URBAN POVERTY: A NEW DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE

STUDENT NUMBER: 2720509 COURSE TITLE: MSC DEVELOPMENT STUDIES COURSE UNIT: RESEARCH METHODS COURSE TUTOR: DR MICHAL LYONS SSTUDENT NAME: AKUA OWUSU AGYEKUM

JAN 2011

URBAN POVERTY- A NEW DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGE The existing status quo in development has been the misconception that, poverty is most prevalent in rural and remote regions of a country, relative to the urban centres. This exercise is being undertaken to challenge this perception prevalent among policy makers and development agents, and attempt to reshape and redirect their focus to the new development concept and phenomenon, urban poverty.

This paper does not seek to argue that urban poverty is more important than rural poverty. Rather, the underlying theme is that urban poverty needs to be recognised and understood. Another point is that, the approaches to measuring absolute poverty that have been developed over the years, do not appear to adequately acknowledge the context of the urban poor and many of the factors that contribute to their poverty. Judy Baker argues for instance that, urban poverty presents distinct issues which require peculiar tools and measures to address.

The findings of three research studies from different areas will be used as background materials. The methodology and techniques employed by these research studies will be critically examined to ascertain its appropriateness and effectiveness in achieving the aims of the research.

ARTICLE ONE OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PAPER 1-URBAN POVERTY IN

TRANSITIONAL ECONOMY: A CASE STUDY OF NANJING, CHINA by Guo Chen, Chaolin Gu and Fulong Wu, (2006)

According to World Bank Report (1997) urban poverty was nonexistent in China, until the mid 90s when China underwent economic transformation process. Though the economic reforms have yielded unprecedented results on absolute poverty, by causing the reduction in the poverty prevalence of 260 million people in the late 1970s to 42 million by 1998. Urban poverty which was a negligible problem till the mid 90s has grown exponentially in recent years. Chen et al, traced the genesis of what they termed, new urban poverty to the introduction of reform
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policies in 1984 that eroded the pillars of the state socialist largess and the removal of restrictions on migration from the rural regions to urban centres for the non-existent jobs. These dramatically changed the urban landscape of china. (Habitat International, 2006:p2).

RESEARCH DESIGN AND JUSTIFICATION FOR ARTICLE 1

Chen et al focused their research on the changing face of urban poverty in China. The research sought to determine the impact of three major developments during the reform period on urban poverty and, generate disaggregated data on urban poverty profile for policy action. Due to the multiplicities in the subject matter, the study employed the use of triangulation method by utilising research techniques such as case studies, secondary data and structured interview methods to collect data for their sample. The use of triangulation is appropriate as it is seen as an approach that uses multiple research methods and techniques, such as observations, theoretical perspectives and methodologies in the study. (Denzin, 1970) triangulation allows the researcher, the tools to explore difficult and composite questions.
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The literature review carried out prior to the study, revealed the gaps in knowledge that the research should explore. Deductive reasoning was adopted in interpreting the underlying principles which explained the increasing incidence and changing nature of urban poverty in China. These were identified as economic restructuring, transformation of the welfare system and urban development. A Case study of the City of Nanjing in the Jiangsu Province was conducted to determine the dynamics of urban poverty and its spatial characteristics. In addition, a conceptual framework was created to test the validity of the three underlying principles of the new urban poverty, discovered through the literature review. Yin (1993) referred to case studies, as methods that can be used for detailed explorative, descriptive and illustrative research. And case studies are used to enhance validity and reliability of research findings. As there has not been much study done on the issue of the new urban poor in China, the use of a case study then lent itself well to addressing the objectives of the research. Two sampling techniques were employed in the sampling process. They were stratified random
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sampling and snowball sampling. The data collection technique included, questionnaire and semi structured interviews which covered eleven communities, randomly selected from the list of The Minimum Living Standard Programme recipients, census and other secondary statistical data. The purposive choice of the city of Nanjing can be justified, as it shares the characteristics of a typical large Chinese cities which were regional industrial centres during the socialist era, but is currently undergoing series of socio economic changes due to the reforms. Baker and Schuler describe snowball sampling as a purposive technique, which allows for the presentation of study communities or cases which hitherto, would not be included. Purposive sampling on the other hand, is a non random tool for identifying study communities considered representative of the issue under investigation and also shares characteristics with the population. Laws et al (2003) also argue that, though this sampling method is less costly and time saving, it is liable to the introduction of distortions and biases from the researcher on to the data.

