How Can We Measure The Informal Sector? Dalisay S. Maligalig and Margarita F.

Guerrero 1

1. Introduction The regular data collection system of national statistical offices (NSOs), including that of the Philippines, does not cover the informal sector which comprises of households with at least some market production. These households or units have low levels of organization and technology, and with unclear distinction between labor and capital or between household and production operations. They are highly mobile, seasonal, lacking of recognizable features for identification, and are usually reluctant to share information. The turnover of these production units are quite fast making it highly unlikely for them to be included in the list of establishments/enterprises that is usually used as sampling frames for business surveys. Moreover, the numbers of employees of these production units are usually lower than the threshold number for inclusion in the list of establishments. Thus, it is quite likely that these units are not covered by the regular establishment or enterprise surveys. And while these units might be covered by household surveys, the standard questionnaires for these surveys do not usually include questions pertaining to production. Because of these issues, informal sector statistics are not collected through the regular survey system of NSOs. Therefore, informal sector statistics can only be compiled through special surveys for this purpose or indirectly estimated using various data sources. Since data on the informal sector and informal employment are not available regularly, if at all, the national accounts statistics do not usually cover this sector, resulting in distorted estimates of the structure of the economy. This lack of information also hinders the understanding of policy makersin government, the private sector, and the publicabout many social and economic issues related to informal sector activities, such as lack of social protection; limited access to credit, training, and markets; and differentials in wages and working conditions. For example, even when there is significant poverty reduction in Asia, the 2008 International Labour Organization Employment Trends indirectly estimated by using modeling techniques and very sparse data from countries, that there are still 487 million workers of which 300 million live in Asia who do not earn enough to lift themselves and their families above the US$1 per person, per day poverty line. There are still 1.3 billion workers of which 900 million are in Asia who live below the US$2 per day threshold. The report also indicated that five out of 10 people in the world are in vulnerable employment, either contributing family workers or own-account workers with a higher risk of being unprotected. In South Asia, this ratio is even higher at eight out of ten people in vulnerable employment. These statistics perhaps presented a compelling reason for the inclusion of another target in the MDGs -- achieving full and productive employment and decent work for all, including women and young people, early this year -- seven years before the 2015 deadline.

Senior Statistician, Asian Development Bank (ADB) and Senior Adviser, United Nations Development Program Viet Nam (UNDP-Viet Nam). Dr. Guerrero also served as the regional adviser on economic statistics at the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP), 2006- 2007. UN ESCAP is the lead agency for the United Nations Inter-regional Project on the Measurement of the Informal Sector and Informal Employment. The views expressed here by the authors are entirely of their own and do not represent the views of ADB or ESCAP or UNDP. This paper will be presented at the Philippine Statistical Association, Inc. mid-year conference at the Ople Hall, Department of Labor and Employment, Intramuros, Manila, on 6 June 2008.

