Composite Design

S. F. Stiemer

Table of Content

DESIGN OF COMPOSITE DECKS

1.0 Introduction............................................................................................. 2 2.0 Influence of the Construction Method .................................................... 2 3.0 Effective Area of Concrete ..................................................................... 3 4.0 Strength Calculation................................................................................ 3 5.0 Shear Connectors .................................................................................... 5 6.0 Deflection................................................................................................ 7 7.0 Longitudinal Planes Shear Strength ........................................................ 9 Appendix A................................................................................................. 12 Appendix B................................................................................................. 16

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1.0 Introduction
Buildings and bridges frequently use concrete slabs supported by steel beams. Slabs transfer floor and deck loads to steel beams and these beams bear the entire structure loading. The beams and the slabs deflect together and the concrete slabs are usually adjacent to the compression side of the beam cross-section. If these two elements could act together with mechanical connection to resist bending, a structurally and economically advantageous system might be accomplished. This is a composite cross-section. According to the Handbook of Steel Construction composite designs consist of steel sections, trusses, or joists, interconnected with either a reinforced concrete slab or a steel deck with a concrete cover slab. For other detail definitions about composite section, refer to the standards (at the time of this writing: CAN/CSA S16.01 (buildings) or S6-00 (bridges)). In the following issues of S16.01 are being treated, while S6-00 being rather similar may deviate in some details. Assuming that adequate interconnections are provided between the concrete slab and the steel beam, it is obvious that the composite system results advantages especially when heavy loads and long spans are involved. As load applies, both the steel beam and the concrete slab act together to carry the load so that the size of the required steel beam will be less than that for the non-composite section. This reduction in steel weight, not only directly saves cost, but also reduces the overall depth of the beam and the slab. This also causes major savings in a multi-storey building, or a low-rise building. The overload capacity of a composite system is better than that of a non-composite system of the same size because the former system is stiffer. Deflections of a composite system will also be reduced under superimposed load. Although a composite crosssection has lots of benefits, additional cost of providing connection between the slab and the beam arises. Except for lightly loaded or short spans, the saving provided by the reduction in beam size is usually greater than the cost of the necessary connectors. The principle force that must be transferred is the horizontal shear at the interface of the slab and the beam if they are acting as a unit. Attaching connectors to the top flange of the steel beam allows this

transfer of force. Three methods are commonly used to attain composite action. 1) Connectors are imbedded in the concrete as the slab is poured and will bear against the hardened concrete when loads are applied. 75, 100, 130mm deep channels are usually used. Adequate cover must be provided between the top of the channel and the slab surface. 2) Attachment of welded studs to the beam flange. A welding gun is used to hold the stud in position and make a weld at its contact with the beam simultaneously. Studs range in diameter from 14 to 22 mm and normally are about 75 mm long. They are also the most commonly used type of shear connectors. Rapid Installation can be done either in shop or in field. 3) Steel beam is completely encased in concrete and the load transfers would be attained by bond between these two elements. Although fireproofing of the steel is taken into consideration, the added dead load of the concrete around the beam is considerable. This arrangement is seldom used in modern building construction.

2.0 Influence of the Construction Method

With different construction method, the composite sections react to load differently. Two construction methods are usually applied: 1) Steel beams are shored (supported at close intervals) during the pouring of slab and the shores remain in place until the concrete has attained a reasonable amount of its 28-day strength (usually 75%). Then the composite section is available to carry all loads upon removal of the shores. However, the hardened concrete will tend to creep under the sustained action of long-term loads. The stresses due to these loads are thereby increased over their nominal value. 2) Forms carrying wet concrete are supported directly by steel beam (unshored construction). The steel section alone must carry the loads imposed at this moment. The composite cross-section is only available to carry all subsequently imposed loads after the concrete has fully hardened. Tests have shown that the ultimate load that can be carried by a given cross-section is independent of the method of construction, regardless of differences in the two construction methods that have previously been discussed. Therefore, total load is assumed to be

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applied to the composite section. However, the adequacy of the steel section under the dead load of the wet concrete in addition to formwork must be checked. In order to prevent the bottom flange of an unshored steel beam during construction from yielding under the specified loads, which is a condition that will influence deflections, Clause 17.11 states that the stresses in the tension flange of the steel section are not to exceed the yield strength of steel Fy, prior to hardening of the concrete. The loads to be considered are those applied both prior to hardening of the concrete and those applied after. This is a serviceability problem; therefore, specified loads are considered in analysis. The following equation expressed the above relationship:

