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Pisin Chen
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Stanford University
Lecture 1. Introduction to Cosmology
10.Introduction
11.Dark Matter and Dark Energy
12.RobertsonWalker Metric and Hubble’ s Law
13.Cosmological Equations
14.Radiation, Matter, and VacuumEnergy Dominant Universes
2004 Sheffield Summer Institute on Particle Physics and Cosmology
BLACK HOLES AND THE EARLY UNIVERSE
Pisin Chen
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Stanford University
Lecture 2. Classical and NonClassical Black Holes
10.Black Holes: From Primordial to Supermassive
11.Basic General Relativity and Schwarzschild Black Hole
12.Black Hole Thermodynamics
13.Bekenstein Entropy and Hawking Temperature
14.Unruh Radiation
15.Generalized Uncertainty Principle and Fundamental Length
16.Modified Black Hole Evaporation and Black Hole Remnant
2004 Sheffield Summer Institute on Particle Physics and Cosmology
BLACK HOLES AND THE EARLY UNIVERSE
Pisin Chen
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
Stanford University
Lecture 3. Inflation and Black Hole Remnants
8. Introduction to Inflation
9. Inflation and Primordial Black Hole Production
10. PlanckSize Black Hole Remnant as Dark Matter
2004 Sheffield Summer Institute on Particle Physics and Cosmology
INTRODUCTION
• Standard model of cosmology
The universe started with a hot big bang which expands
Connection of the microscopic world – standard model of
elementary particle physics – and the macroscopic world – the
early universe
• Recent developments
The universe is extremely isotropic and homogenious (the
horizon problem) and flat ( = / c = 1)
Why? Inflationary universe
Luminous matter (protons, neutrons, stars, etc.): b~35%
Dark matter: DM ~2025% What is it?
Dark energy (or vacuum energy): ~7075% What is it?
A Breif History
of Time
Q: Why is the universe homogenious and flat?
A: Inflation
COMPOSITION OF THE UNIVERSE
Evidence for Dark Matter
BASIC GENERAL RELATIVITY
• What is general relativity?
Einstein’s geometric theory of gravity (1915)
Matter and energy distort/curve nearby spacetime
Solar system: distortion only about 106
Black holes: distortion about 1!
• What is general relativity (continued)?
Metric is a field Einstein field equations:
Gµ = (8 G/c4)Tµ
geometry of energymomentum
spacetime source of gravity
RobertsonWalker Metric
• To describe a 3D space which is homogenious and isotropic:
k=1, 3sphere (close)
k=0, 3plane (flat)
dl2 = dr2/(1–kr2/R2) + r2(d 2 + sin2 d 2 ) , k=1, 3pseudosphere
(open)
• Introducing a new dimensionless radial marker u by
r = Ru/(1+ku2/4) .
Then we can rewrite the metric as
dl2 = R2/(1+ku2/4)[du2 + u2(d 2 + sin2 d 2 )] .
• Now we allow the 3space to expand with time. Then
we have
ds2 =c2dt2− R(t)2/(1+ku2/4)[du2 + u2(d 2 + sin2 d 2 )] .
This is the wellknown RobertsonWalker cosmological metric.
EnergyMomentum Tensor
• Introducing the cosmological constant , the full Einstein
equation becomes
G + g = 8 G/c4 T ,
where T is the energymomentum tensor. For a perfect fluid,
T = u u + p/c2(u u − g ) , u =dx /ds= (1/c)dx /d .
• In RobertsonWalker metric we have
u =dx /ds= (1,0,0,0) , and u = g u = (1,0,0,0) .
• From this, the energymomentum becomes particularly simple,
0 0 0
0 p 0 0
T = .
0 0 p 0
0 0 0 p
Cosmological Equations
• Now we regroup together the three basic cosmological
equations:
ds2 =c2dt2− R(t)2/(1+ku2/4)[du2 + u2(d 2 + sin2 d 2 )] ,
T = u u + p/c2(u u − g ) ,
G + g = 8 G/c4 T .
• Friedmann Equation:
The diagonal elements of the Einstein tensor are
G00 = –3[k/R2 + R 2/c2R2] ,
G11 = G22 = G33 = –[k/R2 + R 2/c2R2 + 2R 2/c2R ] .
Inserting into the Einstein equations, we find two
cosmological equations:
(1) – (8 G/c4) = – 3[k/R2 + R 2/c2R2] ,
(2) (8 G/c4)p = –[k/R2 + R 2/c2R2 + 2R 2/c2R ] .
