NAME: STUDENT: SUBJECT: CHAPTER: PROJECT: COURSE:

MAHAOANE T.C 802029097 STRESS ANALYSIS IV 3.48 1 B-TECH MECHANICAL

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Content Page

Declaration Introduction Background information Graphs Discussion Results Conclusion Recommendations References

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Declaration I _________________________________(surname and initials), ________________ (student number) a B.Tech student in Mechanical Engineering at University of Johannesburg, Doornforntein Campus, hereby confirm that this Project is individual effort and did not collude with any student in producing this Project. All outsourced information has been acknowledged in the referencing section of the Project.

Introduction
A roof truss is a structural frame relying on a triangular arrangement of webs and chords to transfer loads to reaction points. The horizontal pieces forming the top and bottom of the truss are called the chords, the vertical piece connecting the chord and the sloping are collectively called the web. Roof trusses are made out of wood and also piece of metal. All trusses in a roof structure are designed for the worst possible combination of dead, live and wind loads. This arrangement gives them high strength- toweight ratios, which permit longer spans than conventional framing, and offers greater flexibility in floor plan layouts. The individual truss members are designed to restrain the corresponding forces i.e.., tension or compression, or a combination of bending with either the tension or compression force. Basic mechanics of a truss Tension With this type of force the member being pulled or subjected to a tension force is said to be in tension. The ability of a member to restrain tension forces depends on the material strength of the member and its cross sectional area. Compression When a structural member is subjected to this type of force it is sometimes referred to as a column. Unlike a tension member, the ability of a column to restrain compression forces is not simply a function of the cross-sectional area, but a combination of the material strength, the column length and the crosssectional shape of the column. Bending bending moment is the result of a force applied to a cantilever, for example: a diving board, or to a simple beam. The load carrying capacity of a beam is dependent upon the strength of the material and also the cross-sectional shape of the beam. In the case of the beam, unlike the column, the deeper section having the same cross-sectional area will be the stronger member in bending. Beams subject to bending moments also require lateral restraints as with columns.

Background of information
A Venetian architect named Andrea Palladio (1518-1580), is credited as the first to recognize a truss, he was first to publish the information that was available in that era in his book For Books of Architecture. Early trusses were small and simple, its function was to help people cross rivers and valleys, truss principle which the bridge was first application caused a commercial revolution in Europe. These early timber bridges consisted of piles driven into the river bend, with timber beams spanning longitudinally between piles and caps. In the beginning of the 19th century there was few designs patents by Town (1820), Canfield (1833), Howe (1840) and Whipple (1841). These trussed used much shorter elements; they had simple compression and axial tension members. In the 20th century Bigger and faster trains with stronger and heavier locomotive and vehicles were made. Latest trusses were well equipped to handle these loads and traffic, these were due to development in manufacturing of steel, these steel was than iron which offered better quality and homogeneity. Characteristics of a truss A truss consists of triangles because of the structural stability of that design and shape. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not change shape when the lengths of sides are fixed, while for a four sided figure the angles and lengths must be fixed to retain its shape. The simplest truss is a single triangle, because of stability of this shape and methods of analysis used to calculate the forces within it, a truss made out entirely of triangles is known as simple truss. A space truss is a three dimensional framework of members pinned at their ends. A tetrahedron shape is a simplest space truss consisting of six members meeting at four joints. Classification of truss According to the material Wood truss Wood trusses are widely used in single- and multi-family residential, institutional, agricultural and commercial construction. A truss is a structural frame relying on a triangular arrangement of webs and chords to transfer loads to reaction points. This arrangement gives them high strength- to-weight ratios, which permit longer spans than conventional framing, and offers greater flexibility in floor plan layouts. They can be designed in almost any shape or size, restricted only by manufacturing capabilities, shipping limitations and handling considerations. Light frame wood trusses are prefabricated by pressing galvanized steel truss plates into wood members that are pre-cut and assembled in a jig. Applications

Truss shapes have almost unlimited variety, thus allowing for distinctive roof shapes.