Employment is the main source of income among the poor and it is still perceived to be the most effective vehicle to take them out of poverty. There are indications from current research and from sparse survey results across the world, however, that most of the working poor are engaged in informal employment. While the informal sector offers a cushion to workers during economic crisis, the benefits of informal employment may not be sufficient to achieve an acceptable standard of living because informal employment rarely comes with social protection, good working conditions and adequate wages. The general perception is that only the informal employers who hire others can rise above the poverty threshold. It is therefore necessary that efforts to alleviate poverty must be focused to the needs and constraints faced by the working poor in the informal economy. It is estimated that the informal sector accounts for more than 50% of non-agricultural employment and about 30% of non-agricultural domestic product in many countries. In developing countries, informal employment is roughly estimated to comprise one half to threequarters of non-agricultural employment, with 65% in Asia. If informal employment in agriculture is included, the proportion of informal employment significantly increases in India, for example, from 83% of non-agricultural employment to 93% of total employment. How can the development community and governments help the working poor in the informal sector? Decent work for the working poor should be promoted as a mechanism to reduce poverty. More and better employment opportunities must be created as well as efforts to influence the informal enterprises to register and extend benefits to their workers. Such reorientation of economic policies may not be possible, however, unless the informal sector and those engaged in informal employment can be analyzed. At present, very few countries in Asia regularly collect data on the informal sector. And those that collect data generally use national definitions and employ differing methods of data collection thus making comparability across countries and regional aggregation difficult, if not, impossible. The visibility of informal workers in labor force statistics and other data used in formulating policies needs to be enhanced. More countries need to collect statistics on the informal sector and informal employment following international standards. And countries that already gather data need to improve the quality of the statistics that they collect. Moreover, in order to examine employment poverty, attention needs to be given in national data collection to linking labor force and income/ expenditure surveys so that additional analyses can be undertaken. And the results of these analyses can be integrated into economic planning and policy-making. Efforts have already been initiated towards this goal with the establishment of the United Nations Inter-regional Project on the Measurement of the Informal Sector and Informal Employment. Joining three countries in other regions, Mongolia and the Philippines have already conducted informal sector surveys with Sri Lanka preparing to do so following international standards through the assistance of United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. On the part of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), a regional technical assistance was processed and approved in December 2007 that aims to contribute to the measurement of the informal sector by helping national statistics offices to find a sound and viable data collection strategy. With more accurate data, the share of this often overlooked sector can be properly reflected in the national accounts and also, the relationship between poverty and the informal sector can be thoroughly examined.

To contribute to more evidence-based policy making, analyses will be performed on the results of the informal sector surveys that will be conducted in three countries covered by the technical assistance. These analyses together with the best practice from the experiences in sampling and survey operations of the participating national statistics offices (NSOs) will form parts of a publication that will be shared with other countries national statistical systems to promote informal sector measurement and analysis. A training workshop on this handbook may also be provided to those interested NSOs towards the end of this project. This paper presents the issues that we encountered in our search for a viable data collection strategy for the informal sector and informal employment. 2. What definition to apply? The first important issue that we have to resolve is the incomparability of definitions across the countries that are collecting data on the informal sector. While the definition of the informal sector was established at the 15th International Conference of Labor Statisticians and the definition of informal employment was established at the 17th conference, countries have not applied these definitions uniformly. An examination of the International Labour Organization database reveals differences in countries practices, data collection coverage, operational definitions, and data collection methods. For example, while non-registration of an enterprise is one of the factors used to determine if an enterprise or establishment is part of the informal sector, registration requirements vary widely across countries and might change over time within a country. Another factor is employment size. It is often assumed that small firms usually are not well organized and have limited access to technology and therefore, should be classified under the informal sector. However, this assumption is not accurate for all enterprises, such as those that specialize in outsourcing information technology. In addition, governments determine the employment size threshold for other purposes, such as taxation and industry policies for some countries. Below is the definition of the informal sector by the Fifteenth International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) as reflected in their resolution in January 1993. (1) The informal sector may be broadly characterized as consisting of units engaged in the production of goods or services with the primary objective of generating employment and incomes to the persons concerned. These units typically operate at a low level of organization, with little or no division between labor and capital as factors of production and on a small scale. Labor relations where they exist - are based mostly on casual employment, kinship or personal and social relations rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees. (2) Production units of the informal sector have the characteristic features of household enterprises. The fixed and other assets used do not belong to the production units as such but to their owners. The units as such cannot engage in transactions or enter into contracts with other units, nor incur liabilities, on their own behalf. The owners have to raise the necessary finance at their own risk and are personally liable, without limit, for any debts or obligations incurred in the production process. Expenditure for production is often indistinguishable from household expenditure. Similarly, capital goods such as buildings or vehicles may be used indistinguishably for business and household purposes.

