Title Pages Content Introduction Objective Gathering imformation y 3.1Sulphuric acid y 3.2Ammo nia y 3.3Alo y y 3.4Synthetic polymers y 3.

5Glass and ceramics y 3.6Composite materials Conclusion References All the oblect around the world are made up of chemical substances. These objec t exist in the form of element, compound or mixture. All these object contribute benefit to humankind. As the time go on, human has done many researches to ensu re all this chemical substances will be enough for the use of themselves. Chapter 9 of syllabus form4 introduced the student with chemical substances and manufactured substances in industry. This is important for the student to apprec iate the knowledge of chemistry that is new for the student of form4. Personally, I think that this chapter is an interesting chapter as it is revealed the way of the scientist pro duces the material around us. It also give me the new knowledge of the uses of the chemical substan ces that usually I found in laboratories. I hope by learning this chapter, I wiil be more interested in learning Chemistry as it wiil help me in future. All the equation from this chapter make me more understand th e previous chapter. By the end of this lesson, student should be able to: Understand the manufactur e of sulphurric acid. Synthesise the manufacture of ammonia and its salt. Unders tand alloy Evaluate the uses of composite materials Appreciate various synthetic industrial materials. Apply the uses of glass and ceramic. Evaluate the uses of synthetic polymer. 3.1 Sulphuric acid: 3.1.1The manufacture of sulphuric acid in industry The manu facture of sulphuric acid is one of the most important chemical industries at th e present time Sulphuric acid is a non-volatile diprotic acid. Sulfuric acid is important in the production of fertilizers such as ammonium sulfate (sulfate of ammonia), (NH4)2SO4, and superphosphate, Ca(H2PO4)2, which is formed when rock p hosphate is treated with sulfuric acid. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a viscous colourless liquid The uses of sulphuric acid in daily life: Manufacture of detergent(synthetic cleaning ageants) Manufacture of synthetic fibre(polymer) In school laboratory(as a catalyst, as a sulphonating agent) Manufacture of white pigment in paint Barium sulphate. Sulfuric acid is used to remove oxides from iron and steel before galvanising or electroplating Sulphuric acid is manufacture by the Contact process in industry. The raw material used in the Contact process are sulphur(or sulphide mineral),a ir and water. There are few step of contact process f ir st step, sulfur is burn ed to produce sulfur dioxide. S (s) + O2 (g) SO2 (g) Stage2 is conservation of su lphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide o The sulphur dioxide gas is dried and purifie d before being added to dry air to produce sulphur trioxide. This is to remove w ater vapour and to remove contaminants such as arsenic compound o Pure and dry sulphur dioxide with excess dry oxygen (from air) are passed thro ugh a converter. o A high percentage of sulphur dioxide is converted to sulphur trioxide under the presence of vanadium as a catalyst and pressure of one atmosp here 2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) 2SO3 (g) (in presence of V2O5) Stage3 is the production of sulp huric acid. o In the absorber, sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sul phuric acid to produce oleum, a viscous liquid H2SO4 (l) + SO3 H2S2O7 (l) o Oleu

m is then dilute with an equal volume of water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid H2S2O7 (l) + H2O (l) 2 H2SO4 o The two reaction in stage3 are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide to the wa ter SO3 (g) + H2O (l) H2SO4 (l) However, sulphur trioxide is not dissolved direc tly in water to produce sulphuric acid.This is because: o Sulphur trioxide has l ow solubility in water o Sulphur trioxide reacts violently in water, producing a large amount of heat which will vapourise sulphuric acid to form acid mist. The mist is corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense. 3.1.2The environmental pollution by the products of sulphuric acid Sulphur diox ide is the intermediate product of the contact process. Sulphur dioxide also produced during volcanic eruption. Waste product from factories and extraction of metal from their sulphide ores al so release sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. The burning of product manufactured from sul phuric acid such as rayon will also produce sulphur dioxide gas. Sulphur is a po isonous and acidic gas that