Many restaurant chains choose to expose their corporate identity in the prefabricated metal plate connected wood truss roof design of their buildings. Metal plate connected trusses are used to create arches of all types. Wood trusses used in specialized applications such as agricultural and commercial buildings provide spans exceeding 25m. As a testament to their strength, wood trusses are used in concrete formwork, scaffolding and false work for industrial projects. The open web configuration of roof and floor trusses allows easy placement of plumbing, electrical, mechanical and sanitary services. Vaulted ceilings are easily made: bottom chords of pitched trusses can be sloped, or parallel chord pitched trusses bearing on supports at different elevations can be used. Attic trusses are designed to provide living areas within the roof space. Wood trusses are very versatile and compatible with other structural products. They can be connected to other trusses (i.e. girder trusses) or combined with other components, such as glulam, LVL, PSL and steel beams. In North America, wood roof trusses are commonly supported on concrete or masonry walls using simply installed connections to join the roof to the walls. Hinged connector plates used with mono-pitch trusses allow modular homes to be assembled with conventional roof pitches, greatly enhancing their appearance

Steel truss

Steel trusses have been being used in commercial building construction for a long time. In the past 10 years, there has been an increase of their use in the building of residential areas. There are several reasons for this. These Steel trusses do not require trees to be cut down to make the studs, and the price of steel does not fluctuate as much as the price of wood. When the price of wood is high, using steel studs is an excellent option as the price is stable and they provide a greener alternative to using natural resources such as wood.

Advantages of steel trusses Strength and durability When it comes to strength and durability required in building materials, steel truss cannot be matched. Out of all materials used in construction, steel has the maximum strength to weight ratios. Wood can 6

crack, splinter, swell, and warp, where steel does not. A building with a wood frame will react to climate, which can cause expansion and other shifts of the building. While steel can react this way in extreme climates, it is less prone to damage. Additionally, steel is non-combustible which makes it much more likely to resist devastating events such as hurricanes, earthquakes and fires. Steel trusses are environmentally friendly Using steel trusses for both commercial and residential buildings greatly reduce the amount of trees that are cut down for use in building. When building with steel the only wood products that are used are plywood sheathing and components for use in window and door trim. Using steel trusses for construction requires no wet work, which makes the construction process much faster as only the simplest assembly is required. In addition, steel construction materials are 100% recyclable Other advantages Using wood in construction offers several problems, including termites. When using steel trusses, there is no threat of termites or other pests from destroying the building. Additionally, insurance companies view steel framed buildings as superior construction or more likely to withstand damages. For this reason, they offer lower premiums for this type of building. Additionally, steel weighs less than wood, 60% less. To build a 2000 square foot home 20 tons of wood is required, compared to 6 tons of steel. Lastly, steel is much more flexible in terms of design compared to wood which provides architects and builders with more room to work with. Overall, it is much more advantageous to use steel trusses when constructing both residential and commercial buildings. Steel Trusses offers a greener and more cost efficient option for contractors. Additionally, using steel trusses offers a safer building as there is less threat of the building being completely destroyed by fire or other natural disasters.

Configuration of trusses
An understanding of truss geometry by the designer will assist in dealing with load paths imposed by the truss system. Trusses come in many configurations, which include parallel chord truss for floors and flat roofs and peaked trusses for typical roof applications. Trusses can also be stacked to support an infinite combination of roof profiles.

Gable roof truss system A standard gable roof is the simplest arrangement, with gable end trusses at both ends and common trusses spaced in between. Gable end trusses sit on the end walls and carry roof loads directly into the wall below. Common trusses are designed to act as bending members spanning between the exterior walls.

Hip roof system A hip roof consists of two hip ends built up of flat top hip trusses in a step down system as illustrated below. In this system, common trusses are located between the two hip ends and the height of the hip trusses is decreased with each subsequent truss beyond peak of the hip. Hip ends are usually built from the end up starting with a multi ply hip girder.

Girder and valley truss system Buildings with intersecting ridge lines can be framed as shown below. Valley trusses are supported on top of the common trusses to form the intersecting ridge. If a clear span opening is required where the roofs intersect, a girder truss can be used to support the valley trusses and common trusses at the intersection. The girder trusses usually are specially made with heavier chords and plates and can consist of a number of trusses laminated with nails or bolts.

Types of Roof Trusses Roof trusses are triangular structures that provide the support and stability to the roof and distribute the weight of the roof away from the exterior walls of the building. They are usually made from wood in residential design and from steel for commercial building design. Roof trusses take the shape of a triangle because of that shapes natural ability to disperse pressure through its entire structure making it extremely stable and rigid. Dropped Cord Trusses Dropped Cord Trusses are designed to prevent the roof of the building from lifting up. It is a good design for homes in areas where tornadoes, hurricanes and high winds are prevalent. The design has a primary and secondary truss and is bisectional, which may create limitations in the use of space inside the building. This type of truss does require the use of a bearing wall and a beam which may make it impractical for certain types of building designs. Raised Heel Roof Truss The Raised Heel Roof Truss design is likely the most common type of roof truss design, because they are built to allow the maximum amount of room for insulation while still providing excellent structural support. This is the most energy-efficient type of roof truss design. The Parallel Chord Truss The Parallel Chord design uses chords across the top and bottom, and does not call for the use of a bearing wall or a bearing beam. This particular type of roof truss design can be considerably less expensive than other designs, making it a good option if you are on a strict budget. The chords are made of full length poles rather than being built with shorter pieces of wood, meaning there is less time and labor involved in putting it together. The Scissor Roof Truss 10

