QualitativeResearch Methods

DeboraA.Paterniti,Ph.D.
CenterforHealthServicesResearchin PrimaryCare
DepartmentsofInternalMedicine&Sociology DepartmentsofInternalMedicine&Sociology

theory

empirical generalizations empirical observations

hypotheses

PartI:ResearchDesign PartI:ResearchDesign

purposeofqualitativemethods
toprovideanopenended,indepthexploration ofanaspectoflife tofocusattentiononaparticularexperience togainaspecificpersonsorgroupsinsights aboutanexperience

purposeofqualitativemethods
toelicitsubjectiveworldviewsofan experience togainanindepthunderstandingofthenature ofsocialsettingsandbehaviorsfromthe nativestandpoint

modesofdatacollection

intensiveinterviewing focusgroupsinterviews fieldresearch casestudies discourse/conversationalanalysis discourse/conversationalanalysis

intensiveinterviewing
anopenended,directedconversationthat exploresaparticipantsdeep,firsthand knowledge focusesonlivedexperience emphasizessensemaking anindepthandintimatediscussionbeyond whatordinaryconversationalconventionsand etiquettepermit

focusgroups
asmallgroupdiscussion guidedbyasetofresearchquestionsthat exploreattitudes,values,andbehaviors emphasizingaparticulartopicorevent homogenousyetdiversegroup leadbyatraineddiscussionleader leadbyatraineddiscussionleader

fieldresearch
prolongedobservationinvolvingspecific contexts,persons,orbehaviors entryintotheworldsofpersonsand behaviorsofinterest anattempttounderstandaparticularaspectof thelivedexperiencefromtheperspectiveof thosewholiveit

nonprobabilitysamplingstrategies
conveniencesamplingeaseofavailability snowballsamplingselectionofadditional peopleforinterviewingbasedonprevious interviews purposefulsamplingjudgmentaboutwhich mightbethemostusefulorrepresentative quotasamplingspecifiedcharacteristics knowntoberepresentativeofthe population

findingparticipants
invitationbymailortelephone contactperson(e.g.,physician) targetedgroups(e.g.,churches) postedflyers newspaperandradioadvertisements wordofmouth
Participantdriven Researcherdriven

selectingsettings&behaviors
PRIVATE

secretive nonsecretive

PUBLIC

barrierstosubjectparticipation
traveltotheresearchsite opinionsoffamily,friends,orexperts experts timingofintervieworobservations settingrelatedconstraints(gatekeepers) setting Hawthorneeffect researcherknowledge&status researcherknowledge&status

PartII:DataCollection PartII:DataCollection

agentsofdatacollection agentsofdatacollection

generalguidingquestions
typesandmeanings
whatisthis?whatdoesthismean?

structures
whatarethecontextsthatgivethismeaning?

processes
howdoesthiscometohavemeaning? howdoesthiscometohavemeaning?

datacollectionstrategies
askingquestions
phrasingquestions openendedquestions open askparticipantstothinkback avoidaskingwhy why keepquestionssimple becautiousaboutgivingexamples becautiousaboutgivingexamples

strategiesforcollectingdata
interactionalstyle
beconversational beclear allowsufficienttimeforresponses usewhatworks recognizethelimits

observingbehavior
takenotesonthegrouporsettingdynamic notelimitationsofrecordingdevices notelimitationsofrecordingdevices

typesofinterviewquestions
opening&introductoryquestions
tellusabout. tellusabout whenyouhear. whenyouhear

transitionquestions
whathaveyoudone. whathaveyoudone howdidyoucometo. howdidyoucometo

keyquestions
whatwerethemostimportant. whatwerethemostimportant

endingquestions
ofallofthethingsthatyoudescribed. ofallofthethingsthatyoudescribed .

formsofqualitativedata
transcriptsofinterviews audiorecordedconversations audio notatedobservationsmadeduringinterviewsor inaspecificsetting picturesorvideosofsocialgroupdynamicsor behaviorsincontext behaviorsincontext

examples:interview&focusgroupdata
whatdoesthismean? howdoesitcometohavemeaning? meaning
whatdoeshavingadiagnosismean?

processes
howdoesthediagnosiscometohavemeaning? howdoesthediagnosiscometohavemeaning?