3.0 Effective Area of Concrete

The area of slab that may be considered tributary to each beam must be established for strength calculation. Theoretically, this is a function of the span length, the shape of the moment diagram, and Poissons ratio for the material. Based on these considerations and results of tests, rules have evolved to provide a sufficiently accurate judgment. The requirements for buildings as given in the Handbook (CAN/CSA S16.1-94), Clause 17.4 are presented as follows: a) For slabs or cover slabs extending on both sides of the steel section or joist shall be deemed to have a design effective width, b, equal to the lesser of i) 0.25 times the composite beam span; or ii) the average distance from the center of the steel section, truss, or joist to the centers of adjacent parallel supports b) For slabs or cover slabs extending on one side only of the supporting section or joist shall be deemed to have a design effective width, b not greater than the width of the top flange of the steel section or top chord of the steel joist or truss plus the lesser of i) 0.1 times the composite beam span; or ii) 0.5 times the clear distance between the steel section, truss, or joist and the adjacent parallel support. These rules are applicable to calculate the strength of a composite section on an elastic stress basis. It is the best to describe the strength of a composite section using its ultimate capacity, and is also known that the effective slab widths at ultimate are less than those described above for the interior beams case and greater for the exterior beams case. Although the elastic design rules can underestimate the effective slab width for an interior beam by a large margin (up to 20%), the effect on the moment capacity is relatively small (up to 4%). Therefore, the above rules for effective slab width based on elastic analysis are still valid.

M1 M 2 + Fy Ss St

(2.1)

where M1 = moment caused by the specified loads that act on the member PRIOR to attainment of 75 % of the required concrete strength M2 = moment caused by the specified loads that act on the member SUBSEQUENT to attainment of 75% of the required concrete strength Ss = elastic section modulus, referred to the bottom flange, of the steel section alone St = elastic section modulus, referred to the bottom flange, of the composite steel-concrete section To calculate the section modulus of the composite section St, the area of the concrete slab must be transformed into an equivalent area of steel in the ratio of the moduli of elasticity of the two materials. This modular ratio

n=

Es is usually prescribed in the Ec

applicable building code. It is customary to apply the reduction to the slab width, rather than to its thickness or to some proportion of each.

4.0 Strength Calculation

Deflection of a member acting under working loads; shear and flexural capacities are calculated to evaluate the strength of a beam

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made of only one material. These requirements also apply to the composite section, and the principles of strength calculation are based on a steel beam and a solid concrete slab. In addition, a designer must ensure that these two components act as a single unit. In the case of steel beams, it is assumed that the beam web carried all of the vertical shear force, and the same approach is applied to composite beams. As shown in the Clause 13.4.1.1: (4.1) Vr = * AW * FS where AW = shear area (d*w) for rolled steel shapes in mm2 FS = 0.66 FY (except for deep members) in MPa = resistance factor

d = depth of steel section in mm e = lever arm between the compressive and the tensile forces in mm Cr = total compressive force in kN Tr = total tensile force in kN In accordance with the ultimate strength evaluation of concrete, the ultimate compressive stress in the concrete is taken as 0.85 fc, where fc is the 28-day compressive strength. The corresponding compressive force is: C ' r = 0.85 * c * f ' c * b * a (4.1.1) Calling the cross sectional area of the steel As, an equilibrium equation for horizontal forces can be written as follows:

0.85 * c * f ' c * b * a = * As * Fy a=

The flexural capacity of a composite beam is evaluated based on that the concrete does not resist tension. Two cases will be considered: neutral axis falls within the concrete slab and neutral axis falls within the steel section. This is determined by trial to determine which case is applied. 4.1 Neutral axis falls within the concrete slab The stress conditions for a cross-section in which the neutral axis lies in the slab are shown in Figure 4.1:

From the above equation, the unknown value a can be solved:

* As * Fy 0.85 * c * f ' c * b

(4.1.2)

If the neutral axis lies in the slab, the ultimate moment resistance can be evaluated as in Clause 17.9.3(a): Mrc = * As * Fy * e' (4.1.3) It is obtained by summing moments about the location of the resultant compressive force in the slab. The lever arm between the compressive and the tensile forces can be calculated by the known value a, and cross sectional dimensions t and d. Shear connectors must transfer the total force at the interface of the concrete slab and the steel section. The total force can be defined by either the total compressive force, Cr, or the total tensile force, Tr. Since they are equal, either one can be used. It is convenient to use tensile force represents the horizontal shear force, Vh, to be transferred as described in Clause 17.9.5: (4.1.4) Vh = * AS * FY

Figure 4.1. Composite Cross Section with Neutral Axis in Slab where c = resistance factor for concrete, which is taken to be 0.6 b = effective slab width in mm a = depth of concrete in compression zone in mm t = thickness of concrete slab in mm

This factored shear force should be smaller than the factored resistance of the shear connectors to ensure that the system is valid. More detail design of shear connectors will be discussed in Section 5.0. See Example 1 in Appendix A for sample calculation.

