Double Certificate GCSE Science Pack 3

Unit 2

The structures of atoms

There are only about 109 different kinds of atoms which make up the entire universe (see Unit 3). Every atom has the same basic structure and is in two parts:
Nucleus

Electron cloud containing orbiting electrons

Chemical reactions involve interactions between the electron clouds of different atoms. The cloud is made up of shells like the inside of an onion.
eThe first shell can hold up to two electrons The second shell can hold up to eight electrons The third shell can hold up to eight electrons eee- eeeeeeeeeeee- eeNucleus

The three innermost electron shells e- represents one electron Since electrons have almost no mass, practically all the mass of an atom is made up of the protons and neutrons in its nucleus. However, the nucleus of an atom has no influence on chemical activity. The nucleus is made up of a cluster of protons and neutrons. Each proton has one positive (+) charge; each neutron has no charge. The units of mass for atoms are atomic mass units (amu). The mass number of an atom = the number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus. The atomic number of an atom = the number of protons in the nucleus. The mass number - the atomic number = the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
Particle proton (p) neutron (n) electron (e) Mass (amu) 1 1 almost nil Charge 1 0 -1

Proton

Neutron

The nucleus of an atom of sodium contains 11 protons and 12 neutrons. There are 11 electrons in its shells 2 in the first, 8 in the second and 1 in the outer. The atom of sodium can be represented by the symbol 23 Na where 11 is the atomic number and 23 is the atomic mass. 11 The total number of (-) electron charges in the cloud exactly equals the number of (+) proton charges in the nucleus. So there is no overall charge on an atom it is neutral. When different kinds of atoms react with each other, they upset this neutral condition by exchanging or sharing electrons from their clouds see Units 12 and 13.

Pearson Publishing, Chesterton Mill, Frenchs Road, Cambridge CB4 3NP

Double Certificate GCSE Science Pack 3

Unit 2

Questions
Tick the box next to the correct answer. 1 Atoms of elements: A B C D have an overall positive charge are neutral overall have an overall negative charge are always charged either positive or negative

5 Atoms of different elements can join together to form chemical compounds. To do this the atoms:

n n n n

A B C D

join their nuclei together share their outer electrons exchange nuclei bond protons with their partners electrons

n n n n

6 Atoms of different elements must have: 2 The atomic number of an element tells you: A B C D the number of protons in its nucleus the number of neutrons in its nucleus the number of electrons in its nucleus the number of electrons in its shells

n n n n

3 An atom of aluminium can be represented by the symbol 27 Al. Which line in the table 13 gives the correct number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom of aluminium?
Protons A B C D 13 14 13 14 Neutrons 14 13 13 27 Electrons 13 27 14 13

A different mass numbers B the same number of neutrons in their nuclei C different numbers of electrons in their shells D different numbers of protons in their nuclei

n n n n

7 How many neutrons are there in an atom of fluorine 19 F? 9 A B C D 9 19 10 28

n n n n

8 If a neutral atom of an element has 14 electrons and 19 neutrons, its atomic number is: A B C D 5 14 19 33

4 The mass number of an atom is the number of: A B C D protons in the nucleus neutrons in the nucleus all the particles in the atom the number of protons and neutrons together

n n n n

n n n n

Pearson Publishing, Chesterton Mill, Frenchs Road, Cambridge CB4 3NP

Double Certificate GCSE Science Pack 3

Unit 9

Water and solutions

Three-quarters of the Earths surface is covered by water. Water is sometimes called a universal solvent because so many substances can be dissolved in it. Almost all chemical reactions in biological systems take place in solution in water (in aqueous solution (aq)). Water also has great importance as a solvent and as a coolant in industry.

The water cycle

The water cycle is what keeps an approximately constant amount of water available for us to use.
Rain, hail and snow return water to the surface Plants transpire Used in factories and homes Water table

Water evaporates from sea and land

Some water enters the ground, forming a saturated layer of rock Where the water table intersects the surface springs occur Water treatment plant

Hardness in water
As water cycles through the soil, in particular, it dissolves minerals and salts and causes hardness; this makes it difficult for soap to form a lather and also produces a scum.
SO42ClCa2+ Mg2+ HCO3-

Permanent hardness Softened by: A Adding washing soda (Na2CO3) (cheap and convenient) B Using ion exchange resins (eg Permutit and others) which remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ (inexpensive but tedious) C Distillation (very expensive)

Temporary hardness Softened by boiling Ca(HCO3)2 (aq) CaCO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2 (g) Scale

Salts and minerals in the soil

Advantages and disadvantages of hard water

Both types of hardness are found in most water supplies to varying degrees. Hard water causes problems with scaling, which narrows pipes and reduces the efficiency of immersion heaters, and with poor lather formation from the use of soaps and detergents. Hard water tastes nicer, however, and is healthier in several ways since it contains minerals which are good for the body.

Pearson Publishing, Chesterton Mill, Frenchs Road, Cambridge CB4 3NP

33

Double Certificate GCSE Science Pack 3

Unit 9

Questions
Tick the box next to the correct answer. 1 The water cycle shows: A the network of rivers and canals in the UK B how water is purified C the steps in recycling water over the Earth D how climates change due to sea breezes 6 Permanently hard water: A can be softened by adding washing soda B can never be softened C must be boiled to remove hardness D means that there are impurities in the water

n n n n

n n n n

7 Hardness in water is caused by: A calcium and magnesium ions dissolved in the water B isotopes of oxygen in the water molecules C bacteria in the water D the presence of any metal ions in the water

n n n n

2 What percentage of the Earths surface is covered by water? A B C D 25% 50% 75% 100%

n n n n

3 Water is sometimes called a universal solvent because: A the human body is over 90% water B so many substances can be dissolved in it C so much of the Earths surface is covered by it D it is essential for all plant and animal life

8 Hard water has some advantages over soft water. One of these is that hard water:

n n n n

A dissolves substances more quickly than soft water B is more efficient in central heating systems C boils quicker than soft water D contains minerals useful to the body

n n n n

4 Water is said to be hard when it: A can be easily compressed B is not easy to find in drought conditions C contains many impurities D makes it difficult to get lather with soap

9 Which of the following statements is not correct?

n n n n

A Using soft water is cheaper than using hard water B Temporarily hard water can be softened by boiling C Scum is the result of using soap with hard water D Soft water is better for plants than hard water

n n n n

5 Temporarily hard water is caused by calcium and magnesium ions and also: A B C D hydrogencarbonate ions other metal ions minerals which cause scale sulphate and chloride ions

n n n n
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Pearson Publishing, Chesterton Mill, Frenchs Road, Cambridge CB4 3NP