly valuable.
Monitoring of bodyweight and condition score can give useful guides to the need for
preventive action. Single bearing ewes which maintain uterine-free bodyweight will gain at
least 8 or 9 kg of liveweight over pregnancy (mostly in the last 8 weeks) due to the mass of
the foetus, foetal fluids and udder development. As discussed previously, such objectives are
both difficult to meet in the field and unnecessary in commercial sheep production, from an
economic viewpoint. Satisfactory production and health is probably associated with liveweight
gains of 2 to 5 kg in this period, equivalent to the loss of 0.5 to 0.7 of one condition score. The
ability to lose that amount safely depends on bodily condition in early pregnancy - lean ewes
should not be allowed to lose that much, fat ewes should be limited to losing no more than
that amount of condition. For ewes with twin foetuses, liveweight gains of 5 to 8 kg are
desirable.

Hypocalcaemia

Hypocalcaemia in ewes generally occurs in the last month of pregnancy rather than during
lactation. The clinical syndrome is usually precipitated by sudden changes in feed intake or by
stress. Moving ewes to another paddock, driving for husbandry procedures, particularly if the
weather is cold and wet, can readily precipitate outbreaks. Generally, only a small proportion
of the flock is affected. Occasionally the disease occurs in association with exposure following
shearing and large numbers of ewes may be affected. An increase in the incidence of
hypocalcaemia of ewes 2 to 6 weeks before lambing was observed in the 6 months following
the end of the 1982/3 drought in southern Australia. Most cases occurred spontaneously and
some were precipitated by pre-lambing crutching[59]. Older ewes are usually more frequently
and more severely affected. Hypocalcaemia also occurs in weaners.

Clinical signs

Initially affected ewes are ataxic and hyperaesthetic but soon become recumbent and the
paralysis becomes flaccid. They are frequently seen in sternal recumbency with legs
stretched behind and head turned to the flank. The pupils are dilated. Unless treated, affected
ewes usually die within 1 or 2 days of collapse.

Treatment

50 ml of 40% calcium borogluconate injected subcutaneously is effective, particularly when

given early. Failures to respond may be due to intercurrent pregnancy toxaemia. In ewes
which do respond, treatment with oral glucose precursors is advisable in an attempt to avoid
pregnancy toxaemia.

Vaginal prolapse

Vaginal prolapse occurs in the pregnant ewe up to 4 weeks before lambing. The incidence in
Merino ewes is generally low but may exceed 5% annually in some flocks of British breed
sheep. There appears not to be any one aetiological factor but a number of factors which may
contribute variably to the development of the syndrome. A major factor is probably the
increase in intra-abdominal mass in late pregnancy, particularly in ewes on bulky feed. When
the ewe lies down, the intra-abdominal pressure is transmitted to the flaccid pelvic structures,
tending to balloon the relaxed and loosely attached vaginal walls through the lips of the vulva.
The exposed mucosa becomes dry and irritated, stimulating tenesmus which exacerbates the
prolapse[60].

Treatment

Treating the prolapse by reduction is useless if it has been present for long enough for the
mucosa to be devitalised or the sub-mucosal tissues bruised or torn. Early cases can be
treated by reduction after disinfection with mild antiseptics (suitable for sensitive mucous
surfaces) and retention by a variety of means. Epidural anaesthesia, by reducing tenesmus
for an hour or so, will facilitate reduction and allow a period following reduction for some
oedema to resolve before the ewe is aware of any discomfort and stimulated to strain again.
Retention is generally attempted with sutures of umbilical tape, either across the vulva or,
preferably, in a ’purse-string’ suture lateral to the vulval labiae. These must be removed
before the ewe lambs so it is necessary to confine the ewe for observation after treatment.
With nervous Merino ewes, it is necessary to confine them in a paddock or yard in the
company of 5 or 6 other sheep at least or the stress of isolation and panic when approached
will not favour a successful outcome. Antibiotic therapy, locally and parenterally, is advisable.
Ewes should be culled after they have raised their lamb because of the risk of recurrence at
the next lambing. If a number of ewes are affected, steps should be taken to reduce
overfatness, reduce the bulkiness of the diet and to increase exercise of the ewes, where
these actions are appropriate, in future pregnancies.

Husbandry at lambing
The length of pregnancy in the ewe varies between about 145 and 150 days, depending
primarily on breed but also on litter size and possibly other factors. As a rule of thumb,
pregnancies last for about 145, 147 and 150 days in British breeds, crossbreds and Merinos,
respectively. It is the foetus rather than the dam that determines the length of gestation (worth
remembering if MOET involves recipients of a different breed!). In order to survive, the lamb
must promptly make certain adjustments at birth and both the ewe and lamb must exhibit
behaviour patterns that ensure prompt initiation of sucking by the lamb and formation of a
strong ewe-lamb bond. Teat-seeking activity by the healthy lamb is vigorous during the first
few hours after birth. Lambs usually stand on all four feet within 2 hour and suck successfully
within 1-2 hours of birth. In the absence of effective bonding, both lamb teat-seeking activity
and ewe maternal behaviour begin to fade after about 3 hours. For high lamb survival ewes
should lamb at a condition score of about 3 and in sheltered, comfortable surroundings, but
this is not always possible or the most economical strategy. Points to consider in choosing the
lambing paddock include:

• the expected environmental conditions at lambing

• is shelter from prevailing cold winds available (but does the shelter provide cover for
foxes or pigs?)
• is there easy access to the lambing flock, particularly during periods of inclement
weather?
• is the paddock large enough to avoid a high stocking density? Lower densities and
more privacy for lambing ewes discourage mismothering

In larger commercial Merino flocks there is commonly no surveillance of lambing. Indeed,

some producers take their annual leave during the lambing period. However, where
management is more intensive (eg on smaller, prime lamb and stud properties) some degree
of surveillance is both desirable and feasible. Twice daily inspections (in the early morning
and late afternoon) are ideal. Difficult births can be assisted with a reasonable chance of
delivering live lambs. It is usually best to leave the ewe on her side with the lamb over her
snout (if she has not already stood!). In the early morning, recently lambed and lambing ewes
will mostly be separated from the main mob. Once daily or less frequent inspections may be
all that is possible. With once daily inspection more dead lambs are delivered, but there is still
a good chance of saving the ewe. If the ewe has been down for some time she may need
active assistance to get up and walk again. Once she has been helped to walk about 20
metres, she should be able to look after herself. If surveillance is planned, the producer
should walk through the flock for 2-3 weeks prior to the start of lambing to accustom the ewes
to inspections.

Intensive management at lambing

It is sometimes necessary to identify lambs and ewes lambing. This requires a careful effort.
Where the parentage of the lambs or full identification is required, it is necessary to inspect
the flock at least once daily and preferably early in the morning. Lambing ewes are flank
branded and their lamb(s) eartagged. The ear tags in the lambs may need to be replaced
later as the holes in the ears become larger. If parentage is not required, information on the
numbers of ewes lambed and lambs born can be obtained as follows: flank brand the ewes
and paint the tails of recently born lambs. Record the lambed ewes and count the painted
tails. Do it at least daily, preferably early in the morning. It is not easy to get accurate data.
Some newborn lambs often disappear promptly after birth! In principle, provided sufficient
time and resources are invested, it is possible to reduce lamb losses almost to zero. In
practice, the producer must consider how much cost and effort is warranted to reduce lamb
losses. The manipulation of lamb birthweights by using ultrasound and/or adjusting feeding,
the provision of shelter and frequent surveillance have been mentioned. Less commonly,
other procedures include: drift lambing, where with suitable subdivisional fencing the lambing
flock is gently moved each day to the next paddock, with a 3-4 day rotation. This enables
small groups of separated lambing or just lambed ewes to be left behind and alone, until the
main mob catches up with them a few days later. Pen lambing of individual or small groups of
ewes is more intensive and expensive. Ewes giving birth to multiples may be confined
individually in pens to facilitate bonding to all lambs; two days of confinement may be
required.

Shearing and lambing

Ewes in long wool may usefully be crutched before lambing commences. This may facilitate
bonding of the ewe and lamb. The effect of shearing on lambing performance depends mainly
on when it is carried out in relation to lambing. In severely cold districts, shearing just prior
(2-3 weeks) to the onset of lambing may reduce lamb losses. Newly shorn ewes seek out
shelter and hence indirectly protect their lambs from exposure. However, more generally
shearing at this time is not practical on other grounds and should not be recommended, as
possible side-effects include abortions and pregnancy toxaemia. Shearing 4-8 weeks prior to
the onset of lambing is safer and may be beneficial. Compared to ewes shorn post-lambing,
shearing at this time often results in a significant increase in lamb birthweights and decrease
in lamb deaths. The increased losses in ewes shorn post-lambing are probably explained
mainly by the lower birthweights, but other factors may include poorer lactation and ability of
lambs to find the teats and suckle. Shearing before lambing seems often to increase ewe
mobility and feed intake. Late pregnant ewes in long wool are prone to become cast,
especially when they are wet.