interviewtranscriptexcerpt
whenIwasfirstdiagnosed,myphysician,she uh,Mr.[X],youhavecancerononeside Mr.[X],youhave cancer ofyourprostate,notwosides.Ittakemefor ofyourprostate,no ashockatthatmoment.Imafirmbeliever ashockatthatmoment.I thatyoudontworryaboutanythingthatyou thatyoudon cantdoanythingabout.{cough} can thenIwentdownandpickedupsomeliterature causeIreallywasnteducatedonprostate causeIreallywasn cancer,anduhitwasverylimitedanyway.I cancer,anduh startedreadinit,andwenthomeanddiscussed readin itwithmywifeandIhaveasoninlaw,hes itwithmywife andIhaveason in law,he adoctor,andtheymadememakethe decision.(CancerDecisionmakingProject,ACS) decision (CancerDecision makingProject,ACS)

focusgrouptranscriptexcerpt
P1: ya know,Iwas lookin forthesideeffects, ya know, causelikeItoldyallinthebeginning,Iwas, Idontknowaboutthismedication itsisit gonna makemeworse?ButImean,ithelpedme P2: Let,letmeaskaquestion[of] erybody:didthe diagnosisscareyall? P3:..yeah P4: itscaredtheshititscaredme. P1:itdidmecauseIhadknownthatIhadsomerisky behaviorsIhaveknowntherewasachanceofthis [P2:yeah],soIdidnt freakoutbutofcourse,you faceadeathsentence,its gonna scareanybody.
(ComboAntiretroviralAdherenceProject,VAfocusgroup)

examples:fieldresearchdata
whatisthenatureofthisplace? nature structures
whatarethecontextsthatgiveinstitutionallife meaning? meaning?

fieldnoteexcerpt
Colorlesspaintandfadedwallpaperprovidedthebackdropfor dozensofbodiesseatedintheopenentryway.Anolderman withdarkskinsattiedinhiswheelchairwithathreeinch webbedbeltsurroundinghimhehadwethispants.Thesight ofhispantsintensifiedthesmellofurine. Themanattemptedtomovehimselfdownoneofthemany corridorswithhisrightleg,castingitoutinfrontofhimand pullingbackasheleanedforwardinafeebleefforttomovehis bodywiththeaidofachair,stoppinghischairnexttothepost whereIstood.AsItriedtogetmybearings,hetriedto maintainhisbalance.Hetookacoupleofdeepbreaths,then loudlyclearedhisthroat,spittingatthepostasImovedpast him. Awomanscreamed,andIlookedaroundatotherswhoseemed deaforaccustomedtothenoise.Iheardthemanbehindme begintoclearhisthroatagainasIdisappearedbehindthe heavywoodendoormarkedStaffOnly.(JContEthn2000)

assessingdatacollection
describecontextandstructureofthesituation recordobservationsofparticipants assessqualityofthedata evaluaterelativeusefulnessofguiding questions acknowledgeareasofdifficulty

PartIII:DataAnalysis PartIII:DataAnalysis

dataanalysisprocess
organizingandsortingdata
developingcategoriesfromorganizationalunits developingcategoriesfromquestionsabout meanings,structures,andprocesses

codingdata
whatisthis?whatdoesitrepresent? whatdoiseegoingonhere?whatarepeople doing?whatishappening?whatkindsofevents areatissue? whatisthisanexampleof?howisitrelatedto otherthings? otherthings?

dataanalysisprocess
continuousidentificationandcomparison retrievingandexaminingdata
identifyingmeaningfulunits developingstructuresandnotingrelationships definingprocesses

drawingconclusions
notecategoriesofmeaningfulelements summarizestructuralrelationships describeprominentpatternsandprocesses describeprominentpatternsandprocesses

notesontranscripts
Participant3:Ijust ha veaco ns ta ntb urning. Itsrea llyhard toeatve rymuc h.. uh so Ima lwa ys hungry,a ndha vea ha rdtimekeep ing foc usedatwork. Mode rator: Someo f yo udesc ribe w hats o und lik eratherse rio usp rob le msa ndothe rs of yo ue xp la inedtha t yo urs to mac hisbo thered o r yo u fee lna usea ted. C an yo ute ll mea littleb itmoreabo utw ha ts go ingo nw he nyo u fee lthat wa y?