can cause environmental pollution. Inhalling sulphur dioxide affect the respiratory system. It can cause lung problem such as coughi ng, chest pains, shortness of breath and bronchitis. Sulphur dioxide gas dissolv es in atmospheric water to produces sulphurous acid and sulphuric acid. The pres ence of these acids in rain water causes acid rain The effect of acid rain are a s follow: Corrodes concrete building and metal structures. Destroys and plant in forest. Decreases the pH of the soil which becomes acidic, unsuitable for growth of plant and destroy the root of plant. Reacts with mineral in the soil to produc e salts which are leachedout of the top soil. Acid rain flows into lakes and riv ers. This increase the acidity of water and may kill fish and other aquatic livi ng thing. 3.2 Ammonia: 3.2.1The physical and chemical properties of ammonia Ammonia is a colourless and pungent gas. It is less dense than air. Ammonia changes moist red litmus paper to blue. Thus ammonia is an alkaline gas. Ammonia dissolves in wat er to produces weak alkali. As ammonia is very soluble in water, an inverted fil ter funnel is used to prevent the suction of water. Ammonia gas reacts with hydro gen clorine gas to form white fumes of ammonia chloride. It ismis c ib le with wa ter. Ammonia in an aqueous solution can be expelled by boiling. The maximum conce ntration of ammonia in water (asat ur at ed solution) has a density of 0.880 g/c m3 and is often known as '.880 Ammonia'. Ammonia does not burn readily or sustai nco mbus t io n, except under narrow fuel- to-air mixtures of1525% air. When mixe d witho xyge n, it burns with a pale yellowish-green flame. At high temperature and in the presence of a suitable catalyst, ammonia is decomposed into its const ituent elements. Ignition occurs whenc hlo r ine is passed into ammonia, forming nitrogen and hydrogen chloride; if chlorine is present in excess, then the high ly explosive nitrogen trichloride (NCl3) is also formed. The ammonia molecule readily undergoes nitrogen inversion at room temperature; a useful analogy is anu mbr e l la turning itself inside out in a strong wind. Amm onia gas is a strong reducing agent. When dry ammonia gas is passed over heated black copper oxide it will be reduced to brown copper. 3CU O + 2NH3- - -- -- - - 3Cu +N2 + 3H2O It reduces lead monoxide to lead 3pbO 2NH3 ------- 3Pb + N2 + 3 H2 O 6.ammonia reduces chlorine to hydrogenchloride 8NH3 + 3Cl2- - - -- -- - - 6 NH4Cl + N2 Ammonia in its aqueous solution neutralizes acids forming respective salts. NH3 + H2O- -- - -- - - NH4OH NH4OH + HCl- - - -- - -- NH4Cl When ammonia is passed over the above solution for a long time the precipitate dissoves whic h is called as cuproammonium sulphate. 3.2.2The manufacture of ammonia in industry The Haber process is the industrial method used to prepare ammonia gas a large scale using nitrogen gas and hydroge n gas. Nitrogen gas used in the Haber process is obtained from the fractional di stillation of liquid air. Hydrogen gas is used in the Haber process can be obtai ned by two method: I. The reaction between steam and heated coke II. The reactio

n between steam and natural gas In the Haber process: o A mixture consisting one volume of nitrogen gas and three volume of pure and dry hydrogen gas is compressed to a pressure between200-300 atmospheres. o The compressed mixture of N2 and H2 is passed over heated catalyst. Ammonia is formed. Heat exchange takes place between residual N2 and H2 and the incoming unreacted N2 and H2. o Mixture of ammonia and residual N2 and H2 under pressure is allowed to expand suddenly through a small nozzle into a region of low pressure. o This results in fall in pressure and ammonia is liquefied and collected at the base.Unreacted N 2 and H2 is recycled into the catalytic chamber. The gas mixture produced consis ts of about17% ammonia gas. The ammonia gas is liquefied when the gas mixture is cooled. The gas unreacted nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas are pumped back to the catalytic column to be reacted again. The manufacture of ammonia gas by the Habe r process 3.2.3The preparation of ammonium salt in the school laboratory y Ammonium sulfa te is made by reacting synthetic ammonia (or by-product ammonia from coke-ovens) with sulfuric acid:[6] 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 y A mixture of ammonia gas and wa ter vapor is introduced into a reactor that contains a saturated solution of amm onium sulfate and about2 to4% of free sulfuric acid at60 C. y Concentrated sulfur ic acid is added to keep the solution acidic, and to retain its level of free ac id. The heat of reaction keeps reactor temperature at60 C. y Dry, powdered ammoni um sulfate may be formed by spraying sulfuric acid into a reaction chamber fille d with ammonia gas. y The heat of reaction evaporates all water present in the s ystem, forming a powdery salt. y Ammonium sulfate also is manufactured from gyps um (CaSO42H2O). Finely divided gypsum is added to an ammonium carbonateso lut io n. y Calcium carbonate precipitates out, leaving ammonium sulfate in the solutio n. (NH4)2CO3 + CaSO4 (NH4)2SO4 + CaCO3 y Ammonium sulfate occurs naturally as th e rare mineral mascagnite in volcanic fumaroles and due to coal fires on some du mps.