In addition to the secondary analyses of official data, semi structured interviews were also conducted of 78 urban poor households. But Chen et al, did not divulge information on how they came about the 78 household interview sample figure rising to 230 randomly selected individuals. The use of random selection granted everyone in the sample frame the equal chance of being selected. However, on the face value, it could be argued that, the sample of only 78 households, seems disproportionately low. Interview results which are part of qualitative strategies are not geared for generalisation, but rather, for adding depth and understanding to research cases. However, Chen et al, did not divulge information on as to how they came about the 78 household interview sample figure. Denscombe (1998) is of the view that, qualitative research cannot lay claim to representativeness for validity, so to ensure acceptability, it is important for that the research methods and conclusions are seen to be reasonable and justifiable.

Statistical analyses were used to draw the conclusions to the fact that, 65 percent of the urban poor were as a result of the three underlying principles and 35 percent could be attributed to a combination of factors. Both inductive and deductive reasoning were used by the researchers to draw to the conclusion that, the economic restructuring in China has expanded the poverty prevalence of urban China. The traditional poor figure is now smaller than the rather increasing urban poverty figure. Though both groups, the traditional urban poor and the nouvelle poor, suffer from the squalors of poverty, however, the plight of the latter is more deployable since they lack safety nets, such as regular income, family connections and official recognition as residents of the cites.

ARTICLE TWO OVER VIEW OF RESEARCH PAPER 2 - RECOGNISING, EXPLAINING AND MEASURING CHRONIC URBAN POVERTY IN SOUTH AFRICA-SUSAN PARNAL AND TIM MOSDELL (2001)

Parnel and Mosdell(2001) recognised the strong need for policy makers to give equal attention to developmental issues of rural and urban poverty reduction, if they were to meet national and the Millennium Development Goals of halving poverty by 2015.
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The purpose of the study was to generate a poverty profile as a framework for monitoring purposes. Whilst the terms rural and black are synonymous to poverty in South Africa, there is growing evidence which depicts increasing levels of poverty in urban centres. The paper sought to analyse reasons for alarming increasing rate of chronic urban poverty among the South African Blacks. Policies of the Apartheid regime were extensively used to explain why chronic poverty is entrenched among blacks and other coloured minorities in South Africa. It also an attempt to explain why the poverty tide is turning more towards the cities. The research concluded that, measuring poverty without disaggregating results of the findings is likely to obscure the specificities of various pockets of poverty in urban centres.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND JUSTIFICATION FOR ARTICLE 2

A purely desk based, mixed method approach was adopted by the researchers. A wide array of secondary statistical and economic data were utilised to ascertain the prevalent rate of poverty in the cities of South Africa. This symbolises a quantitative approach which included

census reports and household surveys such as, urban and rural distribution of employment by race; and rural and non-rural electricity distribution statistics, among others. Some apartheid racial legislative instruments and policies which were also analysed to demonstrate the root cause of chronic poverty in various parts of urban South Africa. However, as qualitative research alone does not easily lend itself to generalisation (Miles and Huberman,1994) used mixed methods were therefore appropriate.

The use of secondary data for this exercise can be justified by advocates of secondary analyses. Hakim (1982) and Professor Michael Lyon pointed out that, in this era of information explosion, carrying out a special purpose survey to obtain information is a last resort, because, the data required may already exist in another survey which can be used as secondary source. There is a general consensus in the literature that secondary data saves time, cost and effort. The caveat though is that, the reliability of the data must be ascertained before its usage.

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Statistical analyses helped to explained the how, whilst the Apartheid policies and legislations provided depth and rigour to the research. Rocco et al (2003) affirmed that approaching a study from different angles help gain a more holistic insight into the subject matter. Diagrams and value tables and visuals were utilised to explain the overwhelming statistical evidence of poverty amongst South African Blacks in the urban slums. Laws et al (2003) are of the view that, many people find diagrams and charts easier to read than verbose statistical figures, so it is therefore worthwhile to present data in visual forms if possible, however, they caution against its over indulgence.

Since Parnell and Mosdell failed to disclose how they came about their rather large sample size of seven out of the nine cities of South Africa, it gives room for much speculation. Although, it is widely believed that, a big sample size is likely to increase the precision of a sample, Bryman (2008) has a contrasting view that a proportionately large sample cannot guarantee precision. One can only speculate
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about what influenced the choice, judging by the characteristics of the sample which could either be Purposive or Convenience sampling.

The study shed light on the appalling plight of the nouvelle urban poor, who were new entrants in the cities and big towns. With the dismantling of Apartheid, blacks who could not migrate to the cities because of the due to the pass laws saw the opportunity to move to the city slums to look for work. But with no job prospects and family connections nor safety nets in the cities and big towns, majority of these congregated themselves into the ghettos. Policymakers have also failed to account for them because these nouvelle poor do not have permanent addresses in the cities.

