TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

PART I

THE CATHODE
Chapter 1 -CONST~UCTION

RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
RAY OSCILLOSCOPES
~
8
8 8 11 13 15 18 20 21 23 28 30 32

OF CATHODE

Chapter 2 -THE
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

CATHODE RAY TUBE

The cathode . Electrode arrangement -electron optics . Deflecting the beam . Calculating the beam deflection . Two-dimensiona1 deflection of the beam . Connecting the deflection plates . Load due to deflection plates . Influence of electron transit time on deflection sensitivity. The luminescent screen . Post-acceleration . Cathode ray tubes with a post-acceleration helical electrode . Data. ; . Cathode ray tubes with particularly high deflection sensitivity y -plates for wide-band oscilloscopes . 2.14 Multi-beam tubes -High-performance tubes .. 2.14.1 Mu1ti-beam tubes . 2.14.2 High-performance tubes 2.15 Special luminescent screens . 2.15.1 Extremely short persistence screen . 2.15.2 Dark-trace tubes . 2.16 Viewing storage tubes . 2.16.1 Secondary emission . 2.16.2 Construction of a viewing storage tube . 2.16.3 The writing 2.16.4 Erasing the screen picture . 2.16.5 Types of viewing storage tubes. . 2.16.6 Precautions in the use of viewing storage tubes .

of the .33 35 35 35 38 38 38 39 40 42 44 45 45 46

Chapter 3 -POWER
3

SUPPLY UNIT

48 48

Construction

VIII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.2 3.3

Anode voltage for the cathode ray tube; Smoothing . High tension unit and electronic stabilization . 3.3.1 High tension unit in general. 3.3.2 Electronic stabilizing 3.4 Electronic stabilisation of the E.H.T. supply. 3.5 Stabilized E.H. T. supply with a medium-frequency oscillator . 3.6 Simplifications of the circuit in the E.H. T. section . 3.7 Stabilisation of the heater voltage . 3.8 Zero position adjustment; Astigmatism . 3.9 Screening the cathode ray tube . 3.10 Example of a power supply unit for a high-performance oscilloscope
4 -TIME BASE UNIT .

48 53 53 53 56 57 58 58 59 60 62

Chapter 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17

65 65 66 67 70 70 74 75 77 78 80 81 83 88 90 93 95 95 95 96 100 100 102 103 105 107 108 108 III 115 118 123 123 127

4.18

4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22

The display of a variable quantity. Time base deflection in general . Generating the time base voltage . Required time base amplitude . Time base circuits using a thyratron . Linearizing the sawtooth voltage by means of a pentode . Flyback time Improved time base generator circuit with thyratron . Maximum time base frequency and thyratron load. Synchronization Further circuits for linearizing the sawtooth sweep . Multivibrator circuit . Triple pentode circuit . Blocking oscillator circuits . Transitron-Miller circuit . Dependence of amplitude on frequency control. Triggered circuits . 4.17.1 Free-running time base circuits and triggered circuits 4.17.2 Triggering . Time base generator for self -oscillating and triggered operation . 4.18.1 Fundamental circuit . 4.18.2 Self-oscillating operation . 4.18.3 Triggered operation . 4.18.4 Measures for ensuring the linearity of the deflection sawtooth 4.18.5 Synchronizing . 4.18.6 Hold-off circuit for the prevention of picture jittering in triggered operation . 4.18.7 Complete circuits of the time base generator . 4.18.8 Adjusting the time coefficients . 4.18.9 Trigger-pulse shaper . Time base unit of the "OM 5650" oscilloscope . Blanking the return stroke . Upblanking circuits in oscilloscopes with triggered time base units Load on the time base generator and linearity.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

IX 128 128 129 132 132 136 136

137

4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28

4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32

4.33

Permissible ripple of the anode voltage in the time base generator . Screening the time base voltage sources . Characteristics of time base . Rating the coupling components for the time base voltages . Scale down of time coefficient by amplifying deflection voltage . Phase-delayed triggering of the time base . 4.28.1 Necessity for phase-delayed triggering . 4.28.2 Delayed triggering of time base deflection by means of a phase shifter for sinusoidal voltages . 4.28.3 Delayed triggering of the time base by adjusting the trigger level. 4.28.4 Phase-delayed triggering in arbitrarily chosen time ranges The Schmitt-trigger circuit . Time base ~pansion unit . Special time deflection process . Sampling oscilloscope (Stroboscope oscilloscope) . 4.32.1 Fundamental method of operation of a sampling oscilloscope 4.32.2 Hewlett-Packardoscilloscope, type 185 B/ 187 B . Calibrating the time scale

139 140 145 149 153 154 154 159 164

Chapter 5 -DEFLECTION
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 General. Frequency Non-linear Noise Summary Amplification 5.6.1 5.7 5.8 5.9 Loss of . of the range distortion .