The Scissor Roof Truss design does not require the bearing wall or beam either, and this type of truss is frequently seen in the ceilings of cathedrals. It is one of the best designs for areas with heavy snowfall since these trusses are designed to bear the additional weight. They are attractive when a design calls for trusses to be exposed in the interior of a home or building, but the design does not allow for as much insulation as other roof truss design. Its vaulted design can be put together in the same amount of time as a standard truss. Kings Post Truss The kings post truss is a true triangle with a horizontal beam across the bottom of the truss and two angled beams to form the outside triangle. A vertical bean bisects the center of the triangle with two additional angled beams extending from the bottom of the vertical beam to the center of the upper angled beams. This design is one of the least expensive of all roof truss designs and allows room for sufficient insulation. Queen Post Truss The design of this truss is similar the kings post, but instead of a central vertical beam it has two vertical beams to each side of the center, topped with a second horizontal beam with a central vertical beam which allows for an open area in the center of the truss. The queens post design is more expensive than the kings post, but the open area in the middle of the truss makes it practical for many building designs. Shapes

These trusses may be simple span, multiple bearing, or cantilevered. Where the truss height exceeds approximately 3m Howe Fink Triangular

Mono

This shape may be simple span, multiple span, or cantilevered. Top chord bearing is possible.

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Inverted

The inverted truss is used to provide a vaulted ceiling along a portion of the span.

Graphs
Un-deformed roof truss

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Deformed roof truss

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Plot symbol on deformed shape (stress)

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Plot symbol on deformed shape (U Resultant)

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Plot contours on deformed shape (U, U1)

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Plot contours on deformed shape (U, U2)

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In principle plane

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CF, Resultant

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RF, Resultant

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Discussion
The roof truss 3.48 was drawn using Abaqus 6.10 Student Edition. The 1st step was to draw the Part I chose shell and approximated size to be 30, the fixtures used to draw the part was rectangular, lines, eraser, split lines, dimensions and constrains such as equal lengths. The 2nd step was Property whereby I created material to be steel with Youngs modulus of 210 GPa and Poissons ratio of 0.3, created section as a truss and assign section. 3rd step was Assembly and click instance part icon and choose independent (mesh on instance). The 4th step was Step and create step to apply load chose initial and accepted static, linear perturbation, then create field output and accept apply load. The 5th step was Load, then create load accept apply load on this step also accept Mechanical, the type of step selected was concentrated force, the force on the edges of the truss was 20kN (3off), then create boundary conditions and fix both ends by making U1=U2=0. The 6th step was Mesh, whereby I clicked the icon seed part instance and on global seeds I therefore approximated the global size as 8 and then 9 elements where available for analysis. Then I further went on to mesh part instance and clicked yes to continue, also I went to assign element type and highlighted the whole truss. 7th step was Job used to create a job for data check, submit, monitor, and get results. The 8th step was Visualizations then went to common option icon to edit color & style and labels icon for labeling elements and nodes as well as superimpose plot options for color & style and icon for labeling elements and nodes. For sketching results I went to the following icons plot un-deformed shape, plot deformed shape, plot contours on deformed shape and lastly plot symbol on deformed shape, on all this icons I could get magnitudes for S (stress), U (displacements) and RF and CF (reactions) for elements and nodes. As for gathering results I followed the truss example provided in the software package.

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Results
************************************************************************** ****** Field Output Report, written Thu Sep 08 08:38:50 2011 Source 1 --------ODB: C:/Temp/Project.odb Step: Apply Load Frame: Increment 1: Step Time =

2.2200E-16

Loc 1 : Integration point values from source 1 Output sorted by column "Element Label". Field Output reported at integration points for part: PROJECT 1-1 Element Int S.S11 Label Pt @Loc 1 ------------------------------------------------1 1 -44.7214E+06 2 1 -67.0820E+06 3 1 1.57500E-21 4 1 20.E+06 5 1 -44.7214E+06 6 1 -67.0820E+06 7 1 1.57500E-21 8 1 -22.3607E+06 9 1 -22.3607E+06 Minimum At Element Int Pt Maximum At Element Int Pt -67.082E+06 6 1 20.E+06 4 1

************************************************************************** ****** Field Output Report, written Thu Sep 08 08:39:47 2011 Source 1 --------ODB: C:/Temp/Project.odb Step: Apply Load Frame: Increment 1: Step Time =