At the end of the study, Parnell and Mosdell were able to fulfil what the research set out to do i.e. to create the urban poverty profile and highlight the peculiarities of the different shades of urban poverty groups for policy direction. According to Oppenheim (1992), the appropriateness of a research design is incumbent upon the degree of achievement of the aims and objectives.
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ARTICLE THREE
OVERVIEW OF RURAL-URBAN POVERTY DIFFERENCES IN THE TRANSITION COUNTRIES. BY KAREN MACOURS AND JOHAN F. M. SWINNEN, OVERVIEW (2007)

This article offers a comparative approach to analysing the growing trends in urban poverty in twenty three transition countries in Eastern and Central Europe, and the former caucus states of the Soviet Union. The review done by the Macours and Swinnen suggested that, sinceith the collapse and transformation of the centrally planned economies of Central and Eastern Europe and the Caucus States, much have been written about the transitional process, but the impact of the transformation on welfare, particularly in the urban centres have not received much attention. The purpose of the research therefore, was to conduct in-depth comparative analyses that will highlight and enhance understanding of the transitional effect on the various countries. It was also an attempt to build a conceptual framework that will enable interpretations of identifiable poverty disparities between the rural and the urban centres.

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RESEARCH DESIGN AND JUSTIFICATIONS, ARTICLE 3

The methodology employed by Macours and Swinnens was purely desk based. They also revealed that, they did not have a sponsor or an immediate end user in mind. It can be deduced that, the study was an academic pursuit to fill in a perceived lacuna in the subject matter. (Hakim, 2000). New data sets by the World Bank on the sample countries were appropriated by Macours and Swinnens for the study. The study also utilised secondary analyses of multi topic national surveys on household income, consumption and infant mortality rates of the transitional countries. Reliance on these data sources could not weaken the findings of the research. According to Dale et al (1988) contrary to the believe about the reliability of primary analyses as compare to secondary analyses, the use of secondary data, offer a researcher, a high quality data set that is more likely to be more representative of the population. These data are often come from official sources or big organisations. As indicated by Bryman (2008) the Economic and Social Research Council of the UK, has made it a

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requirement for applicants for research grants who proposes to collect primary data to avoid the duplicating of existing data.

The use of Statistical analyses, charts and diagrams enabled Macours and Swinners to analyse and present the large data they dealt with in this exercise. The statistics and the diagrams, compressed the voluminous data into meaningful reader friendly. It was found that there are large variations of urban poverty across the transition countries. The incidences of poverty ranged from 1% in Hungry to 80% in Kyrgyzstan in 2002. Income poverty levels were incredibly found to be significantly higher in the urban centres in majority of the countries under the study. However, non-income poverty indicators such as lack of basic social amenities and infant mortality registered higher percentages in the rural areas as compared to the urban centres. Macours and Swinnens then used a conceptual framework to interpret why the transition countries were experiencing varied impact of the transitional processes especially in the urban centres.

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Reichel and Ramsey (1984) described conceptual framework as a set of broad ideas and principles, that are borrowed from relevant fields of enquiry and used to structure presentations. The use of Conceptual Framework therefore, enabled the Macours and Swinners to move from the what to the explanations of the why and how of the study (Yin, 1994). The findings revealed that though the 23 countries were all socialist economies in the same sub region, they were not equally endowed resource wise to cope with the transition.

At the end of the transitional period, Macouurs and Swinners found that, absolute poverty declined considerably in some of the countries, who had better coping mechanisms, but urban poverty rather remained high even up until now. The reason given was that, most urban residents were employees of the state or quasi-state institutions, and as the transitional reforms, necessitated the reduction in public expenditure, it led to redundancies, removal of subsidies and the withdrawal of most safety nets enjoyed by the state urban employees.. Among other negative changes in the economy, these reasons
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accounted for the high incidences of urban poverty registered during and after the economic reform. But as rural dwellers were traditionally not enjoying state largess, as compared with their city counterparts, they had already developed their own safety nets independent of the government. As a result they were able to cope better with the austerity measures introduced as a result of the reforms. And as the agricultural reforms introduced were yielding positive results, rural farmers in rural areas were able to sell their produce at competitive prices without state controls.

Even though, no end users of this research were insight, the findings of this research can be a useful tool for policy makers to be abreast with the spatial concentration of the poor and adopt the appropriate interventions to address their plight.

CONCLUSION

One central challenge of urban poverty analyses according to Baker and Schuler (2004) has been the lack of available disaggregated data. Most of the National Surveys concentrate on the urban or possibly
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city levels so they do not reveal the different pockets of poverty prevalence within a given area in the urban centres. All the research studies on the rising incidence of urban poverty in the three different regions of the world, employed different research designs to arrive at their conclusions. Paper 1 made use of triangulation methods, which involved the use of various research methods and techniques to answer the multiplicity of issues embedded in urban poverty and triangulation, It also helped top strengthen the logical exactitude of the research (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994). Paper two and three 3 also utilised different models of mixed methods approaches. Paper two started out as a desk based, utilising secondary official data to get quantitative results but, added pieces of apartheid policies and legislations to add depth and better insight. Paper three on the other hand, extensively made use of international and national data sets in their study, to acquire statistical data. However, in order to interpret the findings, a conceptual framework was used to make sense of the data (Yin, 1994).