[7] 3.3 Aloy 3.3.1What are alloys and what are the aim of making alloy? What are all oys? o An alloy is a mixture of two or more element with a certain composition i n which the major component is metal. o Pure metal are weak and soft because the arrangement of atom in pure metal makes them ductile and malleable. o The makin g of alloy: a. In the process of alloying, one or more foreign element are added to molten metal. b. In an alloy, these atoms of foreign element distrupt the or derly arrangement of the metal atom and also fiil up any empty space atoms in th e metal crystal structure. c. Hence the layers of metal atoms are prevented from sliding over each other ea sily. This make the alloy harder and stronger, less ductile and less malleable t han pure metals. What are the aim of making alloys? o To increase the hardness and strength a.The additional of a little carbon to iron metal produces steel which is very hard a lloy of iron. b.The additional of tin to copper metal produces bronze. Bronze is an alloys harder than both tin and copper. c. The additional of magnesium to al luminium metal produces an alloy called magnalium. It is harder than aluminium b ut still retain low density of aluminium metal. o To prevent corrosion a. The ad ditional of carbon, nickel and chromium to iron metal produces stainless steel. Stainless stell is an alloy which can resist rusting. The chromium and nickel form chromium(III) oxides and nickel(IV) oxides with prevents the iron from rusting. o To improve the appearance I. Stainless steel is more shiny than pure iron. II. Adding a little copper and antimony to tin produces the alloy pewter which is h arder and shinier, and not so easily tarnished. III. Alloy wheels made from alum inium and other element improve the look of vehicles. 3.3.2The comparison of the properties of alloys and their pure metal Properties of alloys o Hard and strong(carbon steel) o Shiny, strong and resists rusting(st

ainless steel) o Hard, strong and shiny(bronze) o Hard and shiny(brass) o Light, hard and strong(magnalium) o Light, hard strong(duralumin) o Lustrous and stron g(pewter) o Hard, shiny and with low melting point(solder) o Hard, shiny and res ists corrosion(cupro-nickel) Properties of pure metal o Soft o Ducttile o Mallea ble o Easy to broken 3.3.3Example of alloys and their uses: Alloy Uses Carbon steel y Frameworks of building and bridge. y In the making of tool, frameworks of heavy machinery and body of vehicles Stainless stell y In the making of cuttery and kitchenware. y I n the making of machine parts and surgical intruments Bronze y In the making of kitchenware and ship propellers. y In the making of decorative ornaments, statue s and art crafts. Brass y In the making of electrical connectors and musical ins trument. y In the making of kitchenware and decorative ornaments. Magnalium y In the making of aircraft body frames. y In the making of rim of racing car tyres. Duralumin y In the making og the bodies of aircraft and bullet trains. y In the making of racing bycles, fan blades, light electrical cable. Pewter y In the ma king of mugs, candlesticks, decorative ornaments and souvenirs. Solder y In the making of solder for electrical wires and metal pipes. Cupro-nickel y To make co ins of10 sen,20 sen,30 sen. 3.4 Synthetic polymers: 3.4.1Naturally occurring polymer The words polymer origi nated from the Greek polumeros which mean having many part. Polymers are large m olecule made up of many smaller and identical repeating units joined together by covalent bonds. These small molecules tha are joined into chains are called mon omers. Naturally occurring polymers exist in plant or animals. Example of natura lly occurring polymer are: i. Protein: in muscle, skin, silk, hair, wool and fur ii. Carbohydrate: in starch and cellulose. iii. Natural rubber: in latex Protei n is formed by the polymeration of monomers knows as amino acid. Carbohydrates su ch as starch and cellulose consists of monomers known as glucose joined together chemically. Naturally rubber found in latex consists of monomer known as isopre ne joined together chemically. 