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If the calculated a is not equal to or less than the slab thickness t, the assumption that the neutral axis lies in the slab is wrong; the other alternative has to be examined. 4.2 Neutral Axis in the Steel Section If the neutral axis lies in the steel section, the full depth of the concrete slab is in compression and the steel section is fully yielded in compression above the neutral axis and fully yielded in tension below the neutral axis. This condition is shown in Figure 4.2:

The value of the compressive force in steel, Cr, can be solved by equations 4.2.1, and 4.2.2:

Cr = Cr =

* As * Fy C ' r
2

(4.2.3)

Substituting equation 4.1.1 for Cr with a = t:

* As * Fy 0.85 * c * f ' c * b * t
2

(4.2.4)

Taking the moments of forces about the centroid of the tensile force, the flexural resistance can be evaluated as in Clause 17.9.3(b): Mrc = Cr * e + C ' r * e' (4.2.5) It is implicit that the steel section must accommodate plastic strains in both tension and compression whenever the neutral axis lies in the steel section. Therefore, Class 1 or Class 2 section must be chosen in order to be capable of developing plastic moment capacity. When neutral axis locates in the steel section, total forces transfer by shear connectors can be described using the compressive force above the interface, Cr, as described in Clause 17.9.5: Vh = 0.85 * c * b * t * f ' c (4.2.6)

Figure 4.2. Composite Cross Section with Neutral Axis in Steel Section where Cr = the compressive force in the steel section above the neutral axis Cr = the compressive force in the concrete in kN Tr = tensile force in the steel section below the neutral axis in kN e = lever arm between Cr and Tr in mm e = lever arm between Cr and Tr in mm Considering equilibrium of the horizontal forces, the location of the neutral axis can be obtained: Tr = C r + C ' r (4.2.1) Another expression for the tensile force can be written: Tr = * As * Fy Cr (4.2.2)

See Example 2 in Appendix A for sample calculation.

5.0 Shear Connectors

The strength of shear connectors can be established from tests in order to ensure that the shear connectors are able to transmit the forces at the slab-steel section interface. In most commonly encountered situations, values based on test results are given in the Standard. 5.1 Full Shear Connection For end-welded stud with a height to diameter ratio of at least four, Clause 17.7.2.1 specifies a factored shear resistance qrs, in newtons per stud, is the less of the followings:

qrs = 0.5 * sc * Asc * qrs = sc * Asc * Fu

f ' c * Ec

(5.1.1) (5.1.2)

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where Fu = tensile strength of the stud material in MPa, for commonly available studs is 415 MPa Asc = cross-sectional area in mm2 per stud Ec = Modulus of elasticity of concrete in MPa cs = factor of resistance for studs, which is usually taken to be 0.8 Equation 5.1.1 is mainly based on test results and is applicable to studs that are fully embedded in solid slabs of normal or lightweight concrete. This represents the stud capacity as achieved when the concrete adjacent to the stud fails by crushing. Since the same tests showed that failure of the stud itself occurred only after considerable bending of the stud, equation 5.1.2 is an expression for the tensile capacity of the stud. For factored shear resistance for channel connectors, which are less frequently used, refer to Clause 17.7.3 for more information. For factored shear resistance for end-welded studs in ribbed slabs with ribs parallel to the beam, and in ribbed slabs with ribs perpendicular to the beam, refer to Clause 17.7.2.2 and 17.7.2.3 for detail respectively. To determine the required number of shear connectors, the force to be transferred (i.e. equation 4.1.4 and equation 4.2.6) and the aforesaid resistance per connector (i.e. equation 5.1.1 and equation 5.1.2) are evaluated. Connectors can be uniformly distributed between the point of maximum moment and an adjacent zero moment location. The flexibility of the shear connectors permits the usage of uniform spacing. As stated in CAN/CSA-S.16.1-94, certain restrictions are applied on the number of shear connectors when concentrated loads are present. Refer to Clause 17.9.8 for applied restrictions. See Example 3 & 4 in Appendix A for sample calculation. The neutral axis can be brought down below the level of the slab by attaching a coverplate on the bottom flange of the steel beam. This allows higher utilization of the concrete and the steel section. The steel weight would likely be less but additional cost in attaching the

coverplate is involved. Therefore, this will be beneficial for a heavy loaded span only. See Example 5 in Appendix A for sample calculation. 5.2 Partial Shear Connection In reality, full shear connection is either not necessary or not economical. When design is controlled by deflections, there is no advantage in providing all the shear connectors for full shear transfer. On the other hand, it might be simply more economical to reduce the number of shear connectors from 100% of the required amount for full shear transfer and to accept the drawback of a reduced flexural capacity. It can be the case that a shear transfer of about 50% is able to produce ultimate flexural capacities of approximate 80% of the corresponding to full composite action. Practically, all composite construction in buildings in Canada is done on the basis of partial shear connection. In Clause 17.9.4, it is required that if flexural strength controls the design, the number of shear connectors must be at least 40% of that needed for full composite action to ensure that the member will behave compositely throughout its full loading history. If design is controlled by deflection, the degree of shear transfer is permitted to be as low as 25%. The number of shear connectors supplied will be the force actually transferred at the slab-steel section interface. The total factored resistances of all shear connectors between points of maximum and zero moment (Qr) is given:

Qr = qr

(5.2.1)

where

qr = capacity of an individual connector as calculated by equation 5.1.1 or equation 5.1.2

If neutral axis is assumed in the slab, the shear force transferred if full composite action were present would be Vh = * As * Fy as evaluated in equation 4.1.4. However, by the definition of partial shear connection, the amount of shear force transferred will be less than 100%, i.e. the actual force transferred is less than that found in

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equation 4.1.4. That means for all cases of shear transfer less than 100%, the location of the neutral axis must lie within the steel section, and not in the slab. The resulting stress block model is shown in Figure 5.1

See Example 6 in Appendix A for sample calculation.

