Chemistry Chapter 3

Elements and Compounds

Classifying the elements

3.1 The Periodic table

1. Mendeleev was the first to put forward the idea of the periodic table in 1869.
2. The elements in the periodic table are arranged according to increasing atomic mass.
3. The vertical columns are called the groups. There are 8 groups.
4. The horizontal rows are called the periods.
5. Elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons and so
they have similar properties.
6. The period number tells you the number of electron shells.
7. The broadest distinction between the elements is the metals and non metals. They are
separated by a zig zag line that starts from boron.
8. Gallium is a metal that melts in your hand.

3.2 Metals and non metals

1. There are 94 naturally occurring elements.

2. 70of them are metals.
3. Some are man made like Plutonium and neptunium.
4. Steel, bronze and brass are alloys, mixtures of elements designed for a particular
purpose.
5. Non metals are less uniform than metals. This reflects the wider differences in the
types of structure of non-metals.
6. Metals are elements that conduct electricity and are malleable and ductile.

Properties of Metals Properties of non metals

Solids at room temp Liquids of gases at room temp
High density Low density
High mp and bp Low mp and bp
Grey Vary in Colour
Malleable and ductile Brittle
Sonorous Not sonorous
Conduct heat and electricity Insulators

7. Elements near the zig zag line are called the metalloids because they share the
properties of metals and non metals. They are insulators of heat and are brittle ut are
good semi-conductors.

3.3 Groups and periods in the Periodic Table

1. Elements from group I to 0 are called the main group elements.

2. Elements of the same group have similar properties.
3. Between group 2 and 3, is the transitions elements. First period with these is 4.
4. Noble gases are the least reactive because they have full outer shells.
5. Group VII and group I are the most reactive.

3.4 Electron arrangement and periodic table

1. We link the chemical properties of an element with its position on the periodic table
and its electronic arrangement.
2. Elements in each group have the same chemical properties because they all have the
same number of outer shell electrons because the outer shell electrons gives an atom
its chemical properties.
3. Each elements in a period has 1 one more electron than the previous one.
4. Having 8 electrons in the outer shell makes an atom stable- therefore the noble gases
are difficult to break up.

3.5 Patterns in the Periodic table

1. Elements are arranged according to increasing atomic mass.

2. The atomic size increase downward and decreases right on a period.
3. The group number tells you the number of outer shell electrons and the elements of
the same group have the same chemical properties.
4. The elements become more metallic down a group and left a period.
5. In metals the reactivity increases down a group.
6. Group I is the most reactive metallic group and the most reactive elements in that
group is Cesium.
7. In non metals reactivity increases up a group.
8. The most reactive non metal group is group VII and the most reactive non metal is
fluorine.
9. Densities and boiling points increase down a group.
10. When atoms bond or chemically react they are trying to achieve the electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas.
11. Group I and Group VII are the most reactive because they are closest to the noble
gases.

3.6 Trends across periods.

1. Each element across a period has one more electron than the one before it.
2. Elements change from metallic to non metallic from the left to the right. This can be
seen in period 3, from sodium to argon, the main change in properties takes place near
the metalloid silicon.

3.7 New Elements and versions of the periodic Table

1. Some scientists are making new elements in particle accelerators.

2. In particle accelerators the atoms are of different elements are moving very fast and if
they hit each other, they merge and an atom of new element is born.
3. The new versions of the periodic table include the new elements.

3.8 The position of hydrogen in the periodic table

1. Different versions put it on top of group I or VII.

2. New versions leave it by itself because its properties are distinctly unique.

Chemical bonding in elements and compounds

1. Chemical Bonding involves the outer shell electrons of an atoms, what ever the type
of bond it is.

3.9 Chemical bonding in the elements

1. The atoms of some elements exist as diatomic molecules, a molecule containing 2

atoms bonded together (this is true for some non metals) e.g.: O2, h2, I2, Cl2, Br2.
2. The only elements that are made of individual atoms are the noble gases because their
electron arrangements are so stable that they combine with each other.
3. In most elements their atoms are held together by some type of bonding.
4. Metallic elements are held together by metallic bonding, which results in metallic
lattices.
5. Non metallic elements are held together by covalent bonds or exist as individual
atoms (noble gases). Covalent bond results in simple molecules or giant molecular
lattices.