3.4.2Synthetic polymers Synthetic polymers are po lymers made in the industry from chemical substances. Many of the raw materials for synthetic polymer are obtained from petroleum, after the refining and cracki ng processes. The types of synthetic polymers includes: I. Plastics II. Fibres I II. Elastomers P last ic a) Thermoplastic is a polymer which, when subjected to heat, becomes soft so they can be moulded into various shapes. b) The properties of plastics are: light, strong, inert to chemicals such as acids and alkali and are insulators of electricity and heat. c) Example of plastics are polythene, p olyvinylchloride, polyproponene, polystyrene, Perspex and Bakelite. Synthetic fi bres a) Synthetic fibres are long chained polymers that withstand stretching. b) Example of synthetic fibres are nylon and Terylene. c) Nylon is used to make rope, fishing lines, stocking and clothing. d) Terylene is used to make sleeping bag and fishing net. E last o mera) An elastomer is a polymer tha can regain its original shape afte r being stretched or pressed. b) Both natural rubber and synthetic rubber are example of elastomers. c) Example of synthetic rubber are neoprene and styrene-butadiene rubber(SBR). d) (SBR) is used to make car tyres. There are two types of polymerat ion processes: a) Additional polymeration b) Condensation polymeration Plastis su ch as polytene and PVC are produced by additional polymeration, whereas syntheti c fibres such as nylon and terynele are made by condensation polymeration. 3.4.3 Synthesis polymer and their uses in daily life Synthetic polymer uses Nylon y Ma king ropes,fishing lines,stokoing and parachutes Terylene y Making clothing,slee ping bag,sails,ropes and fishing net. Teflon(PTFE) y Coating for non-stick fryin g pans and electrical insulators. Perspex y Safety glass,air plane windows,car l amp, and toys. Polystyrene y Packaging materials, heat insulators, and cup PVC y Water pipes,shoes,bag and rain clothes. Polypropylene y Plastic bottles,chairs, car battery cases and ropes Polyethylene y Plastic bag,shoping bag,plastic conta iner, plastic toys

3.4.4 The effect of the uses of synthetic polymer to our environment Most polym er are non-biodegrabable that is they cannot be decomposed by bacteria or other microorganism. This will cause disposal problem as the polymer will not decay li ke other garbage. Discarded plastic items may cause blockage of draigane system and rivers thus causing flash flood. Plastic bottles and container that are not buried n the ground will become breeding ground for the mos quitoes which will causes diseases such as dengue. Small plastic items tha are thrown into the river, lakes and seas are somethings swallowed by aquatic animals. These animalmay die from choking. The open burning of polymers may release harmful and poisonous gases that will causes air pollution. For example, the burning of contributes to the acid rain problem. The burning of some polymer will release toxid gas such as hydrogen cyanide. The making source of raw materials for the making of synthesis polymers is petroleum. Petroleum is a non-renewable resource. 3.5 Glass and Ceramics 3.5.1The different types, composition, properties and us es of glass Glass and ceramic The raw materials for making glass and ceramics ar e obtained from the Earth crust The main component of both glass and ceramics is silica or silicon dioxide, SiO2 Both glass and ceramics are used widely in our daily life to replace metals because of the advantages above aw well as their lo w cost of production. Name of the glass Properties Example of uses Chemical comp osition Fused glass Very high softening Transparent to ultraviolent Difficult to ba made into different shapes. Very resistant to chemical reaction Telescope mi rror, lenses, optical fibres and laboratory glass wares SiO2(99%) B2O3(1%) Soda lime glass Low softening point Breaks easily Cracks easily with sudden temperatu re changes Less resistant to chemical reactions Easy to make into different shap es Bottles, windowpanes, light bulbs, mirrors, flat glass, glass-plates and bowls. SiO2(70%) Na2O(15%) CaO(10%) Other(5%) Borosilicate glass Quite high softening point, hence it is heat-resistant Does n ot crack easily with sudden change of temperature Transparent to ultraviolent li ght More resistant to chemical Laboratory apparatus, cooking utensils, electrical-tubes and glass pipelines SiO2(80%) PbO(15%) Na2O(3%) Al2O3(2%) reaction