(3) Activities performed by production units of the informal sector are not necessarily performed with the deliberate intention of evading the payment of taxes or social security contributions, or infringing labour or other legislations or administrative provisions. Accordingly, the concept of informal sector activities should be distinguished from the concept of activities of the hidden or underground economy. By this definition, the informal sector is just as component of the non-observed economy which also consists of illegal and/or underground/concealed activities; or household production for own final use. Note that certain activities may be productive and also legal but could be deliberately hidden from authorities to avoid the payment of taxes and social security contributions; and compliance to labor laws relating to minimum wage, working hours, safety and health benefits. These do not fall under the purview of the informal sector. How does this definition relate to national accounts? From the perspective of the United Nations System of National Accounts (Rev. 4), the informal sector is a group of production units that is a part of the household sector, or what is termed as household enterprises or equivalently, unincorporated enterprises owned by households. Household enterprises are distinguished from corporations and quasi-account corporations on the basis of legal organizations and their types of accounts. Household enterprises are not legal entities that are separate from the household or household members who own them. They do not have a book of accounts that is separate from the household. Unincorporated partnerships that are formed by more than one household also fall under this classification. However, one glaring difference between the ICLS definition and that of the SNA is that product destination is a factor for determining whether household enterprises belong to the informal sector or not. The SNA framework does not have this requirement that at least some goods and services that are produced by the households should be sold in the market. On the basis of the definitions discussed above, employment in the informal sector then includes all jobs in the informal sector enterprises or all persons who, during a given reference period, were employed in at least one informal sector enterprise, irrespective of their status in employment and whether it was their main job (Hussmanns, 2004). However, informal employment is characterized by absence of contracts, social protection, entitlement to benefits and not being subject to labor legislation and income taxation, which may not be fully captured by focusing only on the employment in the informal sector. Hence, the United Nations Expert Group on Informal Sector Statistics (or Delhi Group) which was constituted in 1997 to harmonize national definitions of the informal sector to improve international comparability, recommended that the definition of employment in the informal sector be supplemented with a definition of informal employment. The 17th ICLS defined informal employment as employees are considered to have informal jobs if their employment relationship is, in law or in practice, not subject to labour legislation, income taxation, social protection or entitlement to certain employment benefits (advance notice of dismissal, severances of pay, paid annual or sick leave, etc.). Note that this definition is made on the job level and not at the individual level because a person can simultaneously have two or more jobs. The concept of the informal sector was then expanded by the ICLS in 2003 to include description on the nature of employment. Informal self employment includes employers in informal enterprises, won account workers in informal enterprises, unpaid family workers and members of informal producers while informal wage employment covers all employees without formal contracts, worker benefits or social protection employed by formal or informal enterprises/employers or by households.

There are two terms of production units that arose from the definition above informal own account enterprises and enterprises of informal employers. Informal own account enterprises which are basically household enterprises described above which may employ contributing family workers and employees on an occasional basis but to not employ employees on a continuous basis and which have the characteristics described in the first two paragraphs (1 and 2) of the definition. Informal enterprises may comprise those who are not registered as provided by specific laws or may include all own-account enterprises. On the other hand, enterprises of informal employers are household enterprises which employ one or more employees on a continuous basis. Depending on the country, enterprises of informal employers are determined based on a threshold employment size and the non-registration of the enterprise or its employees. All or at least some of the goods or services produced are meant for sale or barter. In many countries, the household enterprises engaged in agricultural activities are deliberately excluded, although the 15th ICLS does not recommend this exclusion. Perhaps, this approach arose from practical purposes. What about those who subcontract jobs and work at home? This class of workers has been gaining prominence in some developing countries. This group is what is referred to as home workers by the ILO Home Work Convention No. 177 that was adopted in 1996 but which is not included in the International Classification of Status in Employment. A home worker is a person who carried out work for remuneration in premises of his/her choice, other than the work place of the employer, resulting in a product or service as specified by the employer, irrespective of who provided the equipment, material or inputs used. This Convention has also asked the national statistics offices (NSOs) to include home workers as a separate category in their labour statistics. The home workers can be treated as a category in between self employed and employee. Like self-employed, home workers own tools and equipment and work in their own home/place meeting certain costs such as actual or imputed rent, lighting, power, storage etc. and other costs such as of cleaning. And they are also not supervised like the self-employed. However, they cannot sell their products in the market. On the other hand, the home workers may have a formal contract that stipulates the provision of work and remuneration paid to the home worker with a formal or informal enterprise just like an employee. 3. What are the current data collection practices for the informal sector? There are two broad methods for measuring the informal sector direct and indirect. Direct measurement requires the conduct of a survey while indirect measurement entails the use of other data sources and statistical models. Indirect estimation methods are usually based on the residual balance technique which entails choosing a specific definition of the informal sector (for instance registration, or employment size) from which the size of the sector can be inferred (Charmes, 2006). Hence, with indirect measurement only the size of the informal sector may be estimated but not other information and indicators relevant for program development like the extent or lack thereof of social protection; extent of access to credit, training, and markets; differentials in wages and working conditions, and prevalence of poverty For the direct method, the collection of data on the informal sector can take many approaches special surveys on the informal sector, through regular surveys with expanded coverage such as the labor force or other household surveys or the establishment/enterprise surveys and censuses and the mixed householdenterprise surveys.