Perinatal mortality

A number of specific metabolic and other diseases are associated with late pregnancy,
parturition and the onset of lactation. These diseases of periparturient ewes can result, in
individual flocks, in serious ewe losses. As a largely separate issue, the death of lambs in the
perinatal period is a major source of reproductive wastage. These are deaths occurring
shortly before, during or within 7 days of birth. Losses at this time account for 80-90% of
preweaning losses. The incidence of perinatal mortality is extremely variable. Overall, in
Australia about 20% of all lambs die and about 20-25% of pregnant ewes do not have a lamb
at lamb marking. In Merinos, losses of less than 15% lambs must generally be considered
acceptable. If mortalities exceed 15-20%, then a single major cause may usually be
diagnosed, but where mortalities are less than 15% there is commonly not any one
predominant cause.
Certain factors concerning the breeding flock and its environment have major influences on
the rate of perinatal mortality. These are:

• Lamb birth weight; lambs with weights in the range 3-5 kg survive best. Nutrition is
the chief consideration here, but extreme heat during pregnancy also suppresses
foetal growth
• Incidence of multiple births; in Merinos, losses in twins often exceed twice those in
singles. Merinos seem sometimes to totally ignore one of twin lambs
• Genotype; losses in XB lambs or lambs born to XB ewes are lower than those in
Merinos
• Environmental conditions; in many districts there is a distinct seasonal peak in losses
around July - August
• Age of ewe; losses are almost invariably higher in maidens, then increase again after
about 6 years of age

Ultimately, nearly all losses relate to failure to rapidly establish and maintain an adequate
ewe-lamb bond. Key determinants of the onset of maternal behaviour are oestrogens,
cervico-vaginal stimulation, olfaction and maternal experience. The two distinguishable
components of this behaviour of the ewe are (a) responsiveness towards (any) newborn
lambs and (b) the bonding of the ewe to one or two specific lambs. Much less is known about
the regulation of desirable behaviour in the neonate and young lamb towards its dam.
Bonding and lamb survival are improved by management practices which increase the time
spent on the birthsite by the ewe after parturition. Disturbance of lambing ewes for feeding
can lead to mismothering.
There are several possible causes of perinatal lamb loss. At least 80% of deaths usually fall
into two categories at autopsy. These are (1) deaths due to uncomplicated birth stress and
may include small lambs dying of peracute hypothermia in very cold weather; (2) neonatal
deaths due to a complex of starvation, mismothering and exposure (SME), characterised at
autopsy by evidence of starvation and cold exposure.

Birth stress

Birth stress results from the effects of asphyxia and/or trauma on the foetal CNS during birth.
Gross evidence of birth stress includes (1) birth injury - subdural and subarachnoid
haemorrhages of the brain and spinal cord; (2) subcutaneous oedema of the presented part
of the foetus; (3) abdominal haemorrhage from liver trauma; (4) petechial and ecchymotic
haemorrhage in subpleura, subendocardium, subepicardium and thymus. The birth coat is
often meconium stained. Birth stress does not only lead to mortality of lambs at the time of
parturition but also contributes to deaths from the SME complex, where evidence of birth
stress is accompanied by varying degrees of catabolism of brown fat.
SME complex

Deaths from the SME complex present evidence of hypothermia - brown fat catabolism,
subcutaneous oedema of the extremities, inadequate quantities or absence of milk ingesta in
the gut. The texture and colour of the brown fat in the perirenal, pericardial, epicardial and
prescapular sites are sensitive indicators of the lambs’ exposure to cold independent of
starvation. During severe, cold, wet, windy weather high rates of mortality may occur from
primary hypothermia. Most SME complex deaths occur from secondary hypothermia - the
result of exhaustion of substrates necessary for thermogenesis because of starvation.
Common causes of failure to feed include birth injury to the CNS, aberrant maternal or
neonatal behaviour, udder or teat abnormalities, agalactia and management-induced
mismothering.
The relationship between climate and lamb mortality is an important consideration when
choosing a joining date. Seasonal variation in environmental conditions is one of the issues,
discussed in Chapter 3, which determines the best time to lamb.

Minor causes of perinatal mortalities

Perinatal mortalities from causes other than birth stress and the SME complex usually amount
to only a small proportion of deaths. Nevertheless, on isolated occasions, perinatal mortalities
from congenital malformations, infectious causes or trace element deficiencies can be
serious.

Lethal congenital malformations

Vaccination against bluetongue, Rift Valley fever and Wesselsbron disease and teratogenic
plants can cause congenital malformations.

Congenital infections

Effectively caused by the same organisms that cause abortion in ewes.

Infections acquired after birth

• Clostridium septicum, C chauvoei and C novyi, which cause gangrene around the
umbilicus and peritonitis
• Pasteurella haemolytica and P multocida, which cause pneumonia and peritonitis
• Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp, Corynebacterium spp, Fusobacterium
necrophorum and other bacteria which cause pyaemia with multiple purulent foci in
the viscera
• Escherichia coli, which causes syndromes characterised by enteritis, septicaemia or
leptomeningitis
• Erysipelothrix insidiosa and Chlamydia spp, which cause polysynovitis
Trace element deficiencies

Copper, iodine and selenium deficiencies can cause heavy mortalities of lambs under
particular circumstances.

Predation

The significance of primary predation as a cause of perinatal lamb losses has been difficult to
assess. Many live lambs taken are probably not viable (secondary predation) and many
lambs disappear or are mutilated after death from other causes (scavenging). Generally
primary predation is thought to cause only minor losses, with exceptions in some seasons
and in some districts where losses can be extremely high. Pigs, dogs (including dingoes) and
foxes can be responsible for primary predation. With the advent of ultrasound and the
realisation that more lambs often ’disappear’ in Merino flocks than was previously thought, the
role of predators and especially of foxes needs re-evaluation. Fox numbers seem to have
increased substantially in recent times with the demise of the fur trade, and foxes may now be
an important cause of lamb losses in many flocks.
In summary, some more common causes of heavy perinatal lamb losses are:

• excessively low or high birthweights

• adverse environmental conditions during lambing
• high incidence of multiples
• predation
• ewes lambing in full wool

Management and diseases of lactating ewes

Uterine prolapse

Uterine prolapse occurs occassionally in ewes after a difficult lambing, particularly where
straining has been prolonged or the vagina has been damaged during the birth process.
Uterine prolapse also occurs as a consequence of phyto-oestrogenism in ewes.
The prolapse can be replaced and the success rate is high, at least in terms of ewe survival if
not in terms of future breeding, provided the damage done to the organ is minimal before and
during treatment, provided gross contamination is removed and provided the organ is
completely reverted. The foetal membranes, if still present, should be left in situ. Antibiotic
therapy, with intra-uterine pessaries, seem appropriate but pessaries are often lost soon after
placement. Oxytocin should be administered intra-muscularly to encourage uterine involution.
A purse-string suture of umbilical tape may be placed around the vulva but probably does not
add to the success rate in ewes which are ambulatory and in which involution commences
within a few minutes of treatment.

Hypomagnesaemia
This appears to be a relatively uncommon condition of sheep. When it does occur, it involves
ewes in the first month of lactation and, like the disease in cattle, affects those ewes with the
heaviest lactations. Deaths can occur at pasture without the disturbance of handling or driving
so on some occasions affected ewes are simply found dead. If seen alive, affected ewes have
a stiff, uncoordinated gait and readily collapse and show repeated tetanic spasms. They are
hyperaesthetic and show tremor, particularly of the facial muscles. The course of the disease
is probably only a few hours.

Treatment

If ewes are found alive, treatment with both calcium borogluconate and magnesium salts is
advised and often successful. Relapse, however, is common.

Prevention

The pathogenesis of the disease is probably similar to that of cattle so preventive strategies
are similar. Oral supplementation with magnesium oxide or magnesium carbonate should be
effective.

Figure 7.3 The lactation of the ewe varies with nutritional intake (stocking rate) Davies
HL 1962.