AMPLIFIERS

170

requirements thermionic of lower

for

a deflection generally-gain response limit. an oscillogram limit. ...

amplifier curve an amplifier

. . .

with Representation gain at at the

valves frequency

of

frequency shifts frequency on

The Phase influence shift

of phase the lower

ofa-complex

waveform

170 170 173 175 177 177 178 179 182 185 187 189 190

5.10

The having

quantitative a direct of of the the of range gain shift at at gain . response the the

design component lower cathode amplifier

of

coupling .

networks

for

alternating

voltages

5.11 5.12 5.13

Limitation Influence Improvement frequency

frequency and screen

limit grid

. capacitors at the . lower end of the

characteristics

5.14 5.15 5.16

Loss Phase

of

upper upper frequency

frequency frequency curve

limit limit at the

. . upper frequency limit by

192 194 197

Improving L-resonance

5.17 5.18

Unit

step

of

an

amplifier

Feedback 5.18.1 5.18.2 Importance Changing of feedback the of feedback properties in of the a deflection deflection amplifier amplifier . by means

198 202 204 204 206

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27

5.28 5.29

5.18.3 Influence of phase shift caused by coupling networks on the frequency response of amplifiers with feedback . 5.18.4 The stabilizing effect of negative feedback . 5.18.5 Reduction of distortion by negative feedback . 5.18.6 Frequency-dependent feedback . 5.18.7 Amplifier input resistance in negative feedback operation . 5.18.8 Amplifier output resistance with negative feedback . 5.18.9 The cathode follower . Output voltage requirements . Circuits for balancing the output voltage . Setting the deflection amplitude . "Corrected" cathode follower . Delay lil:\es; signal delay networks . Measuring the response time of the time base unit and the delay time in the y -channel Transmission line amplifier (distributed amplifier) . Some examples of AC amplifiers . DC voltage amplifiers . 5.27.1 Requirements . 5.27.2 Coupling the individual stages of a DC voltage amplifier . 5.27.3 Balanced DC amplifiers -difference amplifier . 5.27.4 Adjusting the gain . 5.27.5 Procedures for ensuring the required stability and for reducing interference voltages . Some DC voltage amplifiers . Probes 5.29.1 Voltage divider probe . 5.29.2 Demodulator probe . 5.29.3 Cathode follower probes. ".

208 209 210 215 215 216 217 219 221 223 225 227

229 230 232 236 236 237 240 243 243 245 249 250 250 251

PART II

GENERAL
Chapter 6-

MEASURING

TECHNIQUE
UP AND 255
255 255 257 257

OPERATING THE OSCILLOSCOPE -SETTING PRELIMINARY ADJUSTMENTS.

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8

Setting up the oscilloscope. Switching on, brilliance and focus adjustment. Astigmatism. Picture width -picture height. Synchronization (self-oscillating time sweep) .258 Choice of the most suitable relationship between input frequency and time base frequency. Triggering Electric magnification of the pattern on the screen.

259 260 261

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11. 7 -AMPLITUDE MEASUREMENTS.

XI
265 265 265 265 266 267 269 270 271 273

7.12 7.13 7.14 7.15 7.16 7.17

Nature of display. Accuracy of the display and limits of measurement Linearity of the display. Reading of the display. Accuracy of reading. Influence of amplifier on linearity of display. Dependence of display sensitivity on mains voltage. Relation between deflections due to direct voltages and those due to alternating voltages Direct voltage me~urements .272 Alternating voltage measurements. Determining the voltage amplitudes of an oscillogram with any waveform by displacement of the pattern and measurement of the direct shift voltage 7.11.1 The measuring process. 7.11.2 Improving the accuracy of reading by increasing the signal amplitude and suppressing the zero point. Determining the voltage amplitude and the time scale by shifting the image Plotting the amplitude with an electronic switch. Digital oscillogram interpretation ...281 Resistance measurements Power measurement. ..284 Capacitance measurements