Special surveys on the informal sector that are designed for this specific purpose would probably be the most appropriate data collection vehicle. However, these are very costly and would entail sizeable resources not only in terms of budget but manpower and time that national statistics offices cannot afford to allocate for just one survey. A separate listing operation would have to be conducted to form the sampling frame of the survey since the list or census of establishments do not usually contain informal sector units because these units fall below the number of employee threshold. The annual figures on the size and structure of the informal sector in Thailand and some Latin American countries are taken from labor force surveys (Charmes, 2006). However, while labor force surveys have already been proven to be data source for the informal sector, there are some doubts that these surveys may not correctly capture the characteristics of the enterprise that are not known by the respondents who are just workers of the informal establishment. Similarly, household income and expenditure survey (HIES), can help identify informal sector activity through the sources of income data items but the standard HIES questionnaire gathers very little information on the type of enterprise and other characteristics of the informal sector unit. Questions relating to main and secondary jobs, working conditions of family members and other questions pertaining to the households informal sector activities can be inserted in the questionnaire to determine the employment rate in the informal sector and number and characteristics of individuals employed in the informal sector. However, expanding the questionnaire is not also practical because it will cause much longer interview period and since only one household member will be interviewed, the respondent may not be aware of the other members employment details and the characteristics of the households informal sector activities. The establishment/enterprise sample surveys are usually perceived as the more traditional measurement approach. The sampling frame used for this type of survey is usually constructed from business registers or from census or list of establishments. Unless there is tremendous effort on the part of the statistics offices and concerned government agencies, it is quite unlikely, however, that these two processes would include the informal sector. Also, because of the high turnover of production units in the informal sector, even if there are efforts to capture them in the listing operations, units included in the sample may have already closed or may have ceased operations at the time of the survey. In recent years, the mixed survey approach has gained more following and is considered the most efficient among the data collection methods for the informal sector. Mixed surveys, if appropriately designed, can better address the issue of completeness of coverage of informal sector units and can facilitate data collection for national accounts and economic research purposes (e.g. output, value added and income generated by the informal sector units). In general, a mixed survey has two phases. It is conducted such that the sampling frame of informal sector units (second phase) is constructed from a household survey (first phase). Questions that can identify the informal sector units are inserted in the household survey questionnaire for this purpose. The second phase is a survey among the informal sector units to gather information about working conditions and economic performance. The sampling units of the first phase of the survey are individuals while in the second phase, informal sector units. This approach makes it possible to link informal sector activities/business owner characteristics with household characteristics. Mixed surveys have different variations depending on the type of household survey to which these questions will be included: i) Perhaps the most appropriate household survey would be the labor force survey (LFS). LFS is usually the most frequently conducted household survey. The