6.0 Deflection
Shrinkage of concrete, effects of increased flexibility caused by partial shear connection and from interface slip, and effects of creep due to specified load, will affect the deflections of a composite beam. This is further complicated if a slab is continuous over beam-to-girder connections and around columns. However, the continuity will reduce deflections as compared to the system that is truly simple connections.

Figure 5.1. Connection

Composite

Cross-Section with

Partial

Shear

The compressive force in the concrete is given by:

Calculation of composite beam deflections should start with an identification of those that result from the loads that are applied before composite action is attained. Under this circumstance, only the steel beam alone is effective. The moment of inertia of the composite section should be used to calculate the deflections due to short-term live loads applied after the concrete has hardened. The modular ratio n is used to transform the concrete into an equivalent amount of steel. Partial shear connection should be recognized if it is present. This effect is taken into consideration in Clause 17.3.1(a): (6.1) where Ie = effective moment of inertia p = fraction of full shear connection (p = 1.0 for full shear connection) It = transformed moment of inertia of composite section Is = moment of inertia of steel section alone. An adjustment will apply even for the case of full shear transfer. This reflects the observation that the inherent (and desirable) flexibility of the shear connectors will increase beam deflections over those calculated using elastic beam theory. Plastic flow (creep) in concrete will be produced due to dead load and long-term live loads. In order to take this into consideration, Clause 17.3.1(b) suggested that these deflections be calculated as

C' r = Qr = qr

(5.2.2)

C ' r = 0.85 * c * f ' c * b * a (5.2.3) The depth of concrete slab required to accommodate the shear force actually transferred can be obtained by equating equation 5.2.2, and equation 5.2.3, and this becomes: a= Qr 0.85 * c * f ' c * b
(5.2.4)

This is also equal to:

Ie = Is + 0.85 * (p) 0.25 * (It Is)

Recall that the expression for Cr is:

Cr =

* As * Fy C ' r
2

[4.2.3]

Then the location of the neutral axis within the steel section can be determined such that equilibrium of horizontal forces is satisfied. Once the neutral axis location is found, the moment arms e between Cr and Tr , and e between Cr and Tr can be calculated, and the resisting moment is: Mrc = Cr * e + C ' r * e' [4.2.5]

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though they were elastic and then a 15% increase is applied. This is because the deflection due to creep is usually a small part of the total deflection of a composite system, and this assumption gives reasonable result. As concrete in the composite section shrinks, its volume changes while the steel section does not change length as concrete curves. However, the continuity of the two-part system, enforced by the shear connectors, requires curvatures to be taken place, and the resulting deflection can be a significant part of the total deflection of the composite system. The induced force in the concrete as a result of the slab shrinkage: F = c * Ac (6.2) and c = Ect * f (6.3) f = free shrinkage strain Ect = effective modulus of concrete in tension, which is a time-dependent value Ac = effective area of the concrete slab This force acts at the centroid of the concrete slab and this produces a moment about the elastic neutral axis of the cross-section: M = F * y = Ect * f * Ac * y (6.4) where where y = distance from the centroid of effective area of concrete slab to the elastic neutral axis

In Standard Appendix L suggests that the appropriate values for the modular ratio nt for composite design are in the range 40-60. Proper value should be used for free shrinkage strain and effective modulus of concrete in tension. The selected value for the free shrinkage stain depends on properties of the concrete, such as water/cement ratio, percent fines, entrained air, and curing conditions. Appendix L of Standard suggests that

f = 800*106 is

used for free shrinkage strain if no better data is provided. The selected value for modulus of concrete in tension is time dependent; i.e. as tensile strain due to the reducing volumetric change increases, the modulus decreases. However, the shrinkage deflection induced by this tensile strain is not time sensitive to the modulus of elasticity: both the effective moment of inertia and the distance y vary with modulus of elasticity. Again, Appendix L of Standard provides guidance on appropriate values to be used. See Example 7 in Appendix A for sample calculation. Since deflections are usually accommodated, it is important to try to estimate the effects of structural continuity by cambering, by adjustments in slab thickness, or by shoring of the steel beam at the time of placing of the concrete. It is unattractive to have a slab that is either bowed upward or sag downward. Designers regularly calculate deflection by assuming members are simply supported. This assumption results an overestimate of actual deflection by a rather large amount. This is due to two major factors: 1) neither beam-to-girder nor girder or beam-to-column connections are truly simple, even though the member may have been analyzed on that basis. 2) the concrete slab in the composite system will likely to be continuous over all beam-to-girder regions and around the columns. The resulting system will actually be much stiffer. Thus, the actual deflection would be much less than the calculated deflection. To make this calculation more practical, a reduction based on experience or judgment should be applied to the calculated deflections, which is based on the assumption of simple connections. From previous experience, a reduction based on the application of negative end moments equal to 25% of the mid-span moment of a uniformly loaded beam will give a reasonable estimate of the