275 276 278 279 280 283 284

Chapter 8 -NULL-INDICATION 8.1 8.2

IN AC BRIDGE CIRCUITS

286 286
287 287

Simple null-indicator . Phase-dependentindication by synchronizing the time base with the bridge voltage . 8.3 Null-indication by means of a rotating trace produced by horizontal deflection with the bridge voltage . 8.4 Correction of the phase relationship between bridge voltage and horizontal deflection voltage . 8.5 Bridge sensitivity. 8.6 Direct measurement of bridge unbalance . 8.7 The measurement of complex impedances . 8.8 Direct reading of the loss angle without balance . 8.9 Impedance measurements by voltage comparison . 8.10 Bridge circuit for sorting core plates .
Chapter 9.1 9.2 q ~ 9 -THE ELECTRONIC SWITCH

288 288 290 290 292 292 294

295

Method of operation . Special applications Pr~~ti~~l fnrm nf plp~trnni~ "Ulit,.h

295 298 't(\(\

XII
Chapter 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10 -USES

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF INTENSITY MODULATION .

302 302 304 305 306 308 309

Rating the circuit components; time marking . Synchronous intensity modulation . Short brilliance markings without gaps or short blank-markings . Intensity modulation proportional to deflection speed (automatic brilliancy control) . "Switching" the brilliance . Further applications of intensity modulation .

Chapter 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 11.9 11.10 11.11 11.12 11.13

11 -PHASE

MEASUREMENTS

310 310 311 313 316 319 320 323 324 327 328 328 330
331

Phase measurement by multiple oscillograms . Measurement by means of a phase mark . Phase measurement by Lissajous figures (ellipses) .. Determining the sign of the phase angle . Measuring the phase with a bent sine wave . Phase measurement on a circular scale . Phase measurement with rectangular voltages . The distortion of a square wave by phase shift . Electrical differentiation . Phase measurement with half-wave rectified voltages . Investigation of circuits with lagging phase . Electrical integration . The use of square waves for assess.ingthe properties of electrical transmission systems .

Chapter 12 -FREQUENCY 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 12.11 12.12 12.13 12.14 12.15 12.16

MEASUREMENTS.

332

Frequency measurements; frequency comparison. 332 Frequency measurement by comparison with time base frequency. 332 Frequency division 336 Frequency measurement with line traces .336 Frequency comparison by double oscillogram. .337 Frequency comparison by anode-voltage modulation of a circular trace 338 Frequency comparison by mixing the voltage of unknown frequency with the comparison frequency voltage. 339 Frequency comparison with Lissajous figures .341 Lissajous figures with elliptical base line. 345 Frequency measurement with cycloids on a circular trace. 348 Circuits for frequency comparison with cycloids .348 Interpreting cycloid patterns .349 Practical circuit arrangement for cycloids .354 Frequency measurement by intensity-modulating the oscillogram of the voltage with the unknown frequency. 356 In.tensity modulation of a circular trace with the second frequency 356 Intensity modulation of a line pattern .358

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XIII 360 360 360 361 362 363 364

12.17 Absolute frequency measurement with rotating pointer . 12.17.1 Method of measurement . 12.17.2 Circuit 12.17.3, The oscillograms and how they are evaluated . 12.17.4 Choice of measuring ranges . 12.17.5 Simultaneous measurement of several frequencies . 12.~7.6 Special advantages and applications of this method

Chapter

13

-RE~RESENTATION SHAPED DELAYING VOLTAGES ELEMENTS

OF WITH

THE

RISING OSCILLOSCOPES

FLANK

OF

PULSE

WITHOUT AMPLIFIER

IN

THE

VERTICAL

'th,
366 ~fifi

13.2 13.1

Delaying Delayed

release el~ments

of

in the

the input amplification voltage

pulses. system.

PART III
PRACTICAL Chapter 14 -RECORDING CURRENT EXAMPLES OF LUMINOUS FLUX, LAMPS 371 371 371 373 374 control376

THE W A VEFOR~S AND VOLTAGE

OF FLUORESCENT

14.1General 14.2 Incandescent and fluorescent lamps. 14.3 Current and voltage waveforms of fluorescent lamps. 14.4 Fluorescent lamps connected in duo. 14.5 Lamp current and luminous flux waveforms of electronically led lamps.

Chapter

15

-SWITCHING

PHENOMENA

WITH

ELECTRiC ~

LIGHT

BULBS.