additional questions to identify the informal sector units are easily adapted in an LFS and in fact, would supplement the standard questionnaire in terms of coverage of economic activities. ii) Household income and expenditure surveys (HIES) (or living standard surveys, LSS) can also be used as the source of the sampling frame for the informal sector units survey. Research on the informal sector will be enriched by data on household income and consumption. Since poverty status of households can identified through HIES, then in-depth analysis of the relationship of poverty and the informal sector can also be conducted. iii) In cases when household surveys are not conducted regularly, then a listing operation of household members engaged in self-employment can be conducted. This would be similar to the LFS approach. However, this would be more costly because the full costs of the first phase listing operations would be added to that of the succeeding informal sector unit survey. In some cases, for cost savings purposes, the second phase of the mixed survey can be conducted simultaneously with the household survey. Several variations in the sampling design of the second phase are (i) a sub-sample of the primary sampling units (PSUs) of the household sample survey will be taken, in which all the informal sector units will be enumerated; (ii) a subsample of the informal sector units that are identified will be interviewed; (iii) all the informal sector units that have been identified will be interviewed. Decision on which is the most appropriate variation depends on the following conditions: (i) availability of auxiliary information from previous survey results; (ii) budget limitations; (iii) skill level of enumerators and field supervisors. A sub-sample of PSUs may be drawn prior to the survey if there is relevant auxiliary information that is available. For example, if the distribution of own-account or self employed individuals by sector (of national accounts) are available for each domain, then PSUs can be selected accordingly. The second variation can be successfully implemented only if the enumerators and field supervisors are adept in screening the informal production units and are able to apply the correct sampling fractions. The third variation, perhaps, is the easiest to implement but would require large budget outlay since the sample size is not controlled at the onset. It could turn out that the sample size will be very large and may require longer enumeration period and more human resources to complete. Also, there is no mechanism for making the work load among enumerators equitable. Another variation of the mixed survey is the 1-2-3 survey of the informal sector (Rakotormanana, 2003) which combines the labor force survey (first stage, 1), an informal sector units survey (second stage, 2) and a household consumption and expenditure survey (third stage, 3). This type of survey was undertaken Madagascar (1995, 1998), Cameroon (1993), Yaounde (1993, 1994) and Antananarivo (1995, 1996). The first two stages of the survey have the same objectives as the mixed survey mentioned above. The purpose of the third survey is to determine the level and structure of household consumption and to a certain extent, living conditions. 4. What is the most cost-effective data collection approach? On the basis of the critical issues in collecting data on the informal sector, the Interregional Cooperation on the Measurement of Informal Sector and Informal Employment (ICMISIE) project, proposed a unified data collection strategy that can both produce informal sector statistics that is based on internationally comparable as well as country-specific definition.

