VARIABLE STARS

ROBERTO BARTALI

ABSTRACT

This project is around stars that for some reason changes its luminosity. I divide this
work in two sections, the first is a general description of different types of variable stars
and the second is about the observations of that kind of stars.
The introduction contains, synthetically, the main characteristics of almost the most
common variable star types, for best understanding, I include some representative light
curves. To help readers not involved in the study of these stars, I also explain how them are
classified.
The observing section contains information about how to do a useful work on
variable stars, explaining, briefly, which methods and which the instrumentation is needed
to achieve good results. The reader can also find some work I did and the results obtained
with some selected variable stars

INTRODUCTION

A star changing its luminosity due to some

physical or mechanical phenomenon is
considered a variable star. Variable stars are
very important because understanding what
happened with them, we can learn the
formation, evolution and death of stars and the
Universe. We can observe stars in the Universe
at different evolution stage, some very young,
new born, other very hold, just dieing. Sooner or
later, every star would be a Variable at certain
moment in its life (Figure 1).
These stars are classified depending on
the type of variability observed. Sometimes the
name of the group, or the variability class, is the
name of the prototype star showing some kind
of variation property, like “RR Lyr”; other times
the name is allusive to the kind of phenomenon
that produce variability like “Eruptive”. The
name of a variable star is a compound of 1 or 2
capital letter and the constellation name. The
letter sequence start with R until reaching Z, at
Figure 1
this point follow RR, RS until RZ, then SS, ST
Nova explosion sequence
until SZ. Reaching ZZ, just a V and a
Nova Cygni 1975
progressive number starting with 335. The first

1
variable star catalogue was redacted in 1934.
Each variable star class is divided into many subclasses. Here is a condensed
classification based on many catalogues. Each class is referenced by a letter (capital for the
first) followed by 1 to 4 other letter, capital or not. Sometimes a star shows variations that
are a compound of 2 or more classes, so the star can not be classified as belonging on a
particular one and there is necessary to indicate each class separately by a “+” (for example
E+UG).
The main classes are as follow:
a. Eruptive irregulars
b. Eruptive nova-like or Cataclysmic
c. Pulsating
d. Eclipsing
e. X ray and others

Now I will explain briefly each class and their relative subclasses
ERUPTIVE IRREGULAR
Ia
Irregular variables, spectral class O,B,A, typical example: BU Tau
In
Irregular variables, normally in diffuse nebulae like Orion nebula. Main secence and
subgiant stars.
Ina
Irregular variables in Orion. Spectral class O,B,A. Typical star: T Ori.
Ins
Same as In, but the star present a rapid variation.
Inb
Variables in Orion, spectral class F,G,K. Typical star: AH Ori.
InT
T Tau stars. Spectral class F,G,K,M. Emission lines at 406 and 413 nm. Belongs to
diffuse nebulae.
IT
Same as InT, but not in diffuse nebulae.
UVn
Rapid flares variables, normally in diffuse nebulae, specially in Orion, spectral class
K,M. Very luminous stars. Typical star: V389 Ori.
Is
Fast irregular variables, magnitude difference 0.5 to 1, lasting from hours to days,
not connected to diffuse nebulae.
Isa
Irregular variables of spectral class O,B,A. Typical star: XX Oph.
Isb
Fast irregular variables of spectral class F,G,K,M. Typical star: AQ Dra.
UV
Fast flares, the maximum is reached in seconds and the duration is several minutes.
The magnitude difference can be up to 6. Typical star: UV Cet.

2
ERUPTIVE NOVA-LIKE or CATACLYSMIC
N
Novae, magnitude variations from 1 to 16, in
one day, then, slowly return to the initial
magnitude, At maximum the spectral class is
similar to A,F stars with strong H and He
emission lines, when reducing the
luminosity the spectrum is complex, at
normal minimum it is almost continuum.
Na
Typical nova. Fast increasing of luminosity, Figure 2
followed to 3 magnitude decreasing in about Novava Cygni
Cygni 1920, light curve
100 days. (Figure 2).Typical star: nova Per
1901.
Nb
Nova with slow decreasing magnitude. This type of nova, lost 3 magnitudes in more
than 150 days. Don’ t care about the
secondary minimum. Typical star: T
Aur.
Nc
Very slow nova, maintains the
maximum brightness for years and
reach the normal after many years.
Typical star: RT Ser.
Nr
Recurrent nova, it was observed at
maximum many at least for 2 times.
Typical star: T Crb.
Nl
This kind of stars share some
characteristics of novae, like
magnitude increment and spectral
type, but they don’ t belongs to
novae. Typical star: P Cyg.
Z And
Symbiotic stars, their spectra present
both characteristics of red giant and
blue dwarf together. Typical star: Z
And.
RCB Very luminous stars, spectral type
F,K. The star remains at normal
bright magnitude and suddenly fade Figure 3
Corona Borealis light curve
up to 9 magnitudes. Remain
in the minimum for several days up