~77

Chapter 16 -THE

DISPLAY OF HYSTERESISLOOPS

380

Chapter 17 --RECORDING THE CHARACTERISTICS OF CRYSTAL DIODES, TRANSISTORS AND ELECTRONIC VALVES 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 Demands on the .oscilloscope Measuring technique. Diode characteristics. Characteristics of amplifier valves ..385 Characteristic curves of transistors .387 Displaying the characteristic curve indicating variation of gm .388

383 383 383 384

XIV
Chapter 18-

TABLE OF CONTENTS RECORDINGTHEPASSBANDCURVESOPHPCIRCUITS, RADIO 18.1 18.2 18.3 AND TELEVISION RECEIVERS .
391 .195

Measuring arrangement . Recording the passband curves of HP circuits and AM radio receivers Recording the passband curves for ultra-short wave and television receivers.

400

Chapter 19 -INVESTIGATION' 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5

IN TELEVISION

ENGINEERING.

405 405 405 407 41?

Application of the oscilloscope in TV engineering . Choice of oscilloscope . Measuring processesand voltage sources . Investigations on television receiver . Time-expanded oscillograms when comparing with selected lines of the picture . 19.6 Checking the transmission characteristics of a television system during the programme by studying test-Iine oscillograms .

424

Chapter

20 -INVESTIGATING URING BAND BY MEANS

MATCHING IN

CONDITIONS THE

AND

MEASWAVE LINE 428

IMPEDANCES

ULTRA-SHORT

OF A LONG "TRANSMISSION

20.1 20.2

20.3

Wave range and the decimetre range in general. ...428 Displaying the voltage waves by means of oscilloscopes 429 20.2.1 Measurement with ultra-short wave wobbulator and along transmission line. ., .429 Some practical examples with oscillograms ..434 20.3.1 Influence of cable damping and of demodulator characteristic 434 20.3.2 Limits of error of this method. ..438 20.3.3 Matching receiver input circuits. ...438 20.3.4 Matching systems with particularlywide-bands (television antennas) 439 20.3.5 Matching measurements with narrow-band networks 441 20.3.6 Determining the contraction factor. .441 20.3.7 Measuring the cable damping. .442 20.3.8 Location of faults in cables 442

Chapter

21

-MEASURING

TRANSIT

TIME

AND

INVESTIGATING

MATCHING

CONDITIONS

IN

CABLES

BY

MEANS

OF

21.2 21.1 21.4 21.3

Circuit Methods Oscillo~rams Measuredresu1ts.

PULSEVOLTAGES for

of

the

measurement. with measuring

relativelv

device.

1onl!

rectanl!ular

nul~e

--

443 443 443 444 A.A.~

TABLE OF CONTENTS

xv

Chapter 22 -DETERMINING THE CHARACTERISTIC QUALITIES OF RESONANT CIRCUITS AND BANDP ASS FILTERS FROM THE PATTERN OF THE DECAYING OSCILLATION AFtER SHOCK EXCITATION. ..449 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 The characteristic qualities of resonant circuits and their measurement 449 Generating the pattern of the decaying voltage. .451 Interpreting the oscillograms in simple resonant circuits. .452 Measuring the coupling factor in coupled circuits. .456 22.4.1 Coupled circuits and the coupling factor. .456 22.4.2 The pattern of decaying oscillation in coupled circuits and the determination of the coupling factor. .457 'METHODS OF MEASURING THE AMPLITUDE ..
461 461 4(\?

Chapter 23 -SOME 23.1 23.2

MODULATION

OF HF VOLTAGES.

Modulation in general and measuring the amplitude modulation . Various circuits for measuring amplitude modulation .

Chapter 24 -REPRESENTATION OF THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF MODULATED HF VOLTAGES AND OF THE FREQUENCY PANORAMA OF TRANSMITTERS. ... 470 24.1 Modulation and frequencyspectrum. .. 24.2 Circuit for representingthe frequency spectrum of an amplitudemodulatedHF carrier 24.3 Recordings the frequencyspectraof modulatedvoltages. of 24.4 Panoramicreceiversand panoramicoscillograms.
Chapter 25 -ADJUSTMENT VOLTAGE METRICAL 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 OF DIVIDERS SQUARE HIGH BY IMPED);:N~E SQUARE ...477 WIDEBAND OR SYM-