Participant5: we ll,Im notrea llys urew hat yo umea n uh Imk inda like P articipant3,here uh attime s,Ijustca inteat. Ijus tdo nt fee l hungrybe ca useIdo nt wa nt to fee la lltha tb loa tinga ndb urning. A ndI dont likethos eTumsmuc h,soIjust ha ngo ntil itso ver. Participant2:Ikno ww hat yo u mea n.Ire a llydo nt fee llikedo in muc hw he n Im fe e lintha twa y. Yo uk no w,so meo fthe guys,the y like to getto gethe rto pla ycardsa ndd rinkbee r.W e ll,Ica intdrinko n aco unto f this,a ndsoI dont godotha t nomo re.

makingcategories
(2) /Uncertainty (21)/Uncertainty/informationquality (211)/Uncertainty/informationquality/personalcompetence (211)/Uncertainty/informationquality/personalcompetenc (212)/Uncertainty/informationquality/amount (213)/Uncertainty/informationquality/clarity (22)/Uncertainty/optionsordecisions (221)/Uncertainty/optionsordecisions/toofew (222)/Uncertainty/optionsordecisions/toomany (223)/Uncertainty/optionsordecisions/conflicting (23)/Uncertainty/outcomeordiagnosis (24)/Uncertainty/treatmentordiagnostictests
(MammographyProject,FocusGroups2005) (MammographyProject,FocusGroups2005)

presentingresults
chartformats tableswithsummarydata tablesthatpresentsimilaritiesandcontrasts longtextpassages longtextpassages

chartrelatedformats chart
BarrierstoF/U

Efficacy

Uncertainty

Cost

Communication

informationquality

options/decisions

outcome/diagnosis

treatment/diagnostictests

personalcompetence

amount

clarity

(MammographyProject,FocusGroups2005) (MammographyProject,FocusGroups2005)

thematictables
Group All Theme
Whatcomesto mindwhenyou heartheterm breastcancer? Ontheuseof tamoxifenfor prevention Weighingrisks

Comments
ImeanImterrifiedofcancer. Iwouldbemoreafraidofmetastases. Ihavenofearofbreastcancer. Iwouldnttakesomethingthatwouldincreasemy chancesofgettingsomethingelsetoprevent somethingthatIknowIamnotgoingtoget.
IlltellyouanotherrealbigproblemIhavewiththisisthata bloodclotalonewillkillyoufasterthancancerwithoutany warningandthatwithinitselffrightensme. Ihaveenoughmedicalproblemsalready,anditseemstome thatitllbeaddingmoreproblemstowhatIalreadyhave.

Latina
African American

All

Alternativesor Modifying factors

Imgoingtodieofsomethinganyway.
(Ethnicity&Disease2005)

PartIV:UsingResults PartIV:UsingResults

practicalapplications
toexploreorunderstanddiverseexperiences toconductresearchforspecificneedsandvalues todesignsurveysrelevanttorespondentsexperiences todesignsurveysrelevanttorespondents tocreateeducationalmaterialsordesigninterventions toassistorganizationsinprovidingservice toinformpolicy toinformpolicy

applicationintheorybuilding applicationintheory
toexpanddefinitionsofconcepts toprovideempiricalevidencetosupport conceptualdefinitions toidentifygapsinexistinganalysesortheories toofferconjecturestocheckintheliteratureor totestbyempiricalresearch

PartV:Ethics&Conduct PartV:Ethics&Conduct

obligationstoresearchsubjects
howmuchdoweholdontoouragenda? howmuchdowerevealaboutourselves? howfardoweprobeintosensitiveareas? howtightlydoweholdontothetraditional rolesofresearcherandsubject? whatroledothesedecisionshavein influencingouranalysisandwriteupofthe data?

InSummary InSummary

Doingqualitativeresearchinvolves Doing qualitativeresearchinvolves

inductivelogic nonprobabilitysampling understandingperspectivesofparticipants usingopenendedquestions&observation usingopen exploringtypes&meanings,structures,and processes obtainingfeedbackfromparticipants theorybuildingandhypothesesdevelopment theory assessingtheresearcherparticipant assessingtheresearcher relationship relationship