Assumed that this effect is uniform along the length of the member, the deflection that will occur in a simply supported beam of length L is:

s =

M * L2 8 * E * It

(6.5)

Equation 6.5 is obtained using area-moment principles. The modulus E is for steel and the moment of inertia will be that of the transformed section. By substituting the value of M obtained in equation 6.4, and nt for the ratio of E/Ect., the deflection due to shrinkage of the concrete as stated in Clause 17.3.1(c) is:

s =

f * Ac * L2 * y
8 * nt * It

(6.6)

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continuity effect for framing that is usually found in an office building construction. Extra reinforcement should be placed near the top of the slab to minimize cracking due to the fact that the continuity of the slab will create negative moment region which causes concrete tends to crack at the top surface. Shear capacity of a composite system is generally reduced as compared to that of a non-composite system; contribution of shear to the total deflection may be very important if the loads are high or the spans are too short. Therefore, designers should be alert to recognize situations in which the effect of shear upon the deflections is significant.

7.0 Longitudinal Planes Shear Strength

Figure 7.1. Longitudinal Shear in Composite Beams Forces or stresses acting along longitudinal shear planes in the concrete should be checked. Figure 7.1(a) illustrates these forces in a solid slab composite beam. Figure 7.1(b) shows another possible shear-out for solid slab composite beams. A hollow composite beam is shown in Figure 7.1(c). where Cr1, Cr2, Cr3 = compressive force Vu = longitudinal shear of composite beams with solid slabs and steel deck parallel to the beam In Figure 7.1(a), total compressive force in the slab is broken down into components according to the assumed location of the longitudinal shear planes. The directions of the longitudinal shear forces illustrated in the figure are associated with compressive forces. In order to investigate the longitudinal shear in composite system thoroughly, the middle section of the slab shown in Figure 7.1(a) is enlarged and shown in Figure 7.2. The horizontal surface has been taken through the shear connectors, either at the neutral axis if it is within the slab, or at the steel section to slab interface. Based on this, the longitudinal shear forces in the slab must be equal and opposite to those illustrated in Figure 7.1(a).

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8.0 Behaviour under Negative Moment The concrete slab in a composite system will be subjected to tension and is regarded as ineffective when the section is under the action of a negative bending moment. On the other hand, the slab reinforcement that runs parallel to the beam and lies within the effective slab width can be considered to carry part of the negative moment, provided that certain conditions, i.e. shear connectors are provided in this region and reinforcement has adequate embedment in a zone of positive moment, are fulfilled. Theoretically, shear connectors are not necessary in this region as concrete is assumed to be cracked and ineffective. However, if the short portion uncracked concrete is anchored to the steel beam, it will serve to transfer load more gradually into the reinforcement than the embedment length of the bars alone. Ultimate strength analysis can be applied to the cross-section if the above described conditions are met. Assumed that the neutral axis will fall within the steel beam, the ultimate capacity can be calculated by considering the reinforcing bars, and a portion of the steel beam acting in tension, while the remainder of the steel beam acting in compression. In most situations, a larger portion of the beam crosssection will be in compression than that in a non-composite steel beam. Therefore, the tendency of both local and lateral buckling is increased, while the rotation capacity is likely to be reduced. To calculate the number of shear connectors required between maximum negative moment and an adjacent zero moment location with consideration of the ultimate strength, a conservative approach which is similar to that in positive moment region is take into account. The number of connectors must be obtained by considering that there must be sufficient shear connectors to produce yielding in the longitudinal slab reinforcement. In Clause 17.9.7, the horizontal shear, Vh is calculated as: Vh = * Ar * Fyr (8.1) where Ar = area of longitudinal reinforcement contained within the effective slab width Fyr = minimum specified yield strength of the longitudinal reinforcing steel

Figure 7.2. Free Body Diagram of Longitudinal Shear For equilibrium:

Vu = Qu C 'r 2
In equation 7.1, Cr2 can be written as: where

(7.1) (7.2)

C 'r 2 = 0.85* f ' c * Ac * Ar * Fyr

Ac = area of concrete in compression within the region containing the shear connectors Ar = area of longitudinal reinforcing within the area Ac Fyr = specified minimum yield strength of the reinforcing steel. The total ultimate shear force acting on the two longitudinal planes shown in Figure 7.1(a) can be expressed as:

Vu = Qu 0.85 * c * f ' c * Ac * Ar * Fyr

(7.3)

In Clause 17.9.9, corresponding resistance for normal-weight concrete is the less of the following: Vr = 0.8 * * Ar * Fyr + 2.76 * c * Acv (7.4)

Vr = 0.5 * c * f ' c * Acv (7.5) where Acv = total area of the two longitudinal shear planes extending from the point of maximum moment to an adjacent location of zero moment Ar = area of transverse reinforcement crossing shear planes
If the potential planes of longitudinal shear are like those shown in Figure 7.1(b) or (c), adjustments should be made. Additional shear resistance is provided by the steel if a metal deck is present. However, research work is not available to quantify this contribution. It is better to neglect this contribution to have conservative design.

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Using equation 8.1, the number of shear connectors required in a negative moment region can be calculated. 9.0 Formed Metal Deck Throughout the discussion, it is assumed that the underside of the concrete has been formed with temporary plywood forms. Permanent sheet steel forms with a modest corrugation (less than 0.25 times the slab thickness) to provide form strength are also used. In either case, the overall thickness of the slab is used in the capacity calculations. However, one should recognize that it is common to use steel deck containing relatively large corrugations as the formwork for the concrete. This is usually called hollow composite construction. The zinc-coated sheet-steel steel deck may be placed either parallel to the steel supporting member or transversely to it. If it is placed transversely, the steel deck itself will act compositely with the slab to transfer slab loads to the beams. The sidewalls and the bottom of the trough of the steel deck have kind of embossment to interlock with concrete. This provides for composite action between the steel deck sheet and the concrete slab as it spans from beam to beam. Once the steel deck has been placed on the supporting beams, studs are attached by welding through the sheet steel. Slab reinforcement is then placed and concrete is poured. In Clause 17.2, minimum thickness of concrete above the top of the steel deck of 65mm is required. The shape of the profile of the steel deck and the conditions under which the stud welding can be done are subject to limitations stated in the Standard also. For vertical shear strength calculation, it is assumed that the entire shear is carried by the web of the steel section. For flexural strength calculation, procedures are same as those for calculating vertical shear, except the effective slab thickness is to be taken as the thickness of the concrete between the top of the steel deck and the top of the slab. One should recognize that there is now a portion of the cross-section, i.e. the part between the top of the steel section and the top of the profile of the steel deck, is assumed to be totally ineffective.

10.0 Other Composite Floor Members As the span length in multi-storey commercial buildings is increased, the depth of the member, the depth of the floor-ceiling sandwich and the necessitate passing the mechanical ducts through the girder web, and fabrication costs are increased also. Although composite beams and composite girders are the most frequently used steel floor framing system, structural-mechanical integration system is required. Two other types composite floor members are developed successfully: the composite truss, and the stub-girder system. A truss provides holes through which mechanical and other underfloor utilities services can pass easily due to its configuration. Trusses are proved to be cost-effective for spans from about 10m to 23m; they are always used to span from the central core of a building to the perimeter columns. In Warren or modified Warren configuration, truss chords will consist of structural T sections or hollow structural sections, with angle or hollow structural section web members. When the truss carries the loads under construction, it is designed that the truss acts non-compositely, as is done for unshored girders. Once composite action has been achieved, i.e. fc = 0.75 * f ' c , the moment resistance of the composite truss is determined in a similar way as for a girder. Nevertheless, a conservative simplification is used: the cross-section of steel comprising the top chord is to be neglected in the calculations as stated in Clause 17.9.2. Vertical shear must be taken entirely by the steel truss, specifically by the web members. A stub girder is a form of truss, especially a Vierendeel truss where the top chord is the deck slab and the bottom chord is a rolled steel section. Both the top and bottom chords are interconnected using short lengths, usually from about 310mm to 460mm deep section. Opening of passage of mechanical services are provided by the gaps between these short lengths of beam. These chords are subject to axial loads, bending moments, and shears due to the Vierendeel action of the girder. For review of key concept, refer to Appendix B.

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Appendix A
Note: Examples as presented may be according CSA S16.1 (7th edition Handbook of Steel Construction) Example 1: Neutral Axis in Concrete Slab Determine the flexural capacity, shear capacity, and the horizontal shear to be transferred of the cross-section (W360x33) shown below. The effective slab width has been established as 2250 mm, the 28day strength of the concrete is 22 MPa and the steel is G40.21 350W. 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

depth (d) = 349 mm web thickness (t_w) = 5.8 mm flange thickness (t_f) = 8.5 mm flange width (b_f) = 127 mm Calculate unknown a by equation 4.1.2. Assess moment arm e Calculate flexural capacity by equation 4.1.3. Obtain shear capacity by equation 4.1. Calculate shear force to be transferred by equation 4.1.4.