Nutrition through lactation

Depending on body condition at lambing and the level of nutrition in late pregnancy and
lactation, the milk production of Merino sheep peaks 2 to 3 weeks after lambing and then
declines. By 10 weeks it is usually about 3 of the peak level (Figure 7.3)[61].
In approximate terms, lambs ingesting 1kg of milk per day through the first 4 to 6 weeks of
lactation will grow at 200g per day and, therefore, weigh up to 12kg at marking at 6 weeks of
age. At marking time, later born lambs may be as young as 1 week but the oldest, single
reared lambs will usually weigh 10-12kg if the ewe has had satisfactory nutrition. Lambs
which have grown at similar rates to marking age are very active, fast and strong, have limited
rumen development and, therefore, small abdomens. They are called ’sappy’ because of their
’bloom’ and appearance of good health and vigour. Sappy lambs of 6 weeks old generally
have very low parasite burdens because their grazing has been limited by their continuing
good milk intake.
The consequences of undernutrition of ewes, if it does not result in the death of the ewe
through pregnancy toxaemia or the perinatal death of the lamb, are inadequate and early
cessation of lactation and increased grazing activity of the lambs at an early age. Lambs
normally commence grazing at 3 weeks of age and, by the time they are aged 8 weeks and
weigh 10 to 14kg, they have sufficient rumen development to survive on good quality pasture
without milk. Before that age, inadequate rumen development and high dietary protein
requirements reduce the chance of survival of lambs without adequate milk intake. These
lambs may die at any age from 7 days onwards (before that the death is classed ’perinatal’). If
they survive to marking they will be very light (for example, 6 kg at 6 weeks of age), will
appear ’poddy’ or pot-bellied due to marked rumen development in a small body. They are
weak and inactive. They often develop intercurrent diseases and are particularly likely to have
a serious burden of intestinal parasites.
The same nutritional environment which leads to poor growth and poor health in lambs leads
to poor health in the ewes. Despite the reduction in their lactation due to low feed intake, the
ewes will produce some milk by using body reserves of energy and protein. Often, by the time
the ewes cease lactating they are in low condition score (12, for example) and themselves at
risk of other diseases, particularly internal parasitism.
There is, of course, a full range of conditions between the two extremes and it is likely that
any one flock of ewes under normal commercial grazing conditions would have a few ewe-
lamb combinations representing both ends of the spectrum. This is normal and does not
require any action. It becomes abnormal and needs remedial action when a large proportion
of the flock are in poor condition and few, if any, have performed well.

Mastitis

Mastitis is a cause of lamb mortality, low weight gain of lambs and losses of ewes from death
and premature culling. It occurs sporadically in all flocks of sheep but few details of its
epidemiology or economic impact are known. The most obvious mastitis of ewes in Australia
is gangrenous mastitis which is usually associated with Staphylococcus aureus infection but
acute mastitis caused by Pasteurella haemolytica is also common and often fatal. During
outbreaks of pasteurella mastitis, cases of pasteurella pneumonia may also occur in lambs. A
variety of other organisms cause mastitis which varies from acute, fatal infections to mild or
even sub-clinical diseases.

Aetiology

Mastitis in ewes is predisposed by milk stasis (which occurs at lambing or weaning), teat
damage, such as occurs from shearing or crutching wounds and CPD infection and, possibly,
from udder damage caused by the bunting of lambs with or even without horns. It is possible
that sheep camps, which are heavily contaminated with faeces, are a site of transmission to
predisposed ewes.
The following organisms have been associated with mastitis in ewes; Staphylococcus aureus,
Pasteurella hemolytica, Escherichia coli, Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis (usually
infecting the supramammary lymph nodes but the subsequent abscessation may destroy
udder tissue), Actinobacillus pyogenes, Streptococcus uberis, Strep agalactiae, Actinobacillus
seminis[62][63] (which has caused sub-acute and gangrenous mastitis when introduced
experimentally into the teat canal), Histophilus ovis[64][62], Actinobacillus lignierisi.

Clinical signs

Acute mastitis - Ewes separate from the mob, walk with discomfort and are usually very lame
on the affected side. They lose condition and their lambs appear thin and hungry. On
examination, the udder will appear enlarged, painful, hot and the skin red. The milk, in the
early stages will show varying types of abnormality, including yellowness and clots. The ewes
are febrile, with rectal temperatures exceeding 40.5EC at some stages of the infection. If the
infection leads to gangrenous mastitis, the udder will progress to become blue, cold and
pitting when pressed. The milk becomes watery, may be blood stained and scant. The ewe’s
temperature may become sub-normal at this time. A large proportion of ewes with gangrenous
mastitis die; the gangrenous half of the udder will slough in those that survive.

Treatment and control

Little is known about the effectiveness of treatment of ovine mastitis and, under Australian
conditions, anything less than severe, acute mastitis will not be readily detected. One
presumes that treatment of individual cases should proceed normally as for cases in dairy
cattle. In cases of gangrenous mastitis, preventive treatment for flystrike should be used.
Intra-mammary antibiotic therapy at the time of weaning has been shown to be highly
effective in lowering the incidence of post-weaning mastitis[65]. The ability of Pasteurella sp
organisms to survive in the udder, possibly associated with palpable nodules in the udder,
from one lactation to the next and to then cause an acute, fatal mastitis has been
documented[66]. In extensively managed flocks, such treatment is unlikely to be accepted or
economically advisable.
It has been suggested that mastitic ewes should be culled from flocks at weaning or before
joining. There is evidence to indicate that ewes with bilaterally defective udders have a very
low success rate in raising lambs, and ewes with only one half affected (with teat injuries as
well as mastitis) lose a much higher proportion of lambs than ewes with normal udders
(18.5% vs 6.6%). Nevertheless, the presence of udder defects affecting only one half is not a
powerful predictor of success at lamb rearing and culling should be restricted to those ewes
with bilateral defects[67]. The other reason suggested for culling of mastitic ewes is to remove
a potential source of infection for other ewes but the organisms causing mastitis are generally
ubiquitous and there is no experimental evidence to support the recommendation.
Nevertheless, culling of ewes with discharging mammary abscesses should reduce the
contamination of ’camps’, where the flock congregates and lies at night.
Many udder defects and mastitides arise from injuries inflicted by the handpiece at shearing
and crutching. The risk of injury is obviously proportional to the number of shearing/crutching
events performed in the vicinity of the udder. Consequently, many producers request that
persons performing the crutching operation not remove wool from the udder.

Contagious agalactia

This disease occurs only in Mediterranean, Adriatic and African countries where it is of
considerable economic importance. It is not present in Australia, New Zealand, Britain or
USA. Any one of three species of mycoplasma are involved - M agalactiae, M mycoides
subsp mycoides and M capricolum. Ewes develop the disease soon after lambing and it
involves mastitis, arthritis and keratoconjunctivitis. The mastitis is acute and severe and leads
to total and permanent agalactia. The case fatality rate is between 10% and 30%[68].

Lamb management at and after marking

By definition, marking rate, as an index of reproductive efficiency, is determined at marking

time. Usually, lamb mortality rates between marking and weaning are low and the cause is
usually readily distinguishable from the multifactorial ’reproductive losses’ discussed so far.
Nevertheless, the job of reproducing the flock does not stop at marking and some
consideration should be given to management of lambs at and after marking. The task of
keeping young sheep alive does not stop at weaning either and Chapter 12 discusses weaner
management.
At marking, lambs are usually ear marked, tailed, mulesed, castrated if male, vaccinated with
all, some or none of CLA vaccine, a mixture of clostridial vaccines (with or without added
selenium), scabby mouth (CPD) vaccine, injected with vitamin B12 and dosed with
anthelmintic. The experience is a stressful one for lambs.
The variable need for and manner of administration of these treatments is discussed
elsewhere. Lamb mortalities and serious disease, particularly arthritis, do occur after marking
and mulesing but a prevalence over 5% is uncommon. The ewe and lamb flock should be
observed by the flock owner after marking but major disturbances of the flock should be
avoided to enable rapid healing of the mulesing wounds. The most common reasons for any
mustering and treatment after marking is for treatment/prevention of flystrike or helminth
parasites.
The nutritional requirements of the flock must be monitored after marking as was necessary
immediately after lambing. Despite the decline in energy requirements of the ewe for
lactation, the requirements for dietary energy and protein of the lambs is increasing and, if
more than 70% of the ewes rear lambs, the requirements of the flock will increase after
lambing to a peak at weaning as the lambs grow. This increase should always be
remembered when planning nutritional requirements for lambs and ewes - some advisers
mistakenly calculate requirements for lactation as requirements for ewes alone.