470
470 472 474

P"ULSES

VOLTAGES

High impedance wideband voltage dividers. ...477 Waveform of the output voltage of a wideband voltage divider at various adjustments. .478 Adjusting compensated voltage dividers with pulse voltages. ..480 Adjustment of compensated wideband voltage dividers with symmetrical square voltages. .482 Compensation and adjustment of specially high impedance wideband voltage dividers ...484

Chapter 26.1

26 -RECORDING

LOW-FREQUENCY

CHARACTERISTIC
485 485

Methode CURVES measurement. of

XVI

TABLE OF CONTENTS

26.1.1 The frequency-dependent network and the rectifier 26.1.2 Calibration Examples of application .

Chapter

27 -SOME TICE

EXAMPLES ...0

FROM ..0 0

ELECTRO-ACOUSTIC 0 0 0 0 0 .00

PRAC. 0 0

Possible applications of the cathode ray oscilloscope acoustics . Oscillograms of variations in sound pressure .

to electro-

Chapter

28 -MEASURING

THE

ACTION

OF BETWEEN-LENS

SHUT-

TERSOFCAMERAS

28.1 28.2

Measuring the opening time by recording a spot trace of known speed Recording the action-time function of the shutter .

Chapter 29 -RECORDING THE WAVEFORMS OF THE LUMINOUS FLUX AND IGNITION CURRENT OF FLASHBULBSAND INVESTIGATING THE WORKING OF SYNCHRONOUS CONTACTS.
29.1 29.2 293 Luminous flux . Ignition current waveform . Shutter action, synchronizers and luminous bulbs .

flux waveform

of flash-

Chapter

30

STUDY OF MECHANICAL VIBRA TIONS BY MEANS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC AND ELECTRODYNAMIC PICKUPS.

30.1 30.2

30.4

Observing non-electrical phenomena in general. Magnetic vibration pickup . 30.2.1 Action and properties . 30.2.2 Reaction of the pickup on the vibrating part . 30.2.3 Examples of application and typical oscillograms . Electrodynamic pickup for measuring the absolute Value of mechanical oscillations . 30.3.1 Action and properties . 30.3.2 Integration, differentiation and calibration of the signal voltage 30.3.3 Examples of applications and oscillograms . .Electrodynamic pickup for measuring relative vibrations .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

XVII

Chapter 31 -STUDY OF DYNAMIC STRAIN PROCESSES AND OBSER. V A TION OF MECHANICAL OS:CILLA TIONS BY MEANS OFSTRAIN GAUGES.
31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.5 Strain gauges .526 Relative elongation, materia} tension and dynamic measurements using ,strain gauges Measurement of dynamic strain without static components. Measuring dynamic strain with static components~ .531 Examples of oscillograms recorded during the investigation of the movement of a leaf spring and pressure rolleL on an excentric cam drum. Measuring the torsional oscillations of shafts. Simultaneous observation of the strain at several points. Examples of oscillograms when switching over to ten measuring points The use of strain gauges asa measuring element for special tasks.

526

527 530

31.6 31.7 31.8 31.9

534 536 537 539 541

PART IV PHOTOGRAPmC RECORDING AND LARGE PROJECTION OF OSCILLOGRAMS

Chapter 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 32 -PHOTOGRAPHIC RECORDING OF THE

PICTURE

SPOT

TRACE

545

32.7

Importance of photographic recording and the special conditions governing it. Equipment for photographic recording. "Writing speed" and the influence factors governing it. Spectral energy distribution of the light of the screen and properties of the photographical material ... ...556 Measuring the maximum writing speed . ...559 Exposure ...566 32.6.1 Single pictures ...566 32.6.2 Moving film recording . ...569 Processing the photographs . ...572 32.7.1 Handling the photographic material. ...572 32.7.2 Developing ...572 32.7.3 Enlarging . ...574 32.7.4 Retouching.

545 545 552

"7" ~ .~

Chapter 33 -LARGE-PICTURE

PROJECTION OF OSCIL,LOGRAMS

.576 .576 .576 .577 .579 .584

33.1 Need for enlarged reproduction of oscillograms . 33.2 Optical systems for projection . 33.3 Cathode ray tubes . 33.4 Projection screen . 33.5 Placing the oscilloscope, projection screen and viewers ..

XVTTT
33.6 Enlarged reproduction sion apparatus .

TABLE

OF

GONTENTS

of oscillograms

by means of industrial

televi-

Conclusion
Bibliography
Tnt1py