3
 to hundred of days. When at minimum, present metallic emission lines in the
spectrum. Typical star: R Crb (Figure 3).
UG
Dwarf stars, normally present small magnitudes fluctuations, eventually increase the
brightness up to 6 magnitudes, then fade in several days. Time between maximum is
not regular, but for each star is possible to compute its own mean time. The period
is proportional to the magnitude of the eruption. Many of these stars have a closer
companion. The spectrum at minimum is continuous and contains H,He,Ca
emission lines, they appears at maximum as absorption lines. Typical star: U Gem.
Z Cam
Similar to UG, but they have a static intermediate maximum and they stay there for
long time. Typical period is from 10 to 40 days, the magnitude increment less than 5
units. Typical star: Z Cam.
SN
Like novae, supernovae increase the brightness of 20 or more magnitudes in very
short time. Depending on the light curve and spectra they are classified as type I or
type II. After the explosion they form a planetary nebula. Typical star: CM Tau.

Other Eruptive subclasses:

FU, GCas, RS, SDor, WR, Ib

PULSATING
Cep
Cepheid stars. Very luminous stars, the
magnitude change from 0.1 and 2, the period
is in the range 1 to 70 days. The relationship
between radial velocity and luminosity is
constant. The spectral type at maximum is F
and at minimum is G,K.
DCep
Classic Cepheid, in the Galaxy plane. The Figure 4
relationship between luminosity and period Eta Aguilae light curve
is constant, so we can use this stars to
measure distances (Figure 4). Located in
open clusters. Typical star: Delta Cep.
CW
Cepheid in the galaxy halo and closer to the nucleus. Located in Globular clusters,
the relationship between luminosity and period is constant but their light curve are
displaced 1.5 to 2 magnitude below from the one of classical cepheids. They are less
luminous. The period is between 3 and 10 days. Typical star: W Vir.
L
Irregular, long period variable stars. Many stars are classified in this group because
to the poor knowledge of their light curves or spectral class. There are no trace of a
periodicity for these stars.
Lb
Irregular, long period variables, spectral class K,M,S, giant stars. Typical star: CO
Cyg.

4
Lc
Irregular variables of spectral type K,M. supergiant stars. Typical star: TZ Cas.
M
Very long period variables, up to 5 or even more magnitude changes in a period
from 80 to 1000 ore more days. Most are giant stars of spectral class M,S,C. Typical
star: Omicron Cet.
SR
Semi-regular variables. Normally giant or supergiant stars. Magnitude difference up
to 2 and period up to 1000 or more days. The light curve present some
perturbations.
SRa
Semi-regular variable stars of spectral class M,C,S. More stable than SR and
magnitude difference less than 2.5 units. Frequently the light curve change from one
period to another. Typical star: Z Aqr.
SRb
Semi-regular variables, like SRa, have spectral class M,C,S, the period change
frequently and sometimes present a period of stability between cycles. Typical star:
RR Crb.
SRc
Semi-regular supergiant of spectral class K,M, located in the spiral arms of the
Galaxy. Typical star: MU Cep.
SRd
Semi-regular supergiant and giant stars of spectral class F,G,K. Typical star: S Vul.
RR
Regular variabnitudesles, cepheids
of short period. Giant stars of class
A, like CEP, but with period from
minutes to 1.2 days. Magnitude
difference less than 2 units, even
when the period – luminosity
relationship is constant, many stars
present periodic superimposed
variations. Located mostly around
the center of the galaxy. Typical Figure 5
star: RR Lyr (Figure 5). RR Lyrae light curve
RRab
Similar to RR, but the light curve is asymmetric, the rise time is faster then the
falling time. At maximum the luminosity is constant, the amplitude variation is less
than 0.5 mag. Periods are from 0.5 and 0.7 days.
RRs
Similar to RRab but the period is short, less than 0.21 days. They are dwarf
Cepheid. Located in the Galaxy disc. The magnitude is 3 units less than other type
of RR. Typical star: SX Phe.
RRc
Cepheid variables, the light curve is symmetric, almost sinusoidal. Mean period of
0.3 days. Typical star: SX UMa.