Let’ s rewrite the first equation as
[(8 G/c4) + ] – 3H2/c2 = 3k/R2 . (Friedmann equation)
Equation of Continuity
• Equation of continuity:
The zero divergence of Einstein tensor G guarantees the
divergenceless of the energymomentum tensor, i.e., T || = 0.
Its time component gives the equation of continuity,
T0 || = T0 | = T00|0 + T0i|i
= ( )|0 + 1/c( v)|i = 1/c[∂ /∂t + ∙( v)] = 0.
Conservation of Energy
• Subtracting cosmological equation (1) from (2), we obtain
(4 G/c4)(p+ )= k/R2 + R 2/c2R2 – R 2/c2R = k/R2 –1/c2(R/ R)'
.
Differentiating (1) we find
(4 G/c4) ' = –3R/R [k/R2 –1/c2(R/ R)'
] .
Comparing the two, we find
'
+ 3(p+ )R /R = 0 .
• This equation demonstrates the conservation of energy during
the evolution of the universe.
• It also dictates how matter and radiation density behave as the
universe evolves.
Hubble’s Law
• The velocity v of recession of a galaxy is approximately
proportional to its distance L from us:
v = HL , H= 70±10 km/sec/Mpc.
• In RobertsonWalker metric, the Doppler redshift of the light from
the galaxy is
v/c = z = ∆ / = [R(to) − R(te)]/ R(te) .
If R does not change too rapidly in time, we may expand this to
obtain
v/c = [R(te) + R´(te)(to − te) − R(te)]/ R(te) = R´(te)/R(te) (to − te) .
The distance L of a nottoodistant galaxy is appox. c(to − te). So
v = R´(te)/R(te)L a´(te)/a(te)L ,
where a is a normalized dimensionless scale factor, a(te) R (te)/R.
• Finally, the Hubble “ constant” (or parameter) is
H = R´(te)/R(te) a´(te)/a(te) .
• In cosmology, one usually invokes a dimensionless Hubble
parameter h:
h = H0 /100 km s1 Mpc1 ,
where the Hubble time H01= 9.78 ×109 h–1 yr.
• Beyond the linear regime:
Taylor expansion of the scale factor,
R(te)=R(to) + R´(to)(to − te)+ R"(to)(to − te)2/2 .
we have the redshift
z = H(to − te)+ H2 (to − te)2(1+q)/2 ,
where
q = R"(to) R(to)/ R´(to)2 .
The measurement of q can teach us a lot about the nature of
our universe.
Equation of State
• It is common practice to close the system of fluid equations by
means of an equation of state. This is done by defining the rest
mass density 0 and let
p/c2 = ( – 1)( – 0) .
• For cold gas, is the ratio of specific heats (= 5/3 monotomic gas).
• For ultrarelativistic fluid, p = c2/3, = 4/3.
Radiation and Matter Dominant Universes
• Radiation dominant universe:
3p = .
Combining the two cosmological equations and with = 0,
we find
c2k + R 2 + RR 2 = 0 .
Solving for R, we have
H = R/ R = (1/2)(1/t) , R ∞ t1/2 .
• Matter dominant universe (Friedmann universe):
For a world dominated by nonrelativistic (cold) matter, p = 0.
For negligible , the 2nd cosmological equation becomes
c2k + R 2 + 2RR 2 = 0 .
Solving for R, we find
H = R/ R = (2/3)(1/t) , R ∞ t2/3 .
VacuumEnergy Dominant Universe
• Friedmann equation in a vacuum energy dominated universe
where
p = – ,
has three solutions:
sinh Ht (k= –1)
R ∞ cosh Ht (k=+1)
exp Ht (k= 0) ,
where H=√ c2/3 .
• Note that all solutions evolve towards the exponential k= 0
solution, known as the de Sitter space.
Condition for an Accelerating Universe
• Recall that from General relativity when gravity is negligible,
R = 0 (and therefore a = 0). Once the gravity is taken into
account, we have
a/ a = –( +3p)/6MPl + /3 .
• Under negligible contribution from the cosmological constant
, we see that the condition for inflation to occur, i.e., that a/ a
>> 0, is
+3p < 0 .
• Cosmological constant, or , is not the only possible answer to
the dark energy problem. A general class of cosmologies
allows for p = w , where w> 1/3.
Energy Density of the Universe
• Define the density of the vacuum as
= c4/8 G,
and the critcal density as
c = 3c2H2/8 G.
• Define dimensionless density parameters as
Ωm + Ωr = / c and Ω = / c .
Then the Friedmann equation tells us
kc2/H2R2 = Ωm + Ωr + Ω – 1 .
Thus, a flat universe (k=0) requires the total energy density in
the universe be equal to unity at all times:
Ω = Ωi = Ωm + Ωr + Ω = 1 .