Diagnostic techniques used in the field

Veterinary examination of the rams

Veterinary examination of the ram team prior to joining normally occurs for one of two
reasons. First, on properties with good reproductive rates, annual or biennial inspection of the
ram team is one of the procedures which assists in maintaining the flock’s reproductive
performance. Second, in investigations of reproductive failures, examination of the rams is
often the first and simplest step. Several specific diseases which could influence libido and/or
semen production and quality can be detected during ram examination.
Inspection of a team of rams before mating involves an assessment of both their genital and
their general health. It is important to consider the general physical condition of the rams, their
age, their condition score, the soundness of their feet and their protection from flystrike
because these factors have a bearing on the ability of the rams to remain active and sexually
interested throughout the mating period. Protection by vaccination against clostridial wound
infection should be encouraged; the timing of husbandry procedures which might temporarily
reduce fertility should be discussed with the owner. Ram examination is best carried out about
8 weeks before joining; this allows time to adjust ram condition score and testes volume and
to buy in and acclimatize replacement rams.
Inspection of rams is generally confined to physical inspection of body condition and feet and
palpation of the external reproductive organs. More involved techniques, like semen collection
and evaluation and serving capacity[69][70] tests may have a place when single sire mating
groups are employed (usually only on studs) or in investigations of specific failures of
conception. The routine collection of semen is not warranted, because of the cost and the
lack of clear relationships between measured parameters in the ejaculate and good and poor
ram fertility (however, infertile rams can probably be identified). Serving capacity tests are
often advocated commercially, but their usefulness in most contexts remains questionable.
Palpation of the scrotal contents should include:

• measurement of scrotal circumference, as an indirect measurement of testicular

volume
• estimation of the firmness and resilience of the epididymal tails and testes[71]
• examination of the head and body of the epididymis to detect any abnormalities
• palpation of the spermatic cords and inguinal regions, to detect hernias, abscesses or
varicocoeles
• examination of the scrotum itself, particularly noting the presence of scrotal mange

It may also be desirable in particular cases to exteriorize the penis and examine the penis and
everted prepuce for evidence of injury or infection.

Using ram harnesses to measure mating activity

Regular observation of the joined flock will give a fair insight into the level of mating activity.
However, if considered necessary, good estimates of both flock breeding activity and fertility
can be obtained by the careful use of ram harnesses and crayons during joining (this
inexpensive equipment can also be used in some circumstances to diagnose pregnancy in
individual ewes - see later). The procedure recommended is usually as follows:
Harness the rams and record services during the first 18 days of joining. Yard and record
marked ewes at least once, preferably twice per week, and inspect the flock daily for lost
harnesses and crayons. Change the crayon colour on day 19 for the rest of the joining period
and continue observations. If joining in spring, it is better to change the crayon colour only
after the first 28 days of joining.
For autumn joinings, the proportion of ewes marked in the first 18 days measures mating
activity. Flock fertility is assessed from this proportion and the proportion of marked ewes
which are remarked after the first 18 days. Note that a source of error here is that ewes
marked with the first colour on day 18 may still be in oestrus on day 19 and be marked with
the second colour. The interpretation of flock crayon data is easiest for autumn joinings. When
ewes are joined out-of-season, the failure of some ewes to be remarked may denote a return
to anoestrus rather than conception. The data obtained with crayons have other uses. For
example, the flock can be subsequently divided into an ’early lambing’ and ’late lambing or
dry group’. However, bear in mind that the procedure outlined is laborious and hence costly,
and may significantly interfere with joining performance. Apart from the mustering and yarding
involved, harnesses can sometimes cause discomfort, sores and lameness in the rams.

Pregnancy testing

Pregnancy testing in Australian sheep flocks has 3 major roles.

• As a tool to investigate reproductive problems. Depending somewhat on the stage at

which pregnancy diagnosis is carried out, the techniques enable a clear separation
between problems associated with joining (pre-natal wastage) and perinatal lamb
loss. The techniques may also facilitate the identification of foetal loss in mid-late
pregnancy in flocks where abortion is a significant problem
• As a management tool o allow producers to separate multiple bearing ewes from
single bearing and non-pregnant ewes; to allow differential management, more
efficient use of feed and, if successful, a higher survival rate of twin-born lambs
• As a tool for veterinarians who carry out controlled breeding programmes (see
Chapter 8)

Ram harnesses

Ram harnesses and crayons are sometimes employed to diagnose pregnancy in individual
ewes. The technique cannot identify multiple bearing ewes from single bearing ewes but there
are occasions when it is useful to identify non-pregnant ewes and remove them from the
breeding flock. When crayons are used during joining, as previously discussed, the accuracy
of detection of pregnant ewes should be high. However, the accuracy of detection of
non-pregnant ewes is highly variable and commonly low, since marked ewes are not
necessarily pregnant. The use of crayons after joining can provide the basis of a relatively
inexpensive pregnancy diagnosis system. In this case harnessed vasectomized rams or
androgen-treated wethers are run with the flock for 20-30 days immediately after the end of
joining. If joining ends between early February and May the non-pregnant ewes should be
cycling and will be marked. However, if joining ends between June and January this technique
is not useful, since the non-pregnant ewes in the flock are probably in anoestrus.

Ultrasound pregnancy diagnosis

The diagnosis of both pregnancy and ewes bearing multiples is carried out by real-time
ultrasound. This technique enables rapid and reliable diagnoses. Both linear and sector
scanners can be suitable. Probes are usually applied externally to the abdominal wall, but
rectal probes may be used. High accuracies and reasonable speed are achieved only with
considerable experience. Ewes can be examined either standing or turned onto their backs
and using virtually any sheep handling system.
Some approximate accuracies of real-time ultrasound in relation to stage of pregnancy and
number of foetuses, and as obtained by skilled operators, are as shown in Table 7.7.
In the early stages fluid of the eveloping conceptus, or conceptuses, is the diagnostic
principle, whereas after days 45-50 cotyledons and bony structures of the foetuses (especially
rib cages and heads) are used.

Table 7.7 Approximate accuracies of real-time ultrasound

Number of Stage of pregnancy (days)

foetuses 40-47 54-70 80-100
0 100 100 100
1 95 99 99
2 650 90 90
overall 93 98 98

Accuracies are defined as correct scans/total scans x 100

As a non-pregnancy test ultrasound is extremely accurate. As a pregnancy test it should
become 99% accurate by about day 55, but the diagnosis of multiples takes considerably
more skill and accuracy peaks after day 55 at around 90%. Occasional operators may
achieve higher accuracies than those listed above, especially around day 40, but anecdotal
evidence suggests that the accuracy in diagnosing multiples amongst commercial operators
is sometimes lower than indicated above. There is a tendency to underestimate the number of
foetuses in ewes carrying multiples, especially in the case of triplets. In practice, commercial
operators prefer to test ewe flocks about 12 weeks after the commencement of joining (i.e.
with an autumn joining, when most ewes are about 65-85 days pregnant). Diagnosis later
than this remains accurate, but is less valuable, since less use can be made of the
information obtained.

The benefits of pregnancy testing

It is useful to consider separately the potential benefits of pregnancy (yes/no) diagnosis and
the diagnosis of multiples. Those for yes/no diagnosis include:
As a ’normal’ management tool —

• The more efficient use of resources allocated to lambing ewes, including feed,
 pre-lambing drenches, vaccination and crutching and saved or sheltered lambing
paddocks
• Increased management options; what can be done with the non-pregnant ewes?
• and as an investigatory tool -
• Monitoring reproductive performance and the causes of low lamb marking
percentages
• The subsequent detection of ewes which have lambed and lost their lambs is easier
and more accurate, especially when ’wet-and-drying’ cannot be performed until some
time after lambing

The potential benefits of the diagnosis of multiples largely apply only to its application as a
husbandry or management tool, and include:

• Better feeding of multiple bearing ewes leads to a reduction in lamb losses and in
ewe losses due to pregnancy toxaemia. However, several other production responses
to the extra feed are also important. Ewes with multiples should have better fleece
weights and less tender wool. Higher weaner and hogget weights and increased
weaner wool growth are achieved, mainly due to a marked reduction in the ’tail’ of
weaners born as multiples. Ironically, of these several production responses, the
reduction in lamb losses is sometimes the hardest to achieve, partly due to a marked
predator preference for lambs born as twins. Indeed, the advent of ultrasound
diagnosis has revealed that twinning rates in Merino flocks are often higher than was
previously appreciated
• Single bearing ewes, which will comprise the bulk of most Merino flocks, often require
less feed, with overall reduced feed costs and reduced dystocias and mismothering in
these ewes
• Option of culling single bearing or twin bearing ewes

Factors influencing the economics of real-time ultrasound

• The true reproductive status of the flock; it is likely to pay if empties exceed 10-20%
or if twins exceed 10-20%
• The accuracy of detection of dry ewes, ewes bearing singles and ewes bearing
multiples
• The extent of the various production responses achieved (number of extra lambs
saved, increased income from wool, etc.)
• The speed and cost of testing; skilled operators can diagnose pregnancy (yes/no)
and numbers of foetuses at rates of around 100-200 and 50 per hour, respectively
• An intangible benefit is often observed; a general lift in the quality of management
occurs, even if only to ensure that the benefits of ultrasound are realised by the client!