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In effect, all the three research papers employed the use of different variations of triangulation. And as indicated by Hamersley (1996) triangulation is when one research strategy is employed to assist a research which is using another strategy. At the end of the day, the appropriateness of each research design is how it serves the aims and purpose of the study, (Oppenheim)

PART 2 ASSESSING URBAN POVERTY IN GHANA- A RESEACH STUDY TO HIGHLIGHT THE PLIGHT OF THE HEAD PORTERS KAYAYO OF ACCRA (Ghana)

INTRODUCTION Development experts and policy makers have generally been biased towards urban poverty (Maxwell et al, 2002). Poverty was generally perceived to be largely a rural problem. But recent developments in most of the developing world, depicts otherwise. According to Hadad et al (1999) there seem to be a growing acceptance among analysts that, the locus of poverty and malnutrition are gradually shifting from the rural and remote areas to the urban slums. The new world economic order has brought in its wake, new
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development challenges, such as the increasing spate of international identity, fraud, terrorism, and urban poverty. Urban poverty is characterised by low income, low consumption, difficulty in accessing employment, poor housing, health care, quality of education and even social connections (Mollenkopf and Castells,1991). Some of the reasons identified by scholars to have contributed to urban poor, have been inter alia, mass unemployment, decline in government expenditure on social services, removal of subsidies and city bound migrations. The purpose of this section therefore, is to attempt to explore one of the contributory factors of urban poverty, i.e. City bound migration and how it has manifested into a developmental canker in the capital city of Accra (Amuzu and Leitmann, 1994).

The capital city of Ghana is Accra. It is located in the southern part of Ghana and has land size of 185 square kilometres. Accra has a population of around 3,658,937 (according to 2000 National Census Figures). With an estimated 3.4 percent growth rate, the population of

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Accra is expected to grow beyond 4 million by the year 2015 (Amuzu and Leitman 1994). Although the region is not naturally endowed, it enjoys the most diversified economy due to its position as the business and administrative capital of Ghana. Until recently when decentralisation programmes had seen some minor changes, all the major financial institutions, government ministries, parastatals, major local industries, and multinational corporations were all concentrated in Accra. So in reality, Accra has always been the Mecca of Ghana where most migrate for prospects, conduct business and even to acquire important official documents like passport or driving license. Petty trading or street hawking has been a regular activity for most traders in the city. But in the past few decades, street trading and head porting among the youth, is gaining an unprecedented momentum. Due to its sea port facilities, the attraction of Accra is not limited to only Ghanaians but to many business people in the landlocked countries in the sub-region.

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An issue which is becoming a grave concern to the government is that, more than half of the citys population live under the poverty line (Ghana Statistical Survey 2009). These figures could be unreliable as it accounted for only people in the public sector. The plight of the poor in the informal sector, like an identifiable group referred to as the Kayayo in what Appiah -Yeboah (2004) s described as the forgotten lot, for instance, were not factored in this statistics. Urban poverty is characterised by low income, low consumption, difficulty in accessing employment, health care, quality education and even social connections (Mollenkopf and Castells, 1991).

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A Kayayo at work in the city of Acrra. Image Source (http://tinyurl.com/4leuhnj)

RESEARCH QUESTION The Research question is that, what is accounting for the increasing number of female head porters (kayeyo) in Accra and what are the likely socio-economic impact on: i. The city ii. The female head porters iii. policy direction

LITERATURE REVIEW The kayayo or Head Porter phenomenon has generated a lot of interest from development and the academic communities. It has been studied within various disciplines like, Awumbila (2008) and Yeboah who perceived it as a gender issue. Opare (2003) and Agarwal et al (1997) view the problem as predisposition of certain cultures.

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Among them, Yeboah and Yeboah (2009) also, indicated the lack of education and employable skills as among the causal factors which propels the young girls and women into such ventures. In the work of Agarwal et al. (1997) they lay emphasis on the survival strategies of the female head porters, whilst Hickey (2000) and Beauchemin (1999) findings focussed on Street children turned porters. Anarfi et al (2003) traced the migration of head porters to the South, to the regional uneven development in Northern Ghana, absolute poverty and the lack of employment prospects, land issues, climate change, conflicts, removal of subsidy on agriculture and social services as the factors accounting for the escalation in the mass migration process to the Accra and the other cities. The mass migration in the 1980 could for instance be attributed to the eighties severe drought and famine, coupled with the effects of the Structural Ajustment Programme reforms, resulted in southbound migration of unprecedented scale. With no skills, education or a well placed social net work in the city to rely on, these migrants engaged

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in pottering duties, construction labourers, domestic helps and garbage picking for survival. Opare (2003) and Agarwal et al (1997)

Kayayos resting in the shade. Image Source (http://tinyurl.com/6424pg7) AIMS AND OBJECTIVE OF THE RESEARCH The import of this study is to ascertain the socio economic impact of the surge in the influx of the female head porters (kayayo) in the capital city in recent years. The findings of the study could be used to influence the thinking of policy makers.