Does not break easily Lead glass Low softening point High density High refractive index Reflect light rays and appears sparkling Decorative items, Cry stal glassware, lens, prisms, and chandeliers SiO2(55%) PbO(30%) K2O(10%) Na2O(3 %) Al2O3(2%) 3.5.2The composition, properties and uses of ceramics. Composition: o Ceramic is a manufactured substance made from clay that is dried and then baked in a kiln at high temperature. o The main constituent of clay is aluminate, sili ca and feldspar. o Kaolinite is an example of high quality white clay that consi sts of hydrated aluminosilicates crystals. o Red clay contain iron(III) oxides w hich gives its red colour. Properties o The properties of ceramic materials, lik e all materials, are dictated by the types of atoms present, the types of bondin g between the atoms, and the way the atoms are packed together. o This is known as the atomic scale structure. o Most ceramics are made up of tw o or more elements. This is called a compound. o For example, alumina (Al2O3), i

s a compound made up of aluminum atoms and oxygen atoms.. o The atoms in ceramic materials are held together by a chemical bond. o The two most common chemical bonds for ceramic materials are covalent and ionic. o For metals, the chemical b ond is called the metallic bond. o The bonding of atoms together is much stronge r in covalent and ionic bonding than in metallic. o That is why, generally speak ing, metals are ductile and ceramics are brittle. Uses of ceramics Uses Example Building materials Bricks, tiles and cement Mater ials for decorative items Plates, bowls, cooking utensils, porcelain and vases T o make electrical insulating parts In sulators in toasters and irons, sparkplugs in car. In surgical and dental apparatus Artifical hand, leg and teeth As micro chips ToMake microchip in computer, radios and televisions 3.6 CompositeMaterials 3.6.1What are composite materials A composite material is a structural material formed by combining two or more materials with different physical properties, producing a complex mixture. The composite materials materi al produces will have different properties far more superior to the original mat erials In the making of composites, substances are combined to form new types of materials that can overcomes the limitations of the original materials. Composit es materials are harder, stronger, lighter, more resistant to heat and corrosion and also made for specific purpose. Most of the composite materials are compris ed of two phase: o A continuous phase(also known as the base) o A dispersed phas ed(also known as the matrix) Composite materials for construction,eng ineer ing, and other similar applications are formed by combining two or more materials in such a way that the constituents of the composite materials are still distinguishable, and not fully blended. One example of a composite material is concrete, which uses Material in combination with grevel as a reinforcement. 3.6.2 te material and their uses Composite material uses Reinforced ck of frameworks for highways, bridges and high-rise building o make more efficient generators transformers, electric cable,amplifliers,computer cement as a binding Example of composi concrete y Constru Superconductor y T

part,stronger and ligther electromagnet. Fibre optic y Transmit data in the form of light telecommunication Fibreglass y Water and food storage container,boats, swimming pool lining, fishing rods, car bodies and roofing 3.6.3What is superconductor o In normal electrical conductors such as copper me tal,the existence of resistance causes the loss of electrical energy as heat. o Superconductors can conduct electricity with zero resistance when are cooled to extremely low temperatures. Thus, superconductors conduct electricity without an y loss of energy. o Metal such as copper, can only achieve superconductivity at avery low temperat ure. This low temperature can only be achieved using liquid helium which is expe nsive. o When a mixture of cooper(II) oxide(CuO), barium oxides(BaO) and yttrium oxides(Y2O3) is heated up, a type of ceramic with the formula YBa2Cu3O7 is produces. This type of ceramic, known as perovskite or YBCO, an attain superconductivity. 3.6.4What are fibric optic and what are fibre glass Fibre optic o Fibre optic ar e bundle of glass tubes with very small diameter. They are finer than human hair and are very flexible. o Fibre optic is a composition material tha can transmit electronic data or signal, voice and images in a digital format, in the form of light along the fine glass tubes at great speed.