Sometimes the numbers of lambs born in flocks do not seem to closely approximate the
numbers of foetuses previously diagnosed. The possible explanations are:
 • poor accuracy of ultrasound diagnosis
• poor accuracy in counting lambs born (a major problem in larger flocks); or
• loss of foetuses subsequent to ultrasound diagnosis but before term (specific causes
of abortions have already been discussed)

Estimating lamb losses - the ’wet and dry’ technique

Estimates of losses based on observation of the lambing ewes are likely to be in considerable
error, especially in larger flocks. The most accurate measure available, especially where
many ewes have multiples, is the difference between the number of foetuses counted with
ultrasound and the number of lambs present at marking (corrected for ewe losses). However,
in most flocks, the veterinarian cannot make this calculation. A more simple procedure,
requiring no equipment but some experience, is wet-and-drying. In Merino flocks with
relatively few twinning ewes, this method can provide reasonably accurate estimates. The
lambed ewes are examined and scored as follows:
Dry ewes: significant udder development and tone and lambing stain are absent; usually
show better condition and fleeces.
Lambed ewes: enlarged udders; often show lambing stain on crutch; poorer fleeces and
condition.

• ewes rearing at least one lamb: full, resilient udders containing milk, skin of teats and
adjacent areas form clean ’spectacles’ and are soft and pliable as a result of the
lamb’s sucking activity
• ewes losing all lambs born: variable udder development, with a tendency to cleavage
between the two glands; teats stiff and dirty; udder secretion varies from normal milk
to thin, watery or viscous, honey-coloured fluid

There are some limitations to the procedure, as follows:

• It must be done within 4-5 weeks of birth

• The estimate of lamb losses is minimal; the method cannot take account of situations
where one or all of multiples die or of cross mothering
• It cannot distinguish between ewes which failed to establish pregnancy and those
which became pregnant but subsequently aborted
• Where the reproductive problem is sufficiently serious, ’wet and drying’ may be
combined with prior ultrasound diagnosis of the pregnant ewes. This also reduces the
need to ’wet and dry’ early after birth

The significance of low reproductive rates in self-replacing flocks

Reproductive rate and flock structure

To illustrate the relationship between RR and flock structure, consider a self-replacing flock
which is joined in February, lambs in July and in which lambs are marked in September and
weaned in October. Shearing occurs in November. In this flock, all wethers are sold after their
first adult shearing, at 16 months. The flock structures at 3 different times of the year are
shown in Tables 7.8, 7.9 and 7.10. The flock structure at joining is shown in Table 7.8. Note
that 1679 mixed age ewes are joined. To calculate marking percentage, consider the number
of lambs present at marking time, 7 months later (Table 7.9). 1176 lambs are marked and
1645 ewes are present. 1679 ewes were joined so 2% of ewes have died since joining.
Marking rate (LM/EJ) is 1176/1679 = 70%.
Assume that the previous year’s marking rate was the same. Of the 1176 lambs marked last
year, only 1058 are alive 1 year later. 10% of the young sheep have died between marking
and 14 months of age. The owner of the flock intends to sell the 5 yo ewes later in the year,
when the lambs are weaned and the ewes are shorn. To maintain the size of the breeding
ewe flock, the owner will select the best young ewes into the flock. This will also be done at
the time of shearing. Table 7.10 shows the number of ewes, hoggets and lambs present at
shearing.
391 old ewes will be leaving the flock but, to return the joining number back to 1679, it will be
necessary to select 439 young ewes into the flock to be joined for the first time in February.
524 young ewes are available. The best 84% (439/524) of young ewes will be selected. The
remaining 16% are generally, but not always, sold within a few weeks of shearing, as cull
hoggets. If they are not sold, they are run as ’dry ewes’ - and kept for wool production only,
like wethers.
524 young ewes are available to supply the 439 ewes necessary to maintain flock size. If the
weaning rate had been only 58% instead of 70%, insufficient young ewes would have been
available to maintain the size of the flock. In such a case, to maintain breeding ewe flock
would have necessitated either buying ewes or keeping and joining at least some of the 52 yo
ewes which, in the example above, were destined for sale as cast-for-age ewes (cfa ewes).

Table 7.8 Flock structure at joining

Weaners(7 12 yo 22 yo 32 yo 42 yo TOTAL
mo)
Breeding ewes 439 426 413 401 1679
Young ewes 541
Young wethers 541

Table 7.9 Flock structure at marking

Marked (2 Hoggets(14 2 yo 3 yo 4 yo 5 yo TOTAL

mo) mo)
Breeding ewes 430 417 405 393 1645
Young ewes 588 529
Young wethers 588 529

Table 7.10 Flock structure at shearing

Weaners (4 Hoggets(16 23 yo 33 yo 43 yo 53 yo TOTAL

mo) mo)
Breeding ewes 428 415 405 391 1637
Young ewes 576 524
Young wethers 576 524

The ability of the flock to replace itself without keeping ewes to high ages is influenced by the
survival rate of young ewes from marking to first joining, the survival rate of mature ewes in
the breeding flock, the frequency of breeding (the number of joining periods per year), the age
at first joining and the age of cfa ewes. RR and flock structure are inter-related. The range of
possible flock structures is limited by the RR.

Survival rates

Deaths between marking and weaning are generally low (less than 5%) but can be high when
nutrition and worm parasite control are inadequate. Management of Merino weaners from
weaning to 19 months (first joining age in most Merino flocks) is frequently problematic, and
Chapter 12 is devoted to the subject of weaner management. Losses of 10% in that year of
life are not unusual and have been used in the example given in Tables 7.8 to 7.10. For adult
ewes, losses of 3% per annum are typical.

Frequency of breeding, age at first joining

In Australia, commercial flocks virtually always lamb only once per year. Lambing every 8
months has been examined experimentally[72] but its success is usually limited by the large
variation in pasture supply within seasons. Ewe lambs may be joined (at 7 months of age) but
they have rarely reached puberty by that age. Exceptions occur when lambs (particularly
Xbred lambs) have grown rapidly to that age in particularly favourable districts. Sometimes,
ewes are not mated until 22 years of age, enabling them more opportunity to grow before first
joining and, for Merinos particularly, increasing the production of the valuable fleece of the
young ewe.

Age of cfa ewes

The factors determining the best age to sell old ewes are discussed more fully in Chapters 3
and 4. Normal lambing rates (75% to 85% lambs marked) dictate that ewes must remain for
at least 4 years in the breeding flock (4 lambings) and deteriorating survival rates, fleece
weight and fleece quality encourage their sale before 6 lambings, reproductive rates
permitting. On some Merino properties the oldest or even the two oldest ewe age groups are
joined to Border Leicester rams, in order to maximize crossbred lamb production from a
limited portion of the ewe flock. This strategy diversifies production opportunities but is likely
to reduce the quantity and/or the value of the flock’s wool production.

RR and possible flock structures

The major significance of low reproductive rates, therefore, is to limit the opportunities of the
flock owner to adopt profitable flock structures. Profit in Merino sheep production is strongly
correlated with the efficient production of high quality, low fibre diameter wool. As a general
rule, this objective is best met by maintaining in the flock a high proportion of young adult
sheep, a strategy which depends on efficient reproduction.

The physical consequences of increasing reproductive rate

When veterinarians are requested to investigate problems of low reproductive rates in self-
replacing flocks, it is useful to appreciate the physical and economic consequences of
producing a permanent increase in reproductive performance. This appreciation can assist
both the veterinarian and the client in determining how much effort and money should be
expended to investigate and correct the problem.
Producers react to year-to-year variation in RR by adjusting the sale numbers of cull ewe
hoggets, cfa ewes and wethers. When a persistent increase in RR occurs, producers can
adopt one of several strategies to accommodate the increase in young sheep present and the
increased nutritional requirements of the more fertile and more fecund ewe flock. In self-
replacing flocks, a higher number of lambs weaned leads to a larger hogget flock because
Merino lambs are rarely sold at lamb weaning age (there are limited marketing opportunities
for small drafts of Merino lambs). Producers can either reduce the number of wethers present
or reduce the number of ewes present. Because more wethers are present per ewe bred, the
producer may opt to increase wether numbers and reduce ewe numbers even further.
Alternatively, pasture area can be expanded or supplementary feed increased.
A further alternative is to allow stocking rate to rise as a consequence of higher RR. Although
this is sometimes an appropriate strategy, it is not the only way to increase stocking rate and
probably not the most profitable. It is important, when we evaluate a proposed increase in RR,
that we do so under the system which is optimal for the client. This usually precludes
increasing stocking rate, increasing pasture area or increasing supplementation. For the usual
case, which is discussed here, it is best to consider that increasing RR will lead to changes in
flock structure, reduction of adult ewe numbers and increases in sale sheep numbers.
Under these conditions, the potential benefits from increasing RR of sheep include

• more young animals are produced per ewe mated, so sales of young animals are
increased
• more wethers are produced per ewe mated, so fewer ewes are necessary to maintain
a wether flock of given size
• more young animals are shorn, and young adult sheep (hoggets) normally have the
highest priced wool within the flock
• in self-replacing flocks, more ewe hoggets are available as breeding ewe
replacements. This increase can be used to
• cull older ewes from the flock at a younger age
• select hoggets with higher selection intensity. In stud flocks, this increased selection
intensity may add to rates of genetic gain, particularly if applied to ram hoggets. In
commercial flocks, it will apply only to ewe hoggets and will add to the merit of the
current generation of sheep and add very slightly to the merit of the next 3 or 4
generations of sheep (see Chapter 5)
The potential disadvantages from increasing RR include

• fewer adult cfa sheep are available for sale, because fewer adults are present
• fewer adult sheep are shorn, reducing wool income from the most efficient wool
growers
• if the RR is already ’normal’ (>80%), extra lambs weaned will result mainly from an
increase in the number of twin births. The consequences of this are discussed
elsewhere

Many of the benefits of increased RR are reduced substantially by the disadvantagess. The
extra wool of high value from the extra hoggets and from the extra selection pressure on ewe
hoggets is balanced by the reduction in total wool weight from the smaller ewe flock and the
greater maternal production handicaps from extra lamb rearing. Benefits are, however,
significant when initial marking rate is low, particularly because the improvements from a low
level flow primarily from increased fertility and/or lamb survival rather than increased
fecundity.