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RESEARCH DESIGN The choice of research strategy, research design or method is determined by the specific research question being asked. According to Bryman (2008) a research design is the framework for generating data. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The type of method to be used in a research is largely determined by the kind of data, which will be needed for answering the research question. The method that will best serve the study in data collection for the research will be semi structured interview schedule, systematic observation and secondary analyses of provisional 2010 Ghana census information and initial discussions with gate keepers of the various kayayo communities in Accra. This mixed approach to data collection is what is known in research parlance as triangulation. Triangulation, allows the research to be seen from different perspectives, as a result, ensure confidence in the trustworthiness of the research. (Laws et al, 2003)

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Since most of these kayayos are illiterates or near illiterates, coupled with the fact of their nomadic existence, self-completion questionnaire is therefore not an option in this research. Semistructured interviews offer the researcher the chance of gathering both quantitative and qualitative information at the same time, so it seems the best technique to exploit in data collection for a studies like this , care would be taken by the researcher to avoid asking leading questions. (Laws et al, 2003) The plight of the kayayo is widely known or people think they know, but sometimes, one need to experience a situation to better appreciate and understand. This is what anthropologists have been doing for years to source data for their investigations. A more qualitative data technique which will be used alongside the semi structured interview, is Systematic Observation. This technique allows the researcher to ascertain whether respondents actions mirror their words and note down variations and discrepancies by following a group on their daily rounds.

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SAMPLING METHOD The research will take cognisance of the fact that, the difference between a good quality research and a porous one can be attributable to the size and quality of the sample used in the collection of data. Given that, the research strategy is qualitative but with quantifiable aspects, the sampling methods will be mixed. Common knowledge and the literature review gave an indication that although, the head porters are mostly from the three Northern Regions of Ghana, predominantly, and one can distinguish, four main ethnic groups. They engage in what Awumbila, (2007) called as ethnic spacing i.e. a mutual understanding where each group operate in different parts of the central markets area of Accra to minimize conflicts and maximise returns. Therefore, the population has already been stratified through their own ingenuity. The natural stratified groupings will consist of (i.) the Dagombas, (ii.) the Wala, (iii.) the Mumprusi, (iv.) the Gonjas and (v.) Others The leaders of each group will be consulted for initial eye opening discursions and permission, though the kayayos are not under any

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compulsion to bow to the dictates of the leaders, it allows the researcher a certain latitude to operate without any encumbrance in the community. One week will be spent within the geographical mapping of each group, where snowball-sampling techniques will be used to engage respondents in forty-five minutes semi-structured interviews, with the aid of a trusted interpreter from the NGO community. The sample will cover 50 participants per the five stratified groups, giving a sample of 250 respondents. Snowballing is a purposive method appropriate where the potential participants are not easy to contact. In this case, it is necessary, as head porters do not have permanent residence and are also highly mobile during the day, as such difficult to track across the length and breadth of the business district. This method will make the porters more accessible to recruit for the interviews and shadowing (Opare, 2003). Most of the time, when this method is used, it does not lend itself well for generalisation but it is good for eliciting in-depth information on factors that, instigate their city bound migration and how their expectations compare with the real experience. However, due to the large sample size, coupled with the data sourced from the
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other techniques, the information generated can be manipulated to make generalisation to some extent. The research also proposes to have interviews with schedule officers from the Ministries of Employment and social welfare; Women and children; and Education and Youth to find out if there are any existing government policies, programmes or projects in place or in the pipeline to address some of the issues of the female head porters (kayayo) in Accra and other big urban centres. Another forum will also be created for representatives of NGOs and development officers who work with the kayayo community to make informed contributions on the subject matter. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS One of the first steps to take at the planning stage of the research is to study the relevant regulations and guidelines of the country or location of the research interest (Laws et al, 2003). At the preparatory stage, the relevant guidelines will be studied and written approval sought from the appropriate bodies. It is customary to present drinks and kola nuts to the leaders of the communities (gate keepers) in
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which the study will be based for permission and blessings. Since sensitive issues such as physical and sexual abuses, abortion and abandoning of babies upon delivery, will be explored, the respondents will be assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of the answers they divulge to the Researcher. Every waking hour of the head porter is important as for most times, they have to walk round for long hours before they can get patronage. The reason for this is due to supply outstripping demand in the city (Their numbers are more than the demands of the city). Therefore, in order for the study not to intrude on their daily income generation activity, participants will be paid the agreed value of one hour of their working time plus a little extra for lunch. One of the important considerations in giving incentives should be to ascertain whether the participants will have to forgo any income because of taking part in the research, and in this case, the answer is obviously yes! It can be in cash or kind. However giving the incentive has been a matter of hot debate among researchers, some have argued that, incentive giving creates a sense of obligation on the part of the respondent, who might exaggerate the answers to please the researcher. This has the
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potentials of creating distortions in the sample. Others have the view that, offering incentives or any form of remuneration is unethical in social science research as it encourages large response rate (Laws et al, 2003). Special care will be taken to limits distortions that will is likely to occur as a result of the incentives. THE ANALYTICAL TOOL AND INTERPRETATION The multi-source approach is expected to ensure a broader and indepth understanding of the Kayayo phenomena in Accra. QSR Nvivo, a software programme for qualitative analyses would be used for analysing all the transcripts from the semi-structured interviews, census information, stakeholder interviews plus the transcripts from the systematic Observation technique. It should be borne in mind that, qualitative analyses, always needs time and considerable skills; Nvivo though is very effective in these types of research, which uses multiple variables. However, the technique involved can prove a big challenge to the uninitiated.