2.2200E-16

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Loc 1 : Nodal values from source 1 Output sorted by column "Node Label". Field Output reported at nodes for part: PROJECT 1-1 Node U.U1 U.U2 Label @Loc 1 @Loc 1 ------------------------------------------------1 0. -5.32397E-03 2 -893.834E-06 -4.98205E-03 3 60.0000E-33 -30.0000E-33 4 0. -5.70492E-03 5 893.834E-06 -4.98205E-03 6 -60.0000E-33 -30.0000E-33 Minimum At Node Maximum At Node -893.834E-06 2 893.834E-06 5 -5.70492E-03 4 -30.E-33 6

************************************************************************** ****** Field Output Report, written Thu Sep 08 08:41:24 2011 Source 1 --------ODB: C:/Temp/Project.odb Step: Apply Load Frame: Increment 1: Step Time = Loc 1 : Nodal values from source 1 Output sorted by column "Node Label". Field Output reported at nodes for part: PROJECT 1-1 Node RF.RF1 RF.RF2 Label @Loc 1 @Loc 1 ------------------------------------------------1 0. 0. 2 0. 0. 3 -60.E+03 30.E+03 4 0. 0. 5 0. 0. 6 60.E+03 30.E+03 Minimum -60.E+03 0.

2.2200E-16

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At Node Maximum At Node Total

3 60.E+03 6 0.

5 30.E+03 6 60.E+03

************************************************************************** ******

Conclusion
Hand calculations v/s Abaqus 6.10 Student Edition results N/B- The numbering system used by the program differed to one I had chose when doing hand calculation. Stress in each element The stress in element 1 by hand was -67.08 MPa and while with a program I find it to be 67.082 MPa, both being compressive. The stress in element 2 by hand was 60 MPa and while with a program I find it to be 61.49 MPa, both being tensile. The stress in element 3 by hand was -22.36 MPa and while with a program I find it to be 22.3607 MPa, both being compressive. The stress in element 4 by hand was -44.72 MPa and while with a program I find it to be 44.7214 MPa, both being compressive. The stress in element 5 by hand was 20 MPa and while with a program I find it to be 20 MPa, both being tensile. Comparing magnitude it could be calculated that for the 1st element values differ by 0.3%, which is close enough. Also for 2nd element the difference is 2.4%. The 3rd element is very close as well as element 4 and element 5. Therefore one can there for conclude that the process used till final results was correct. Displacement of each node The displacement for node 1 in the x-direction with calculation is -2.285658e-3 while with a computer program its -2.377e-3. The displacement for node 2 in the x-direction with calculation is 8.93812942e-4 while with a computer program its 8.938e-4. The displacement for node 2 in the y-direction with calculation is -9.554249e-3 while with a computer program its -9.508e-4. The displacement for node 3 in the y-direction with calculation is 9.8951503-3 while with a computer program its 9.508e-4. The displacement for node 4 in the y-direction with calculation is -1.027609703-2 while with a computer program its 1.490-4.

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Comparing for node 1 in x-direction and node 2 in x-direction are very close, but when it came to node 2 in y-direction, node 3 in y-direction and node 4 in y-direction presented a huge variation, I therefore re did the problem couple of times but could not find closest answers.

Recommendations
As far as the use of Abaqus 6.10 Student Edition goes I found it that it crashed several times but the good feature is, it allowed for retrieval of lost data. Another one was the Assembly if one did not allow independent (mesh on instance) and went and accepted dependent (mesh on part) then the job would not be simulated. Lastly was Mesh whereby I encountered a lot of problems on the three icons on meshing, it took awhile to finally realize that for my roof truss I had to edit 0.8 to 8 on global seeding size, as I was the more I practice with different examples that I keep being stuck on meshing. For I therefore recommend that with next addition that more notes on the above mentioned should be provided along, because I could see if one needed more help had to go online which I could not do as I do not have internet.

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References
1. Logan D.L.(2007) A First Course In The Finite Element Method, 4th Edition, Thompson Learning 2. http://www.mii.com/artefact/download.asp?aid=27341accessed 09/09/2011 3. http://www.cwc.ca/hr/rdomlyres/828d87e4-76f7-4dle-a370f063308312e1/0/apllicationhistorydesignandmanufacturing.pdf accessed 09/09/2011 4. http://techeduhry.nic.in/syballus/CIVIL%20ENGG/6Pdf accessed 09/09/2011 5. http://127.0.0.1:2080/v6.10/books/gsa/default.htm accesed 09/09/2011 6. Dr M.Shulka. Edulink notes. 2011

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