ICMISIE is a multiyear and multilateral development account project of the United Nations, with the Economic and Social Commission for the Asia and Pacific as the lead agency, with the main objectives to increase the availability of data on the informal sector and informal employment and to improve the calculation of the contribution of informal sector to employment and to GDP. This unified data collection strategy (ESCAP, 2007) is comprised of the scope of data collection, survey design and organization of data collection and list of variables to be collected and published and survey questionnaire. It aims to capture all relevant enterprise characteristics for identifying an informal sector enterprise based on at least two sets of criteria -- the countrys, as well as that of the ICLS and Delhi Group. This approach offers more flexibility from the usual survey approach that selects informal sector enterprises based on a set of predetermined criteria. In this case, the informal sector enterprises are only identified at the analysis stage. Data collection coverage The sampling units for the second phase of the survey will be the household unincorporated enterprises with at least some market production (HUEMs), from which the informal sector enterprises will be identified by applying specific definition. HUEMs will be identified through in the first phase LFS using questions on (i) legal organization; (ii) bookkeeping practice; and (iii) product destination. Survey design and organization of data collection As implied in the discussion above, the core of the unified data collection strategy is a mixed survey with the LFS as the household survey in the first phase. Each individual respondent in the LFS will be asked about his/her main and second jobs so that HUEMs can be identified. All the HUEMs in the first phase constitute the sampling frame for the HUEM survey which will be conducted as the second phase survey. The HUEMs survey will collect data on production in line with international recommendations on industry, construction trade, and services statistics. Although the two phases of the mixed survey seem to be similar to double phase sampling in which the second phase survey is a subset of the first phase sample, one significant difference is that the sampling units of the two phases of the mixed survey differ with households/individuals in LFS and HUEMs in the second phase. Because of this difference, there is no mechanism that can be incorporated in the LFS design such that the HUEMs will be distributed evenly across sectors of national accounts, with some sectors, over-represented and some, with very few HUEMs. Hence, the strategy might result in less-efficient estimates than those from independent informal sector surveys in which the sampling frame of HUEMs is the result of listing operations conducted solely for that purpose. There are two ways to mitigate this critical problem (i) all the HUEMs that are identified in the first phase will be enumerated to ensure that all sectors in national accounts are represented; or (ii) the sampling design will be tailored such that each sector for national accounts purposes will be represented in the sample. The first solution is more straightforward than the second, however, it entails much larger budget than what governments with limited funds for statistics may be able to provide. Thus, regular data collection for the informal sector may not be sustainable. The second approach will require careful study of available auxiliary data and the determination of sample sizes for each sector on the basis of available auxiliary data. Considering the high turnover of HUEMs, the LFS perhaps is the best option for the first phase household survey because it is usually the most frequently conducted survey and hence, would be able to capture the current HUEMs rather than those that were no longer active. To control

for unit non-response (e.g. cannot be located, closed) in the second-phase HUEM survey, the interval between the two phases should be kept short. In fact, survey operations can be designed such that the two phases can be done almost simultaneously. This, of course, is straightforward if all the HUEMs that are identified in the LFS will also be enumerated in the HUEM survey. Otherwise, reliable auxiliary information from previous survey is needed. For example, if the LFS sampled PSUs are the same or very similar in previous surveys, the distribution of own accounts and self-employed individuals in the survey can be a good auxiliary variable that can be used as measure of size or stratification variable in sub-sampling PSUs. Selection probabilities may differ across sectors depending on the size of the sector and the requirements for national accounts. In many developing countries where the agriculture sector dominates, an efficient sampling strategy would be to assign smaller selection probabilities for HUEMs in this sector. If there is no auxiliary information that is available for this purpose and with very limited budget, then another option would be to exclude the agriculture sector in the HUEM survey and measure this sector separately. 5. Conclusions and Recommendations The Unified Data Collection Strategy is the most cost-effective approach for directly measuring the informal sector and informal employment. Since it employs an expanded LFS to identify the HUEMs that will be surveyed in the second phase, there will be no cost of listing operations which could be very large because small production units are difficult to identify and the second phase survey the HUEM survey, will still maintain a probability sample design. Using stratification measures, the sectors of national accounts can be estimated with acceptable sampling error level. Developing countries with very limited budget for data collection may be able to regularly collect informal sector statistics using the unified data collection strategy. While the HUEM survey may not be conducted annually, if the expanded LFS that will be conducted regularly will have questions about informal employment and those that could be used to identify informal enterprises, then the contribution of the informal sector to GDP can be fully integrated in the national accounts data compilation framework. By comparing income differentials of workers in the formal and informal sectors, research has shown a clear link between poverty and employment in the informal sector. However, research has not yet determined in many countries (i) the number of working poor, (ii) the number employed in the informal sector, and (iii) the prevalence of poor in the informal sector compared with the formal sector. These requirements, however, are not part of the in the unified data collection strategy. Only the 1-2-3 survey approach that includes HIES as the third stage survey would be able to address the requirements for this type of analysis. However, in some cases as such in the Philippines where LFS and HIES share a set of common respondents, poverty analysis on the informal sector can also be done. In general, if the LFS and HIES use the same master sample, then poverty analysis on the informal sector is feasible. Otherwise, poverty status of individuals in LFS and household enterprises in the HUEM survey can be determined if questions that can be used to designate poverty status are included in these surveys.

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