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AFTER THE RESEARCH, WHAT NEXT? Measurers would be put in place to ensure that a sample of participants are consulted with the draft of the results and allowed for further feedback. Post research development and the way forward will also be discussed at such a forum. The results will be discussed with all stakeholders, including the representatives of relevant government agencies. Efforts will be made to ensure that, the findings do not gather dust on archival shelves. And a request will be made to funding agents to make additional budgetary provision for publication in all major electronic and print media in the Ghana and beyond for wider coverage in order to draw the attention of policy makers.

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REFERENCES Agarwal, S., Attah, A., Apt, N., Grieco, M., Kwakye, E.A., and Turner, J. 1997. Bearing the Weight: The Kayayoo Ghanas Working Girl Child. Centre for Social Policy Studies, Faculty of Social Studies, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra. Ana Goicoechea (2008), UP-6_Surveys.pdf - THE WORLD BANK GROUP: URBAN PAPERS, WASHINGTON, D.C. [Online], http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTURBANDEVELOPMEN T/Resources/336387-1169585750379/UP-6_Surveys.pdf, [Assessed 10th January 2011] Awumbila, M. 2007. Illegal Migration of West Africans to the West: Ghana Case Study. Report presented to Open Society Initiative of West Africa, Dakar, Senegal, June 2007, [Online], http://tinyurl.com/69x4n3j, [Assessed 28th December 2011] Baker, J. and N. Schuler. 2004. Analysing Urban Poverty: A Summary of Methods and Approaches. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper No. 3399.)
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 Beauchemin, E. (1999) The Exodus: The Growing Migration of Children From Ghanas Rural Areas To the Urban Centres Catholic Action for Street Children (CAS) and UNICEF pp 1-95 Bell, J., 2005. Doing your Research Project: A Guide for firsttime Researchers in Education, Health and Social Science. 4th ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press. Bryman, A. 'Why do researchers integrate/combine/mesh/blend/mix/merge/fuse quantitative and qualitative research?', in M. Bergman (ed.), Advances in Mixed Methods Research, (Sage, 2008) pp. 87-100. [Online], http://www.le.ac.uk/ulmc/academics/abryman.html, [Assessed 10th January 2011] De Haan, Arjan (1997), Rural-urban migration and poverty: the case of India, IDS Bulletin Vol 28, No 2, pages 35-47. Denzin, N. K. (1970). The Research Act in Sociology. Chicago: Aldine.

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 Denzin, Norman K. and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds., 1994, Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Diana Mitlin (2011), Understanding Urban Poverty: What the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers tell us, London, [Online], http://www.sdinet.org/static/upload/documents/understanding_u rban_poverty_mitlin.pdf, [Assessed 28th December 2011] Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) (2009) Core Welfare Indicator Questionnaire (CWIQ) Report. Accra: GSS. Guo Chen, Chaolin Gu, Fulong Wu. 2006. Urban poverty in the transitional economy: a case of Nanjing, China. Habitat International 30(1): 1-26. Haddad, L., Ruel, M.T., Garrett, J.L., 1999. Are urban poverty and undernutrition growing? Some newly assembled evidence. World Development 27(11), 1891-904. Hakim, Catherine (1982) Secondary analysis and the relationship between official and academic social research. Sociology, 16 (1). pp. 12-28