Effect of increased RR on flock structure

To calculate the effect that a permanent change of 10% in marking rate has on flock structure,
it is necessary to calculate the DSE value of the flock in the most feed limiting month of the
year. Referring back to Table 7.9 and assuming that the July-August stocking rates limit the
total flock size, 1645 early lactating ewes (about 65% of them lactating, 35% of them dry) at
an average of 1.6 DSE[3][*] per ewe plus 1058 hoggets at 1 DSE, the total winter grazing
pressure is 3680 DSE.
If the marking rate were to rise to 80%, the equivalent stocking rate, in DSE/ha, consists of
1522 ewes and 1118 hoggets. Tables 7.11, 7.12 and 7.13 illustrate the new flock structure.
Marking rate is now 80%, instead of 70%. Compared to the flock structure associated with the
lower RR, fewer ewes have been joined (1553 instead of 1679) but 1242 lambs have been
marked instead of 1176. Winter stocking rates are the same (3680 DSE) so the two systems
are comparable on a stocking rate basis (DSE/ha). The increase in RR has definitely
produced more lambs but only 52% more, despite marking rate increasing from 70% to 80%.
Fewer ewes are run in order to accommodate (ie, to feed at pasture) the extra pregnant ewes,
the extra multiple-bearing ewes, the extra lactating ewes and the extra weaners present in
winter.

Effect of increased RR on ewe hogget selection intensity

Earlier reference was made to the increased selection pressure which can be applied to ewe
hoggets in self-replacing flocks. In the example in Table 7.10, the proportion selected at the
low RR was 84%. At the high RR, the proportion selected will be 73% (Table 7.13). The
producer has the opportunity to be more selective about the quality of ewe hoggets which are
retained as future breeders. This advantage is often greatly over-rated by producers and
some advisers, who fail to recognise that there is a very limited genetic influence on future
generations from selection of females in flocks which purchase rams from other (stud) flocks.
The effect exists, but is small and, unlike permanent genetic gain, does not accumulate after
3 or 4 generations. The mechanism is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.
There is also a small current generation gain in productivity from the selection process. This
arises from the fact that some of the phenotypic superiority in fleece value (if that is the
selection criterion) of the selected ewe hoggets is repeated at future shearings.

Table 7.11 : Flock structure at joining with higher RR (cf Table 7.8)

Weaners(7 12 yo 22 yo 32 yo 42 yo TOTAL
mo)
Breeding ewes 406 394 382 371 1553
Young ewes 572
Young wethers 572

Table 7.12 Flock structure at marking with higher RR (cf Table 7.9)

Marked (2 Hoggets(14 2 yo 3 yo 4 yo 5 yo TOTAL

mo) mo)
Breeding ewes 398 386 374 364 1522
Young ewes 621 559
Young wethers 621 559

Table 7.13 Flock structure at shearing with higher RR (cf Table 7.10)

Weaners (4 Hoggets(16 23 yo 33 yo 43 yo 53 yo TOTAL

mo) mo)
Breeding ewes 396 384 372 362 1514
Young ewes 613 554
Young wethers 613 554

The economic consequences of increasing reproductive rate

Figure 7.4 The relationship between RR and GM (ignoring the cost of achieving an
increased RR)

Under Australian conditions, increases in marking rate over 85% have generally small
benefits but increases can be of significant value when the current rate is less than 70%,
principally because of the effect on the age structure of the breeding ewe flock. As discussed
earlier, the value of wool production from Merino ewes declines past 3 to 4 years and the
optimum age for selling Merino ewes is after 3, 4 or 5 lamb crops under a wide range of
conditions. Low reproductive rates require that ewes be kept beyond this optimum age in
order to breed sufficient replacements. A significant part of the rapidly declining profit when
RR falls below 60% to 65% is the need to run older ewes or to buy young ewe replacements.
In flocks where wethers are kept beyond 12 years of age, another effect of increased RR is to
enable a change in the balance of the flock away from ewes and towards wethers. Under
economic conditions which favour wool production over lamb production, increased RR has a
higher value in flocks which maximise wether numbers because the higher RR allows fewer
ewes (which are more expensive to keep than wethers and produce less wool, both per head
and per hectare) to be kept and more wethers to be kept.
The relationship between RR and indices of whole farm profit (like gross margin per hectare)
is illustrated in Figure 7.4. Assuming RR increases occur with no specific (direct) cost, as RR
increases profit increases but at a decreasing rate. Note also that the slope of the relationship
is higher for flocks in which a greater proportion of income is derived from stock sales[73].

The consequences of increasing reproductive rates above ’normal’

levels

Veterinarians are sometimes asked to advise on ways to increase RR in flocks where it is

already ’normal’ or ’adequate’ and the flock management is basically sound. Under these
conditions, further increases in RR are usually associated with increases in the number of
twin births and/or twin pregnancies in the flock. There are a few important consequences of
increasing RR to high levels which are additional to those just discussed.

Ewe management at high reproductive rates

Increases in lambing rate come about from increases in the proportion of pregnant ewes and
an increase in the incidence of multiple pregnancies. Ewes with multiple pregnancies are
more difficult to manage than single bearing ewes and more prone to pregnancy toxaemia.
Multiple pregnancy and, more particularly, multiple suckling reduce fleece weight and wool
quality. Lactation with a single lamb reduces annual wool production by 12% to 15%. Multiple
suckling ewes lose more weight during lactation than single suckling ewes and are,
consequently, at increased risk of intercurrent disease. The cost of managing breeding ewe
flocks rises when the proportion of multiple bearing ewes in the flock increases. The extra
difficulty in managing twin-bearing ewes is sometimes used to justify the use of ultrasound
pregnancy testing so that multiple bearing ewes can be managed separately from single
bearing ewes. The cost of pregnancy testing must be included, then, in estimates of the costs
of managing highly fecund flocks if pregnancy testing is considered necessary.

Lamb survival at high reproductive rates

A higher proportion of twin-born lambs die than single-born lambs. In one experiment in
western Victoria[74], treatments which successfully increased lambing rate and the number of
ewes bearing multiples had no effect on weaning rate because of the high death rate (29%) of
multiple born lambs. Even when treatment successfully increases weaning rate, the cost, in
terms of lost production from multiple-bearing ewes which then do not raise two lambs, may
be high.

Lamb growth rates at high reproductive rates

Twin raised lambs have slower growth rates than single raised lambs, and this has
implications for marketing of prime lambs and for the management of Merino and Merino type
weaners. In prime lamb flocks, slow growing lambs are more likely to miss early sales, which
often have higher prices, and are likely to be older, with longer wool, and leaner, than faster
grown flock- mates. This latter feature may become less important as the objective
description of prime lambs becomes more widely accepted but, in more traditional markets
there is a price discount for lambs which lack ’bloom’. Additionally, slowly grown lambs are
more likely to fail to achieve market weight before the growing season ends, necessitating
more expensive forms of feeding to achieve market weights or, alternatively, an extended stay
on the property. In SR flocks, more slowly grown lambs will be lighter when the pasture
growing season ends, necessitating earlier and more extended supplementary feeding and
involving a higher risk of mortality. It is likely that twin raised lambs are over-represented in
drafts of cull hoggets and are herefore sold at discounted prices.