Bonding in Metals
6. Metals have relatively few electrons in their outer shells. When tightly packed
together, each metal atom losses its outer shell electrons to a sea of free electrons (or
mobile electrons).
7. Having lost electrons, the metal atoms become ions (a charged particle made from an
atom by the loss or gain of electrons). As they become ions they achieve a more
stable electron arrangement, usually similar to the one of the nearest noble gas.
8. Therefore the structure of a metal is made of positive ions packed together,
surrounded by delocalized electrons (not restricted to orbiting one ion). The electrons
form the electrostatic glue which holds the structure together.
9. Metals are able to conduct heat and electricity, because the free electrons are able to
move through the lattice carrying the charge. (a lattice is a regular 3d arrangement of
atoms, molecules or ions in a crystalline solid).

Bonding in non metals

10. Hydrogen, the most common element in the universe, exists as diatomic molecules,
H2. The two atoms bond together by sharing electrons to gain a share of 2 electrons,
which is the electron arrangement of the nearest noble gas helium.
11. A bond formed by the sharing of outer shell electrons to gain a share of a full outer
shell between a pair of atoms is called the covalent bond.
12. Feature of the bond are as follows:
a. The bond is formed by the sharing of a pair of outer shell electrons between 2
atoms. (the forces of attraction between the nuclei and the shared electrons are
greater than any forces of repulsion).
b. Each atom contributes one electron to each bond.
c. A molecule is a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.
13. If one pair of electrons are shared it is called a single bond. It is represented by
drawing one line between 2 H symbols.
14. If 2 pairs of electrons are shared it is a double bond. E.g. : O2
15. If 3 pairs of electrons are shared it is a triple bond. E.g. : N2
16. Phosphorus P4 and sulphur S8 are the most complicated simple covalent molecules.
In both, single bonds hold the structure together.
17. The non-metals in the middle of the main group elements form giant covalent
structures, held together by single covalent bonds. In these the atoms are joined
together in an extensive network and these structures are very strong because all the
atoms are interlinked with each other by strong covalent bonds. E.g. Carbon and
Silicon.

3.10 Chemical bonding in compounds

1. There are two major types of bonding which hold compounds together
a. Metal + non meal compounds are held together by ionic bonding (this
involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another to form positive
and negative ions. These compounds are held together by the electrostatic
forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions). It results in giant
ionic lattices.
b. Non metal + nonmetal compounds are held together by covalent bonding (this
involves the sharing of outer shell electrons between a pair of atoms). It
results in giant covalent structures or simple molecules.

Covalent Compounds

2. In covalent compounds the bond is formed by the sharing of outer shell electrons to
gain a share of a full outer shell between 2 atoms
3. Multiple bonds can also exist in covalent compounds eg: CO2
4. Sand which is made of silicon (IV)oxide has a giant molecular structure. It is very
hard and has a high melting point. The whole structure is held together by strong
covalent bonds.

Ionic Compounds
1. Features of the ionic bond are:
o Metals always loose electrons to form positive ions, the charge on a
positive ion is equal to the number of electrons lost.
o Non metals always loose electrons to form negative ions. The charge on a
negative ion is equal to the number of electrons gained.
o In both cases, ions have a more stable arrangement, usually that of the
nearest noble gas.
o The bond results from the electrostatic forces of attraction between ions of
opposite charge.
2. Ionic compounds are solids at room temperature. The ions arrange themselves so that
they are surrounded by ions of the opposite charge in the lattice.
3. The whole giant ionic lattice is held together by electrostatic forces of attraction that
occur between particles of the opposite charge.

Polyatomic or compound ions

1. Polyatomic ions are negative ions containing a group of atoms e.g. SO4, NO3, OH
2. They have negative charges because they have gained electrons to have a stable
arrangement.
3. NH4 is the only positive polyatomic ion.

3.11 The physical properties of the ionic and covalent compounds

Properties of ionic compounds Reasons for properties

They are crystalline solids at room
temperature.
The high melting and boiling points
Soluble in water
Conduct electricity when molten or
dissolved
There is a regular arrangement of ions in
the lattice. Ions of the opposite charge are
next to each other
Ions are attracted to each other by strong
electrostatic forces. Large amount of heat is
needed to overcome these forces and
separate them.
Water is polar solvent. Charged ions can
move in it
In a liquid or dissolved, the ions are free to
move. They can move towards electrodes if
voltage is applied.