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 Hakim, Catherine (2000) Research design: successful designs for social and economic research. Routledge, London. Hakim, Catherine. 2000 Research Design. Successful designs for social and economic research. 2nd edn, Routledge, New York Hammersley, M. (1996). The relationship between qualitative and quantitative research: Paradigm loyalty versus methodological eclecticism. In J.T.E. Richardson (ed.), Handbook of Research in Psychology and the Social Sciences. Leicester UK: BPS Books Hickey, S. (2000) Exploring the Catholic Churchs response to Africas urban poor: an agenda for change: the Church and the poorest people in Lusaka and Accra A Report for Street Child Africa pp. 1-86. Macours, Karen & Johan F.M. Swinnen; RuralUrban Poverty Differences in Transition Countries, LICOS Centre for Institutions and Economic Performance, Discussion Papers, No. 169, 2007, pp. 13. [Online],
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http://www.iudergi.com/index.php/sosyalsiyaset/article/viewFile /93/88, [Assessed 10th January 2011] Maxwell, D., Levin, C., Armar-Klemesu, M., Ruel, M., Morris, S. and Ahiadeke, C. (2000) Urban livelihoods and food and nutrition security in Greater Accra, Ghana. Research Report 112. [On-line resource available at http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/abstract/abstr112.htm] Miles, M. B. & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. California. [Online], http://www.socresonline.org.uk/8/1/huberman.html, [Assessed 10th January 2011] Mollenkopf and Castells (1991), Dual City: Restructuring New York. Russell Sage Foundation of Social Development in Africa 18(2): 3348. Opare, J.A. 2003.Kayayei: The Women Head Porters of Southern Ghana. The Journal

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 Oppenheim. A.N 1992 (2nd. ed.) Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and Attitude Measurement. Guildford, UK. Pinter Publishers. Reichel, M., & Ramey, M. A. (Eds.). (1987). Conceptual frameworks for bibliographic education: Theory to Practice. Littleton Colorado: Libraries Unlimited Inc. [Online], http://www.iier.org.au/iier14/smyth.html, [Assessed 10th January 2011] Richard Crook (2002), Urban service partnerships street level bureaucrats and environmental sanitation in Kumasi and Accra, Ghana: coping with organisational change in the public bureaucracy, [Online], http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2004/Resources/22 514_crookWDR.pdf. [Assessed 28th December 2011] Roberto P. Guimaraes (2003), AWAITING FOR GODOT: GOVERNANCE, MARKETS AND ETHICS IN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES, [Online],

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http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/openmtg/docs/Guimaraes_plen ary.pdf, [Assessed 10th January 2011] Rocco, T. S., Bliss, L. A., Gallagher, S., Prez-Prado, A., Alacaci, C., Dwyer, E. S., et al. (2003). The pragmatic and dialectical lenses: Two views of mixed methods use in education. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Eds.). The handbook of mixed methods in the social and behavioural sciences (pp. 595-615). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [Online], http://www.osra.org/itlpj/roccoblissgallagherperezpradospring2003.pdf, [Assessed 10th January 2011] Susan Parnell and Tim Mosdell (2001), Recognising, explaining and measuring chronic urban poverty in South Africa, [Online], http://www.dfid.gov.uk/r4d/PDF/Outputs/ChronicPoverty_RC/P arnellMosdell.pdf, [Assessed 10th January 2011] WORLD BANK (1997). World Development Report, 1997: The State in a Changing World, Washington, D.C., World Bank. YEBOAH, M. A. & KWAME APPIAH-YEBOAH (2009), Nordic Journal of African Studies An Examination of the
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Cultural and Socio-Economic Profiles of Porters in Accra, Ghana, [Online], http://www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdffiles/vol18num1/appiah-yeboah.pdf, [Assessed 28th December 2010] Yin R. K. (1994): Case Study Research: Design and Methods. (2nd edition) California, Sage. Yin, R. (1993). Applications of case study research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publishing.

Appendix A SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEW WITH FEMALE HEAD PORTERS OPERATING IN THE CENTRAL BUSINESS DISTRICT OF ACCRA Name of interviewer_____________________ CODE No____________ Date ____________________________ Name of Respondent_____________
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Respondents are advised of the following: The information sought in this survey will be kept confidential. Your name will not be attached to the description of this data in presentations or publications made by the researcher. Yous can stop the interview if you feel you do not want to continue. Part A. Background 1. a. Which Part of Ghana do you hail from and Ethnicity? ______________________ b. Date of Birth_______,( if known)) c. Place of Birth c. Where have you lived for the most part of your life? _________________ d. What made you come to Accra? ______________________________________ ________________________________________________________ ______________