Economic considerations of high reproductive rates

There are very few field studies of the economic benefits of increasing RR of sheep. Obst and
Thompson (1984)[75] found that a 40% increase in weaning rate had a negative effect on nett
income per hectare in 1982 and, in 1983, a positive effect of $7 to $25 per hectare, $1.43 to
$4.40 per ewe. Studies conducted with computer models are usually in general agreement
with these estimates. White (1984)[76] estimated that a 10% increase in lamb numbers was
worth $1.30 to $0.43 per ewe (decreasing with increasing stocking rate); Morrison and Young
(1991)[77] estimated a benefit of $1.80 per ewe per 10% increase in lambing rate; for the
same increase Morley and Peart (1988)[78] predicted an extra $7 to $9 per ha at stocking
rates of 9 and 132 DSE/ha.
The inescapable conclusion is that increasing RR is profitable provided little money is spent
per ewe to achieve it. One also concludes that increases are more likely to be profitable when
RR is low, say less than 70%, than when high, say over 85% and more likely in flocks where a
higher proportion of income is derived from the sale of sheep relative to wool income, and
when prices for livestock are high.
It is instructive to consider if any of the following methods which might be employed to
increase weaning rates could be effected for less than $1.00 per ewe for a 10% gain in
weaning rate.

• Use of ’Fecundin’ or ’Regulin’ (see Chapter 8)

 • Additional supplementary feed to prevent weight loss or to increase liveweight
• Specific supplementation with high protein feed at joining
• Lowering stocking rate to improve nutrition
• Change of genotype to a more fecund strain/bloodline
• Improvements in animal health and grazing management which simultaneously
improve RR and other production parameters, such as wool production

Under Australian conditions the last of these has the greatest potential for successful adoption
because, when RR is low due to management problems, it is often very low and because
extra income will often flow from other sources, particularly improved wool income, when
management problems are corrected. Consequently, veterinarians are usually asked to assist
producers to raise RR in their flocks when husbandry strategies, predation, nutritional
management or disease factors have caused RR to fall to low levels.
Strategies aimed directly at improving RR only, such as using Fecundin, Regulin or nutritional
supplementation at joining, should only be employed when RR is already as high as ’normal’
good management will allow. Such strategies should not be employed to compensate for
failures in other areas - such as poor grazing management affecting ewe nutritional status,
peri-natal lamb death rates or poor weaner management. They are unlikely to work well and
may even exacerbate the management problems. Such strategies, somewhat paradoxically,
should only be employed when RR is already relatively high. Great care should be taken
when considering changes in stocking rate to improve RR. Both RR and fleece weights are
very sensitive to stocking rate but the positive economic response to changes in RR is likely
to be much smaller than the negative response in wool cut per hectare. One should also
remember that increases in stocking rate will reduce production parameters recorded on a per
head basis, like RR and fleece weight, but production parameters recorded on a per hectare
basis, such as lambs per hectare and kg of wool per hectare, are likely to increase until
stocking rates are very high. Economic analyses of these relationships are relatively complex
and are often approached by using computer models.

Investigation of low reproductive rates

When asked to investigate a problem of low RR, the first actions which can be taken depend
on the time of the year that the client reports the problem and requests assistance. In most
cases of a novel failure, owners discover the problem at lambing or marking. Uncommonly, if
an abortion outbreak occurs, aborted foetuses or ewes with retained membranes are
observed. Even less commonly, in cases of fertilization failure, ewes returning to service in
abnormally large numbers are detected. Much more commonly, flock owners do not become
aware of a problem until lambing time arrives or low marking rates are computed. In cases of
chronically low weaning rate, the request for assistance could occur at any time in the
reproductive cycle.
Two factors determine the course of action to take. First, the point in the reproductive cycle at
which the producer requests an investigation limits the activities which can be undertaken at
that time. Second, a good history, knowledge of the farm in question or, perhaps, just one
farm visit, will allow a tentative diagnosis to be made. This will allow the preparation of a list of
preferred steps for the investigation. The investigation should then be carried out in a logical
progression pursuing first the avenues most likely to confirm the diagnosis, but opportunities
to perform other diagnostic activities should not be totally ignored. Reproductive events, and
the relevant diagnostic actions, can only be carried out at one point in every year and the
opportunity to take some specific actions should not be missed, even if out of logical order of
diagnostic possibilities.
Once a tentative diagnosis is made, preventive action should be put in place for the following
year. This preventive action may be successful but may also prevent confirmation of the
diagnosis. Although this is not entirely satisfying for the veterinarian, it is preferable to
allowing another year of poor reproduction to occur just so that the diagnosis can be
confirmed.

Deciding if there is a ’problem’

Producers often believe they have a reproductive rate problem in their flocks by comparing
their weaning or marking percentage to the figures reported by their peers and neighbours.
The consulting veterinarian must decide if the ’problem’ is real or perceived only. Reference
has already been made (Chapter 3) to the sensitivity of reproductive rate to stocking rate. A
producer who has a higher stocking rate than his neighbours can expect lower reproductive
rates. It may still require an investigation to demonstrate that the reproductive rate is normal
for the conditions under which the flock is managed, even though the subsequent
recommendation is that no action be taken. A weaning rate which may be acceptable and
’normal’ on one property may be correctly considered too low and a ’problem’ on another. For
example, a breeder of South Australian Merinos in southern Australia reported a
’disappointing’ weaning rate of 75%. Such a result may be considered acceptable under
certain conditions. Subsequent investigations revealed that the ewes were joined in April - the
height of the breeding season - and were in high body condition score (3 to 32) at joining.
Considering these factors, the history did suggest that one or more specific factors were
operating to depress reproductive rates. In fact, the ewes were joined while grazing dryland
lucerne which had very high coumestan levels (see phyto-oestrogenism). A small change in
grazing management resulted in 20% improvement in weaning rate.

Calculation of expected lambing performance

It is possible to calculate the expected lambing performance of a sheep flock. Where the
season of mating and the duration of joining are known and the management of joining,
pregnancy and lambing are adequate, reasonably precise estimates can be made. The point
of this exercise is to provide a baseline from which to judge whether a particular client is
experiencing a significant reproductive problem. As an example, consider the case of an
autumn-joined Merino flock where the joining period is equal to one, two or three oestrous
cycles. Reasonable assumptions for the particular district are as follows:
Percent ewes cycling $95%
Conception rate to one oestrus 70%
Mean number of lambs born per lambing ewe 1.1
Percent lambs lost 12%
The calculations are as follows:
Duration of joining % ewes lambing % lambs born % lambs marked
one cycle (22 weeks) 67* 74 65
two cycles (5 weeks) 89** 98 86
three cycles (8 weeks) 96 106 93
*70% of 95%; ** 67% plus 70% of 95% of 33%
Note the assumption in these calculations that the conception rate remains at about 70% in
ewes which did not conceive to the first cycle. At least in larger, commercial flocks infertility
seems largely transient and the incidence of ewe sterility (permanent infertility) seems quite
low.
If the actual reproduction performance in your client’s flock is, say, 15-20% below this
estimated performance, you might conclude that a reproductive problem exists.

Planning an investigation of reproductive failure

Initial history collection and on-farm investigation should be directed at identifying in broad
terms the stage of the reproductive cycle where the failure has occurred. The type of further
diagnostic action is based on the outcome of initial categorisation. Figure 7.5 illustrates how a
few initial conclusions can identify the area for more detailed investigations.
Some of the specific diagnostic procedures used for investigating reproductive failure were
reviewed in detail from page 143 on. At any time, the procedures which can be carried out are
determined by the stage of the reproductive cycle. As mentioned above, procedures cannot
always be carried out in order of ’most likely cause’. Sometimes the approach has to
incorporate some procedures which are unlikely to lead to diagnostic success but the
opportunity is presented at the time. For example, it would be unwise to avoid an examination
of the rams pre-joining when the opportunity presents, just because the history strongly
suggests lamb predation. The client should be made aware of the likelihood that the
veterinary procedure is useful and the cost of it. The client might, for example, approve a 4
hour ram examination but decline a 4 day session of pregnancy testing. Figure 7.6 tabulates
the temporal relationship between reproductive events and veterinary diagnostic procedures.

History collection

This is one of the most important tools for investigating reproductive losses. Skill and
experience are necessary to know what information the owner can provide which is reliable
and meaningful. Ram joining percentages and marking percentages by paddock are usually
reliable. History of bodyweights, pregnancy testing results et cetera are rarely available when
problems are first reported but useful information can be collected by asking questions about
the season, condition of the sheep and by using one’s own knowledge about the farm and
area. The collection of history effectively becomes an epidemiological investigation and
should be planned carefully with the objective of forming a list of differential diagnoses. Based
on the presumptive diagnosis, decisions for corrective action can be made. If the initial
diagnosis and subsequent actions are correct, diagnostic procedures performed subsequently
may not detect a problem.
Figure 7.5 The categorisation of reproductive failure. Investigations should aim first to
identify the general area in which reproduction is failing. Subsequent investigation will
then differentiate between the specific causes.