Properties of simple covalent compounds Reasons for properties

They are often liquids of gases at room
temperatures
They have low melting or boiling points
They are soluble in organic compounds
They do not conduct electricity
The substances are made of simple
molecules. The atoms are joined together
by covalent bonds.
The inter-molecular forces are very weak.
Not much energy is needed to over come
them
Covalent substances dissolve is covalent
solvents
There are no ions present to carry the
charge

3.12 The chemical formulas of elements and compounds

• The size of the charge of an ion is a measure of its valency or combining power.
• The valency of an element in the main group of elements can be worked out by using
the following rules:
o Group I to IV valency = group number
o Group V to VII valency = 8- group number
o Group O valency = 0

Questions
3.8
a. Structure B represents an atom because an atom is a neutral particle containing equal
number of protons and electrons.
b. The electronic structures of both A and B are stable because both have full outer
shells.
c. A= Lithium and B= Helium
d. At the centre of the atom is the nucleus which contains the protons and neutrons.
e.
Particle Relative charge Relative mass
Proton 1+ 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron 1- 1/1840

3.9
a. (i) TUVX
(ii)W
(iii)Y
b. (i) X
(ii) It has a high melting and boiling point and also it can conduct electricity when
molten or in water, but not as a solid.
c. V, because it melts and fizzes in water.
d. (i) T and V
(ii)Both have good electrical conductivity as a solid or molten.
e. (i) V
(ii) Group 1 metals react strongly with water to produce Hydrogen and their metal
hydroxide makes the water ionic. It also has relatively low melting and boiling points.

3.10
a. Hydrogen, carbon and oxygen
b. 8
c. Between carbon and oxygen
d. ?4
e. Liquid because they are made of simple molecules and the atoms are held together by
covalent bonds so there is no force of attraction between the different molecules – weak
intermolecular forces.
f. No? There are no charged particles in it.

3.11
The atoms are arranged to make Code letter
One compound only R
A mixture of an elements + compound Q

b. C, D. Because they have high boiling points and good electrical conductivity in solid
and liquid.

c. They all have 1 electron in the outer shell so this means they all have similar
properties- e.g. their strong reactivity with water and air and acid.

d.(i) 11
(ii)17
(iii)Neutrons

e (i) Sodium atom looses one electron form the outer shell electron to become an ion. The
sodium ion has a full outer shell with 8 electrons.
(ii) There is no change in the nucleus of sodium when an ion is formed. Ions are made the
loss or gain electrons not protons.
f. Cl-
g. Because each sodium atom looses 1 electron which is gained by one chlorine atom to
become ions.
h. Chlorine is made of simple molecules and the atoms are held together by covalent
bonds so the intermolecular forces between the molecules is weak. It is also a gas a room
temperature.
Sodium is a solid in room temperature and it the intermolecular force of attraction is
strong. The high boiling point means it’s a metal which means that it is made of positive
ions packed together surrounded by a sea of electrons.

3.13
a. Flouride
b. (i)Kcl
Na F
Mg(MO3)2
(ii) Sodium chloride, Calcium Chloride
c (i) The boiling point of pure water is 100 degrees. Because mineral water contains
impurities the boiling point will be higher than that.
d. By evaporating 1lire of water, and then weighing the residue.

Extension
Molecular Shape
1. One important feature of covalent compounds is that they have a specific shape.
2. The sharing of a pair of electrons between a pair of electrons gives a fix on these
electrons.
3. The shared electrons repel each other and this repulsion gives covalent compounds
their shapes. They repel each other as far apart as possible.
4. Ammonia and water have pairs of electrons that are not shared; these pairs are called
lone pairs.
5. The different types of molecular shapes

Shape Example Reason

Linear CO2

Bent or v haped SO2, H2O 3atoms

Triangular planar SO3 4 atoms

Triangular NH3 4 atoms, one atom has a lone pair

pyramidal
Tetrahedral CH4 5 atoms

Forces between molecules

6. Covalent bonds are strong and hold the atoms in a molecule together.
7. However simple molecular compounds have low melting and boiling points because
they week intermolecular forces.
8. Intermolecular forces are the forces that hold the particles in a solid or liquid close
together.
9. In simple molecular compounds, these are very weak and don’t need that much
energy break them.
10. For example, in water molecules, the electrons are not equally shared between the
atoms. The electrons are closer to the oxygen atom than the hydrogen atoms.
11. This means Oxygen is slightly negative ( ) and hydrogen ( ) is slightly positive.
12. This is why water is called a polar liquid.
13. The positive region of one molecule weakly attracts the negative region of another.
These are the intermolecular forces in simple molecules, and what is holding the
water molecules together in liquid and solid state.
14. When heat is supplied, these weak forces are easily broken, so the melting point is
lower than compared to metals.