Example 2: Neutral Axis in the Steel Section Determine the flexural capacity, shear capacity, and the horizontal shear to be transferred of the cross-section (W610x174) shown below. The effective slab width has been established as 1830 mm, the 28-day strength of the concrete is 20 MPa, and the steel is G40.21 350W.

Figure A1. Composite Cross-Section for Example 1. Steps to solve: 1) Identify input parameters: a) effective width (b) = 2250 mm b) thickness of slab (t) = 125 mm c) compressive strength of concrete (fc) = 22 MPa d) yield strength of steel (Fy) = 350 MPa e) resistance factor of concrete (c)= 0.6 f) performance factor () = 0.9 g) parameters of steel section: area (As) = 4170 mm2

Figure A2. Composite Cross-Section for Example 2. Steps to solve: (similar to Example 1)

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1) Identify input parameters: a) b = 1830 mm b) t = 150 mm c) fc = 20 MPa d) Fy = 350 MPa e) c = 0.6 f) = 0.9 g) parameters of steel section: As = 22200 mm2 d = 616 mm t_w = 14 mm t_f = 21.6 mm b_f = 325 mm 2) Calculate unknown a by equation 4.1.2 to locate the neutral axis (NA). Calculation will show that the NA falls into the steel section. This means the concrete slab is entirely in compression 3) Calculate Cr by equation 4.1.1 with a = t. 4) Calculate Cr by equation 4.2.2 or 4.2.3. 5) In order to calculate e and e, NA must be found. Equate Cr with equation 4.1.4 to find the required As and locate the NA. If it falls in flange, name it as df, otherwise, name it as dw. 6) Obtain the centroid of the area below the NA by summing area moments about the bottom of the section. 7) Calculate moment arm e for Cr and moment arm e for Cr. 8) Assess flexural capacity by equation 4.2.5. 9) Calculate shear capacity by equation 4.1. 10) Obtain the shear force to be transferred by equation 4.2.6.

Example 3: Number of Shear Connectors Determine the capacity of a 19mm diameter studs x 75 mm long. Also, determine the total capacity of the shear connectors if 20 of them are used. Given that the 28-day strength of the concrete is 25 MPa, ultimate tensile strength of connector is 415 MPa, and modulus of elasticity is 24600 MPa. Steps to slove: 1) Identify all parameters: a) ultimate tensile strength of connector (Fu) = 415 MPa b) modulus of elasticity (Ec) = 24600 MPa c) diameter of shear studs (d_sc) = 19 mm d) resistance factor of shear connector (sc) = 0.8 e) fc = 25 MPa 2) Obtain the shear resistance of the shear connector by equation 5.1.1 or 5.1.2, whichever is less. 3) Determine the total capacity of shear connectors by multiplying the number of shear connectors with shear resistance of one shear connector obtained in step 2).

Example 4: Design of Composite member with full shear transferred Determine a suitable W-shape for the cross section as shown in the figure below, such that the moment capacity and shear capacity are able to resist the applied load stated as follows. (Assume it is a simply-supported beam) In addition, determine the required number of shear connectors (assume 19 mm shear studs with 75 mm long is used) and their total resistance. The 28-day strength of concrete is 20 MPa, modulus of elasticity is 24600 MPa, and the steel is G40.21 350W.

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Figure A3. Composite Cross Section for Example 4. Beams are 9000 mm long continuous beam with 2750 mm center to center.

Loading: Dead load: 125 mm concrete slab, forms tile florring hung ceiling, lights, etc movable steel partitions Live load: From National Building Code

3.065 kPa 0.05 kPa 0.095 kPa 0.19 kPa 2.4 kPa

Steps to solve: 1) Select a steel section. E.g. W360x33 2) Obtain and identify necessary parameters: a) t = 125 mm b) fc = 20 MPa c) Fy = 350 MPa d) c= 0.6 e) = 0.9 f) Fu = 415 MPa g) Ec = 24600 MPa h) d_sc = 19 mm i) sc = 0.8 j) dead load factor = 1.25 k) live load factor = 1.5 l) parameters of steel section: As = 4170 mm2

d = 349 mm t_w = 5.8 mm t_f = 8.5 mm b_f = 127 mm weight of beam (m) = 33 kg 3) Calculate the effective width of concrete by applying Clause 17.4.1, and 17.4.2 (i.e. Discussion in section 3.0) 4) Obtain unknown a to check the NA location. i) If NA locates in concrete slab, find moment arm ec, and obtain flexural capacity by equation 4.1.3. ii) If NA locates in steel section, obtain Cr and Cr as indicated the method in step 3) and 4) in example 2. In order to calculate es and es, NA must be found. Equate Cr with equation 4.1.4 to find the required As and locate the NA. If it falls in flange, name it as df, otherwise, name it as dw. Then obtain the centroid of the area below the NA by summing area moments about the bottom of the section. Calculate moment arm es for Cr and moment arm es for Cr, and finally assess flexural capacity by equation 4.2.5. 5) Calculate shear capacity by equation 4.1. 6) Determine the tributary width of beam. 7) Calculate the applied moment and applied shear. 8) Compare the applied moment with the moment resistance and applied shear with shear resistance and check the validity. 9) Obtain the shear force to be transferred by equation 4.2.6. 10) Obtain the shear resistance of the shear connector by equation 5.1.1 or 5.1.2, whichever is less. 11) Determine the required number of connectors and the total resistance.