Ram pre-joining examinations

See page 143. The rams should be examined as soon as history collection suggests that
reproductive failure could possibly be associated with ram infertility. The less time that has
elapsed between joining and examination, the more likely that the problem can be identified
as a ram problem. Unfortunately, rams lose much condition over the period of joining,
restricting the conclusions which can be drawn if they are low in condition score. Lameness,
infectious or traumatic lesions of the epididymis or other disorders of the genitalia can be
detected by clinical examination, supported by laboratory aids where necessary. Semen
examination for live/dead sperm counts may be useful where one particular animal is suspect.
Rams may still bear evidence of flystrike or other insults when examined several months after
joining and history will help decide if any husbandry procedures before joining contributed to
temporary ram infertility.

Ewe pre-joining examinations

When ewe flocks are inspected before joining, a sample should be condition scored and, if
possible, weighed. A sample size of 50 is generally adequate. Estimates of subsequent
ovulation rate and pregnancy rate can be based on condition score, the age and breed of the
ewes and the time of joining.

Assessment of nutrition at joining

For many conditions, particularly nutritional ones, the circumstances operating when the ewes
or rams are examined in the pre-joining period after the failure in RR has been detected are
not the same as those operating preceding the failure. Consequently, attempts to
retrospectively diagnose the nutritional state of the flock are very important. The pre-joining
examination in the subsequent year is, however, still essential because (a) the flock may
again be in poor nutritional state or (b) the flock may be in adequate nutritional state and the
reproductive failure still occur again. The assessment should include pasture availability,
pasture quality, estimated intake of pasture and supplementary feed and a comparison of that
to energy and protein requirements for bodyweight maintenance. Ideally, bodyweights and
rate of change of bodyweights (from 2 records 2-3 weeks apart) should be recorded.

Using harnesses on rams and pregnancy testing

These techniques were discussed in detail on previous pages.

Flock and farm inspections during pregnancy

The ewe flock and their pasture can be inspected during pregnancy to determine the need for
supplementation.

Flock and farm inspections at lambing time

Assess environmental conditions, protection afforded by topography or vegetation, proximity

to predator habitats, management practices which might disturb bonding. Collect dead lambs.
Estimate the prevalence of mis-mothered lambs which are still alive. Assess the maternal
behaviour of lambing and just-lambed ewes. Dogs should not be present during this
inspection.

Wet and dry ewes

The technique and its application were described on previous page 147.

Figure 7.6 The timing of reproductive investigations. Points of the reproductive cycle at
which specific investigations can occur (Click on hte image below for a larger picture
Assess lamb growth at marking and weaning
If ewes are satisfactorily nourished, single lambs should grow at the rate of 200 g/day to 6
weeks of age (Merino ewes and lambs) or more for crossbred ewes. The proportion of ’poddy’
lambs - those with marked rumen development indicating insufficient milk supply - should be
< 5%. The mean weight of a random draft of, say, 50 lambs at weaning provide an objective
measure of ewe nutrition during late pregnancy and lactation. ’Target’ weaning weights are
not appropriate in Australia (if anywhere!) because they ignore the large variation in pasture
availability from year to year which is a feature of the Australian climate. The mean weight
should be considered in relation to the age and breed of the ewe, the prevalence of twins, the
age of the lambs and the quality of the season’s pasture growth. Corrective action should be
taken if the mean weight of 11 week old Merino lambs is significantly less than 16kg with no
obvious explanation in the history of the previous season.

Differential diagnosis of reproductive problems

Postnatal lamb deaths (Lambs dying after 7 days)

The major causes to differentiate are early cessation of lactation due to malnutrition or
parasitism (or both) of ewes, other diseases of ewes or primary diseases of lambs (such as
white muscle disease) or mis-management which has resulted in separation of ewes and
lambs.

Perinatal lamb deaths

Perinatal lamb deaths should be broadly differentiated into those associated with
undernutrition of ewes (slow births, low birthweights, failure of ewe-lamb bonding,
mismothering, failure to initiate lactation) and which may at times be associated with
pregnancy toxaemia in ewes, those caused by primary predation, or severely adverse
environmental conditions, management factors which impair maternal behaviour or other
causes as discussed earlier in the chapter. Dystocia is a common cause of lamb death in
some breeds (Dorset Horn and other British breeds) and in some forms of phyto-
oestrogenism. It can also occur when lambs are very heavy (excessive nutrition of ewes) or
when ewes are weak (undernutrition of ewes). Autopsy of lambs is a powerful diagnostic aid.

Abortion

Losses of lambs (foetuses) between implantation and term are nearly always infectious.
Outbreaks of abortion in ewes are uncommon in Australia but do occur, particularly when
ewes are managed at high stocking densities in rotational grazing systems. The differential
diagnosis was discussed in detail earlier in the chapter.

Ewes mated but infertile or of low ovulation rate

The differential diagnosis of infertility in cases where ewes have been mated by apparently
sound rams, but are not pregnant at pregnancy testing, includes phyto-oestrogenism, low
bodyweights at joining, particularly in maiden ewes, and selenium deficiency (see Chapter
11).

Ewes mated; ram infertility

If ewes have been mated but have had lower than expected pregnancy rates, ram fertility
should be suspected. Both deficiencies of general health (very low condition score) and
specific genital diseases (such as ovine brucellosis) may reduce ram fertility. If rams are
overworked, the frequency of mating of ewes declines with possible effects on fertility.

Failure to mate; ewe anoestrus, insufficient rams

If ewes were not mated but the rams were sound at joining, one should consider the season
of joining in relation to the breed and age of the ewes especially where British breed or XB
ewes or British breed rams are employed. In the case of Merinos, activity is low in the earlier
half of the non-breeding season. Bodyweight at joining, particularly of maidens, is important.
Low bodyweight of mature ewes does not lead to anoestrus unless the ewes are extremely
low in condition. Ewes will display post-partum anoestrus for 50 days or mor[72][79]. If ram
numbers are very low some ewes may not be mated at all.

Failure to mate; ram factors

Failure of rams to mate is a rare occurrence and, when it occurs, is usually related to physical
disability such as lameness or flystrike. Clinical examination of the rams may detect ongoing
problems or allow a retrospective diagnosis. Libido testing of rams (serving capacity test) in
pens has been suggested but the specificity of the test is low. Rams are dissuaded from
mating ewes which are freshly shorn. Maiden rams are often inexperienced and, if mated to
maiden ewes, mating activity may be significantly reduced.
Recommended reading

Galloway DB (1983) Reproduction in the ram In Sheep Production and Preventive Medicine,
University of Sydney Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, Proceedings No 67 p
163
Beveridge WIB (1983) Ovine brucellosis In Bacterial Diseases of Cattle, Sheep and Goats,
Australian Agricultural Health and Quarantine Service/Australian Government Publishing
Service, Canberra (Animal Health in Australia vol 4) p 26
Beveridge WIB (1983) Infection with Actinobacillus seminis as above, p 8
Plant JW (1981) Field Investigations into Reproductive Wastage in Sheep In Sheep,
University of Sydney Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science, Proceedings No 58,
p 411
Rahaley RS (1988) Diseases of the Reproductive and Urinary Tracts In Sheep Health and
Production, University of Sydney Post-graduate Committee in Veterinary Science,
Proceedings No 110, p 49
West DM (1990) Metabolic diseases of Sheep, University of Sydney Post-graduate
Committee in Veterinary Science, Proceedings No 141, p 63
Foot JZ (1983) Nutrition of ewes Pre- and Post-Lambing, University of Sydney Post-graduate
Committee in Veterinary Science, Proceedings No 67, p 267

General References

Alexander G (1984) Constraints to lamb survival In Reproduction in Sheep eds DR Lindsay &
DT Pearce, Aust Acad of Sci Canberra, p 199
de B Blockey MA (1983) Mating management of rams University of Sydney Post-graduate
Committee in Veterinary Science, Proceedings No 67, p 119
Dun RB (1964) Skin folds and Merino breeding 1 The net reproductive rates of flocks
selected for and against skin fold Aust J Exp Agric Anim Husb 4 p 376
Edey TN (1969) Prenatal mortality in sheep : a review Anim Breed Abst 37 p 173
Egan AR (1984) Nutrition for reproduction In Reproduction in Sheep eds DR Lindsay & DT
Pearce, Aust Acad of Sci, Canberra, p 262
Fairnie I (1988) Practical ewe fertility Postgraduate Committee in Veterinary Science,
University of Sydney, Proceedings No 110, p 475
Fletcher IC (1971) Effects of nutrition, liveweight and season on the incidence of twin
ovulation in South Australian strong-wool Merino ewes Aust J Agric Res 22 p 321
Fowler DG (1984) Reproductive behaviour of rams In Reproduction in Sheep eds DR Lindsay
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[*] See Chapter 18 for a more detailed discussion of this disease in wethers.
[**] The pathogenesis of Br ovis for ewes will be discussed in the section on abortion
[***] An empirical calculation is used here; the DSE value of the ewe flock is 1 DSE for every
ewe present plus 0.85 for every lamb present. 1 + 0.85 x 0.7 = 1.595
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