Oxidation States
15. Oxidation state is the number which shows whether an element gets oxidized or
reduced.
16. The oxidation state of an ion is simply the charge of the ion.
17. The Oxidation state of a compound and element is 0
18. Oxidation is
a. The addition of Oxygen and the removal of hydrogen
b. An increase in the oxidation number
c. A loss of electrons
i. This means all metal atoms become oxidized when they become ions.
19. A redox reaction is one where oxidation and reduction occurs.
20. Oxidation sates are useful for naming compounds and for deciding whether an
element has been oxidized or reduced in an experiment

Questions
3.14
a. 26
b. titanium has 4 more electrons
c. the highest oxidation sate for titanium is 4
3.15
b.i. When atoms chemically react or bond with each other, they are trying to achieve a
full outer shell. When an atom of sodium combines with an atom of chlorine, the 1
electron in sodium atom’s outer shell is transferred to the outer shell of chlorine atom.
Having lost an electron, sodium becomes a positive ion with a charge of 1+. Having
gained an electron to have 8 electrons in the outer shell, chlorine becomes a negative
electron with -1 charge.
ii. ionic bonding

c.i. 2 Chlorine atoms share a pair (1 electron each) of electrons to gain a full (8 electrons)
in the outer shell.
Ii covalent bonding

3.16
a. It means that the element does not form ions or chemically bond- doesn’t get oxidized
or reduced/
b. The oxidation of a simple ion is the charge of it. The charge of an ion depends on the
number of electrons in its outer shell (valance electrons). Therefore different elements
have different oxidation states because they different numbers of outer shell electrons.

The Structure of materials

1. There are 3 units from which solids are made: atoms, ions and molecules.
2. These three particles form 4 different structures in the solid state:
a. Giant metallic lattices: a lattices made of positive ions and a sea of
electrons
b. Giant ionic lattices: A lattice of alternating positive and negative ions.
c. Giant molecular lattices: a giant molecule making the lattice.
d. Simple molecular lattice: simple molecules in a lattice held together by
weak forces.

3.14 Basic physical properties

1. These are the properties we consider when we use a material. Or make an alloy.

Melting point
2. Controls the physical state of materials.
3. It limits the temperature at which the material remains solid and structurally useful.

Density
4. This is the mass per unit volume. Higher the density, higher the mass per unit
volume.
5. M = D*V
Hardness
6. It is a measure of the strength and rigidity of the bonding in a structure.
7. It controls how easily the structure breaks when a force is applied
8. A hard material will dent a softer one. A hard material will withstand impact without
changing.
9. It difficult to measure hardness, and it is often compared with another material
10. The Moh’s scale of hardness is based on one material scratching another. Diamond
is the hardest

Toughness
11. It is a measure of the energy needed to break a material.
12. Typical tough materials have high breaking stress and do not break in a brittle way.
Ionic solids are hard but not tough.

Flexibility and tensile strength

13. Materials used in construction have to withstand being compressed and stretched.
14. When a material is bent, one side is compressed, and the other side is stretched.
15. Metals are malleable and ductile. This is because the bonding in metals are quite
flexible, the layers of ions in a metal can slide over each other without breaking the
metallic bonding. The ions are still held together by the electrostatic glue of
attraction.
16. Some materials are able to return to their original length after stretching. They are
elastic materials. But if you pull a material beyond its elastic limit, then it won’t
return to its original length.

Electrical and thermal conductivity.

17. The conduction of electricity through a solid depends on there being free electrons
that are able to move the lattice. This ability is restricted to metallic elements, alloys
and graphite.
18. Some compounds can conduct electricity, but not in the solid state., like ionic
compounds.
19. Metals can also conduct heat because of the free electrons.
20. But giant molecular substances can conduct heat better because all the molecules are
interlinked. This means that the vibrations are passed on quickly through the
structure.

Solubility in solvents
21. Different liquids will dissolve different substances. This depends on the type of
particles they are made of.
22. ionic solids will dissolve in water. And simple molecules will dissolve in organic
solvents.
23. Giant molecular does not dissolve.
3.15 Exploring physical structure by X-ray diffraction

1. Knowledge of the particles in a structure can give us clues as to how they are bonded
together
2. Sometimes it is possible to gain clues from their shape, as different crystals of the
same substance have the same shape.
3. Common salt is cubic, whereas quartz crystals are hexagonal
4. If crystals form such definite shapes, then the particles are arranged in a regular way.
5. X rays can be used to investigate the way the particles are packed together.
6. The crystal causes the x-rays to diffract to form a diffraction pattern, which is a
pattern that contains dark and light areas.
7. Photographs can be taken and analyzed by computers to work out the positions of the
particles in the crystal.