o Fibres optics consists of a core of glass of higher refractive index enclosed by a glass cladding of lower refractive index. A light wave entering the fibre will travel along the glass tube due to total internal reflection Fibre glass o Plastic is light, elastic, flexible, but is brittle, not very stro ng and is inflamamable. o Glass is hard and strong but brittle, heavy and has a low compressive strength. o When glass fibre filament are embedded in polyester resin(a type of plastic), fibre glass which is light, strong, tough, resilient, inflammable, flexible with a high tensile strength is produced Photochromicglass y Photochromic optical lens, camera lens, car windshields, optical switches, information display panels and light intensity meters o Fibre glass is an ideal material for making water storage tanks, boat hulls, swimming pool lining, food container, fishing rods, car bodies, roofing, furniture and pipes. 3.6.5What is a photochromic glass Photochromic glass o Glass is transparent and is not sensitive to light intensity. o In photochromic glass, silver chloride(Ag Cl) or silver bromide(AgBr) and a little copper (I) chloride is embedded into th e structure of glass o When exposed to ultraviolent light, the AgCl or AgBr deco mposes to form silver and halogen atoms. The fine silver which is deposited in t he glass is black and the glass is darkened. o Photochromic glass has the abilit y to change colour and become darker when exposed to ultraviolent light. o The p hotochromic glass will automatically becomes clear again when the light intensit y is lowered, whereby silver is converted back to silver halides. We must appre ciate these various synthetic material. One of the way is by doing continuous re search and development to produces better material used to improved standard of living. As we live in changing world, our society is getting more complex. New m aterial are required to overcome the problem in the world. Synthetic material are developed constantly due to limitation and shortage natural material. New material for living thing can improved our daily life are developed continuo sly far the well-being mankind. New need and new problem wiil stimulate the new synthetic material. For example the new, uses of plastic composite material wiil replaced metal in the making of stronger and lighter car bodies. This will save fuel and improved speed. Plastc compostime material may one day uses to make or gan for organ transplant in human bodies The understanding the intreraction between different chemical are important for both depelopment new synthetic materials and the disposal of such synthetic material are waste. A responsible and systhematic method of handling of waste synthetic material and t heir by-product is important to prevent environment pollution. References o Tan Yin Toon ,LohWail Eng, Tan On Tin,2008, Success Chemistry SPM, Oxford Fajar Sdn. Bhd. o Low Swee Neo, Lim yean Ching, Eng Nguan Hong, Lim Eng Wah, Umi Kalthom binti Ahmad,2005. Teks Book Chemistry Form4, Abadi Ilmu Sdn.Bhd . o http://www.scribd.com/doc/22047806/Chemistry-Form-4-Chapter-9 o http://en.wi kipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_sulphate o http://www.lenntech.com/chemistry/sulphuric -acid.htm o http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Composite_material