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A3. What language(s) do you speak? A5. Education ____ Primary school ____ junior secondary ____ Senior secondary ____ technical/vocational training ____ None A6. How long have you lived in Accra? ______ Less than one year _____ 1-2 years ______ 2-5 years _____ 5-10 years ______ 10-20 years _____ all my life A7. Marital and Household status ____Single/never married ____Live with boyfriend ____Married _____Married but separated _____Divorced
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______Widowed A8. Do you live with your husband? Yes______ No______ A9. What type of housing do you have? _____1 room compound house______uncompleted structure _____Kiosks ____On veranda______store front _____None _____other (specify) __________ A10. What facilities (utilities) do you have in your house? (Check all that apply) _____Private tap water ______well water _____stream water _____Public tap _____water closet ______public toilet ______Pit toilet in house _____electricity A11. What health services do you and your household has access to? _____Private hospital _____Private clinic ______Private doctor

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______Traditional healer ______Public clinic ______Druggist ______NGO or other non-profit care _______ Other (specify)______________________________ A12. Total number of people in your household____________ A13a. Who of the people mentioned above contribute to the household income? _________________ A13b. What budget areas do the other people in your household contribute to? _______food _____utilities _____rent ______health _____clothing _____transportation A13c. What portion of these household budgets does these other people? provide?__________________
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A13d. Do you receive assistant from anybody who is not a member of the household on these household budget Part B Work Related Questions B1. How long have you been a porter? ____Less than one-year _____1-2 years ____2-5 years ______5-10 years _____10-20 years _______ all my life B2. Why did you decide to be a kayayo? _________________________________ B3. Do you have some skills or training? _________Sewing __________baking __________hairdressing _________Weaving __________batik making ______other B4. Did somebody talk to you to become a porter? _______________________________________________

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B5. What do you need to become a kayayo? _________________________________ B6. Which of the areas in Accra do you normally operate? ______Makola ________James Town Market ______Agbogbloshie Market ________Ussher Town Market ______Kantanmato Market ________CMB _______ Tema Station B7. Why do you prefer to operate in a particular market? ___________________________ B8. Are there certain days that you prefer to cart load in a particular market? ______________ Why? B9. How much do you earn on a day on average?________ B10. How many trips can you make in a day to earn your maximum income? __________ B11. How do you price your load?
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________Weight ________Distance ________type of products B12. Do you have fixed prices that all kayayei agree upon? _________ B13. Who are your clients? ________________________________ B14. How many hours do you work as a kayayo in a day? __________2-4 hours __________4-6 hours ________6-8 hours __________8-10 hours __________-10-12 hours B15. Do you realize any changes in your kayayo activities in the last five years? If yes what are some of the changes? ________________________________________________________ B16. Do you engage in other income generating activities apart from kayayo? If yes what is the activity? ________________________________________________________ B17. If yes which of the activities do you consider to be your main income-earning activity?
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B18. How do you spend your income? B19.Are you able to provide for your needs (clothing, food, healthcare, housing) with the money you earn from being a porter? ______________________________ B20.Are you able to save money from daily earnings?_____________________ B21. Do you remit to family members relations at home?________________ If yes in what do you remit?______________________________________ B22. Who takes care of your children when come to the market to carry load? ________Nobody ____________other family members ________Daycare ____________friends/neighbor B23. Do you sometimes provide childcare for others? Who and how often?.

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B24. Have you ever received any material form of support from the following? _______Friends ____________family members _______NGO ____________government _______Other porters __________other (specify)

B25. Have you received any form of training (skill development) from? _________Family _________government __________NGO _________An institution _________other (specify) B26. Have you received any form of financial support from any of these people? _______Family __________organization ___________NGO _______Friends __________other (specify) B27. Do kayayei have any form of organization? If yes What are some of the issues that the organization deals with?
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What are some of the benefits that you have received from the organization? Part C. Role of the Government C1. What do you think of governments cash and carry system in health?________________ C1b. How does it affect you? ________________________________________________________ _ C2. Have you registered for the National Insurance Scheme? C2b. If no, who pays for medical Bills? _______Husband, ______family members ________NGO ______friends ________Other (specify) C3. How does cuts in educational subsidies impact on you? C4. How does trade competition affect you? ____________________

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C5. Do officials from city council harass you in the market? If yes why do they harass you? C6. What problems do you face in both your job and your living quarters? D1. Social issues: D2. Do you have a conjugal relationship with any one? D3. Have you suffered from any form of physical abuse before? (Optional) D4. If yes, do you know the perpetrators? D5. How many times? (Optional) D6. Did you report the incident to anyone? D7. If yes, what was the outcome? D8. Do you know anything about HIV/AIDS? ________________________________________________________ E1. Have you suffered from any unwanted pregnancy before? E2. Did you take the pregnancy to term?
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E3. Was it aborted? E4. If yes, by who? F1. Have your expectations been met since you migrate to Accra? F2. Will you like to go back to the North voluntary? F3. Would you advise other girls to migrate to the South to engage in the porting trade? F4. If you were to meet the President of Ghana today, what will you ask him to do for you?

End: January 2011 STUDENT ID: 2720509

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