3.16 Metal Crystals

1. The structure of a metal, with positive ions surrounded by delocalized electrons,

explain the properties of metals.
2. In most metals the ions are packed as close to each other as possible. That’s why they
have high densities.
3. Some metal, such as the alkali metals have lower densities. Sodium and lithium can
float on water.
4. Metals are malleable and ductile. This is because the bonding in metals are quite
flexible, the layers of ions in a metal can slide over each other without breaking the
metallic bonding. The ions are still held together by the electrostatic glue of
attraction.
5. They can also be stretched into wires. The strength of metallic bonding means that
they do not break under these forces. The bonds are strong but not rigid. This gives
them high tensile strength.
6. The mobility of delocalized electrons means that they can conduct heat and
electricity. Copper is particularly good at conducting electricity.
7. Metals are crystalline. These crystals can be seen under a microscope.
8. The crystalline areas are called grains. The boundaries between crystals are called
grain boundaries.
9. The smaller the grain size, the stronger and harder the metal.
10. Metals can be made stronger or weaker by varying the time it takes for the grains to
form.
11. Is the metal is melted and cooled down slowly, then it would form large grains. Large
grains means that the metal is weaker. This is called annealing
12. If the grains are made to form rapidly by cooling the metal fast, the grains are smaller
and so the metal is stronger. This process is called quenching.
13. The hardness of metal can be changed by beating or rolling it.
3.17 Alloys

1. Making alloys is the most common way for changing the properties of a metal.
2. Alloys are made by mixing molten metals together and allowing them to cool. When
liquid, the metals are mixed thoroughly. Alloys are solid solutions.
3. Alloying often results in stronger metals than the original individual metals.
Aluminum is combined with copper, which makes a metal called duralumin which
combines strength with lightness, and so is perfect for aircraft.
4. After alloying, the impurity atoms prevent slippage of the atoms by keying them
together.
5. The alloy is stronger and more brittle.
6. Alloys are also made for reasons other than strength. For example, solder has a low
melting point and therefore it is good for electrical connections and stainless steel
does not rust.

Ionic Crystals

1. In ionic compounds form lattices that contain positive and negative ions.
2. The ions arrange themselves so that each ion is surrounded by ions of the opposite
charge. In Na Cl, each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl- ion.
3. There are equal numbers of positive and negative ions, so the charge balances.
4. Ionic crystals are hard, but much more brittle than metallic crystals. This is because in
metallic lattices, identical ions are against each other. But in ionic lattices, ions of the
opposite charges are against each other,
5. In ionic crystals, when one layer is forced to slide against another, the repulsion
between ions of the same charge causes the crystals to fracture.
6. Disruption of an ionic lattice is also brought about by water. Ionic compounds are
able to dissolve in water.
7. Water molecules are able to interact with positive and negative ions.
8. Each ion gets surrounded by water molecules and this breaks up the lattice. For those
ionic compounds that do not dissolve in water the forces between the ions must be
very strong.
9. Ions are able to carry current when they are melted or dissolved because they are able
to move.

3.19 Giant molecular crystals

1. Giant molecular crystals are held together by strong covalent bonds.

2. They exist in elements and compounds. E.g. Carbon (diamond and graphite; and
Silica (Sio2).
3. Properties of Diamond and Silica
Property Reason
Hard The carbon atoms in diamond are
covalently joined to 4 others.
High melting and boiling points The whole structure is interlinked with
strong covalent bonds. Large amount of
 energy need to break them
Does not conduct electricity All the electrons are used to form covalent
bonds and so there are no electrons that can
carry the charge.

4. Graphite is also a giant molecular structure but has very different properties

Properties Reason
Soft and Slippery The carbon atoms are liked together in a
hexagon and made of layers that lie on top
of each other. Between the layers there are
weak forces of attraction (van der Waal’s
forces). The layers are able to slide over
each other easily
Conducts electricity Each carbon atom is joined to 3 others; this
leaves one electron that is not used in the
bonding and move through the lattice
carrying the charge.

5. Uses of carbon and Diamond

a. Diamond is very had and therefore used in drills. In carbon the layers can
slider over each other and this used in pencils and in lubricants.
b. Diamond looks like a colorless crystal and so is used in jewelry.
c. Graphite can conduct electricity and this used as brushes in electric motors
and as electrodes.

Questions