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Example 5: Design of Cover Plate A composite beam consists of a concrete slab (thickness 150 mm and effective width 2000 mm) and a W310x60 (see the following figure). The concrete has a 28-day compressive strength of 20 MPa. The material used in the W-shape is of G40.21 350W steel. Suppose you want the neutral axis of the cross-section to be at the top of the W section when the full moment resistance of the composite section is developed. Adding another plate (cover plate) of the same width to the bottom flange can do this. Determine the thickness of the cover plate.

t_f = 13.1 mm b_f = 203 mm 2) Since we would like to move down the NA to the steel section. Therefore, Vh is obtained from equation 4.2.6. 3) Equate tensile force to Vh and find the As required. 4) Obtain the depth of cover plate by minus As from As required and then divide the result by the width of the plate (which is same as the flange width in this example)

Example 6: Design of Composite member with partial shear transferred Repeat Example 4 except partial shear of 70% is transferred, 28-day strength concrete is 25 MPa, and diameter of shear connector is 20 mm. Steps to solve: 1) Choose a steel section. E.g. W360x33 2) Obtain and identify necessary parameters 3) Calculate the effective width of concrete by applying Clause 17.4.1, and 17.4.2 (i.e. Discussion in section 3.0) 4) Obtain unknown a to check the NA location by equation 5.2.4. 5) Obtain Cr and Cr as indicated the method in step 3) and 4) in example 2. In order to calculate es and es, NA must be found. Equate Cr with equation 4.1.4 to find the required As and locate the NA. If it falls in flange, name it as df, otherwise, name it as dw. Then obtain the centroid of the area below the NA by summing area moments about the bottom of the section. Calculate moment arm es for Cr and moment arm es for Cr, and finally assess flexural capacity by equation 4.2.5. 6) Followed step 5) to 11) in example 4.

Figure A4. Cross Section of Composite Beam with Cover Plate for Example 5 Steps to solve: 1) Identify parameters: a) b = 2000 mm b) t = 150 mm c) fc = 20 MPa d) Fy = 350 MPa e) c = 0.6 f) = 0.9 g) parameters of steel section: As = 7590 mm2 d = 303 mm t_w = 7.5 mm

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Example 7. Deflection Determine the deflection of the composite beam designed in Example 4. Steps to solve: 1) Determine deflection for non-composite action: steel beam acts alone to carry the slab load, formwork plus its own dead load. 2) Determine deflection for composite beam with short term load: half the specified live load acts on a long-term basis and half on a short-term basis. Effective moment of inertia is used and is calculated by equation 6.1. 3) Determine deflection for composite beam with long term load: half of the specified live load plus weight of tile, hung ceiling, lights, partitions, etc. Effective moment of inertia is used. 4) Determine deflection from shrinkage of the concrete by equation 6.6. Transformed moment of inertia is used and is determined by taking area moment about the base of the steel beam.

Appendix B
Review of key concepts: The modular ratio defines the relationship between modulus of elasticity of steel and concrete. The location of the neutral axis in a composite deck is important during the capacity analysis because concrete is not able to carry tension. Partial shear connection is possible when design is controlled by deflections. In order to avoid cracks in the concrete slab of a composite floor in the region of negative moment add steel reinforcement in the concrete. The shear resistance of a steel stud can be computed by

Most composite floors are presently constructed using concrete poured on a formed steel metal deck. In a composite design the concrete deck can carry compression. The effective slab thickness is to be taken as the thickness of the concrete between the top of the steel deck and the top of the concrete slab. Appropriate values for the modular ratio in composite design are 40 to 60. Although elastic design rules underestimate the effective slab width for an interior beam by a large amount, the effect on the moment capacity is relatively small. No composite system connections are truly simple, even though the member may be analyzed on this basis. Shear connectors must transfer the total force at the interface of the concrete slab and the steel section. In all cases, if shear transfer less than 100%, the location of the neutral axis must lie within the steel section, and not in the slab. For partial shear, if flexural strength controls the design, the number of shear connectors must be at least 40% of the full composite action. For partial shear, if deflection controls the design, the number of shear connectors can be as low as 25% of the full composite action. Shear connectors must transfer the total force at the interface of the concrete slab and the steel section. A cover plate can be attached on the bottom flange of the steel beam to bring down the neutral axis below the level of the slab.

Credits
The text above has been based on a term project done by Ms. Sai-shun To for the CIVL598 course.

q r = 0.5 sc Asc

f 'c E 'c .

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