5
RV
Supergiant stars, variation amplitude of 3 magnitudes, the light curve present two
minimum, the main and the secondary. Many times they are interchanged. Period
extends from 30 to 150 days. Spectral type from G to K, when at maximum they are
closer to G. Typical star: RV Tau.
RVa
Like RV, mean luminosity constant. Typical star: AC Her.
RVb
Like RV, mean luminosity not constant. Typical star: R Sge.
BCep
Cepheids of small amplitude variation, about 0.1 magnitudes. Periods from 0.1 to
0.6 days. In these type of stars, the maximum luminosity is when they have the
minimum radius. Spectral class B0 to B3. Typical star BETA Cep.
DSct
Pulsating variables of spectral class A7 to A9. Magnitude variation about 0.1,
sometimes 0,3. Located in Open clusters, the light curve varies from one star to
another, periods of 0.2 days. Typical star: DELTA Sct.
CVA
Magnetic variable stars. In the spectrum there are lines of Silicon, Strontium,
Chromium and other Rare Hearts. The variations of the spectral lines is the same as
luminosity. Periods from 1 to 25 days and magnitude variation about 0.1 units.
Typical star: ALFA Cvn.

Other Pulsating subclasses

ACyg, BCep, BCeps, CWa, CWs, DCeps, DsSct, PV Tel, ZZ, ZZa, ZZb

ECLIPSING
E
Very close binary system. The orbital plane of the stars are near or the sane as visual
plane, so during each orbit one star is eclipsing the other. The light curve is the sum
or the rest of the brightness of the 2 stras.
EA
Eclipsing binary. If there is no eclipse, the
luminosity is constant. It is possible to
generate ephemerides for minimum and
maximum. Their periods depends on the
radius of the orbit and the mass of the stars
and are from 0.2 days to hundred of years.
Typical star: BETA Per.
Figure 6
EB
Eclipsing binary. (Figure 6) Stars of this kind Beta Lyrae Light curve
are ellipsoidal rather than spherical. The
magnitude varies continuously, so it is impossible to predict minimum and
maximum, because the stars are always in eclipse. Spectral class O,B,A, periods
around 1 day and magnitude variations less than 2 units. Typical star: BETA Lyr.

6
EW
Binary ellipsoidal stars, very close together, they are almost in contact. Periods of 1
day or less, and the variation is 0.8 magnitude or less. Due to the very close
distance off the stars, the main and secondary minimum are the same. Spectral class
F,G. Typical star: W UMa.
Ell
Binary stars, ellipsoidal, but they don’ t eclipse each other. The variations are due to
the different amount of surface luminosity the star present to us as it revolve.
Typical star: b Per.

Other Eclipsing subclasses

PN, RS, WD, AR, D, DM, DS, DW, K, KE, KW, SD

X-RAY and OTHERS

X, XB, XF, XI, XJ, XND, XNG, XP, XPR,
XPRM, XM

Figure 7
Radio pulse of a typical pulsar

OBSERVATIONS

We can observe variable stars in several ways,

Figure 8
UCEP at minimum (lower)
And at maximum (higher)
June 12, 1964
electronically with a CCD sensor, is easy and it is objective, the sensor or the plate always
seen the star as it really is, depending only on the sensitivity of the instrument. But
due to the kind of variation and the physical
phenomenon that produce the variation itself. The
graphical representation of the luminosity versus time is
called “ Light Curve “.
Each different variable class has its own kind of
light curve. This graph is the fingerprint of the variable.
If the star is not irregular, it is possible to predict the
magnitude at will shine in the future. In the introduction
the reader can observe some examples of light curves.
The main goal to observe variable stars is to plot the
light curve as precisely as possible in order to studying
which are the processes in the interior or something else
external, that is the reason for the variability. Visual
observation made with naked eyes or through a
telescope, is not easy because is not objective, depends
of the eye sensitivity to light and colors, so there are
various methods to track and record star luminosity,
most common is the Argelander method. Recording star
brightness in a photographic plate (Figure 8) or

7
photographic plate and emulsions are more sensitive to the short wavelength (blue part of
the visible spectrum) and CCD are more sensitive
to the red part of the visible spectrum. If we take a
picture, the magnitude of the star can differ
greatly from the CCD to the photograph. The very
high quantum efficiency of the CCD permit to
record the light from very faint stars in a short
time exposure.
The advantage of using electronic
instruments, like CCD or photoelectric
photometer is that we can record directly the
brightness of the star, instead of visual or
photographic methods that needs some processing
of comparison.
Not all the variable stars change in the visible part of
Figure 9 the spectrum, we can observe variation in the entirely
Typical Finder chart electromagnetic spectrum. Radio telescope can help observing
neutron stars, pulsars (Figure 7) and quasars, another type of
variables can be observed through X-Ray, UV and IR sensitive telescopes or detectors.
Some stars have variations in the lines of the spectrum, here is where spectroscopic
observations can help. In order to achieve a complete knowledge of the star we can use all,
or most of the instruments and methods available,
because the star can have very different properties
and behavior at different wavelength.
Whichever method we use for computing
the magnitude of the variable star, we have to
know previously the magnitude of some stars in
the field of view called “Comparison stars”. More
precisely we know the magnitude of the
comparison stars, more exactly we can compute
the variable magnitude, and, the light curve,
Figure 10
Hipparcos and Tycho star catalog
correspond to the reality. Obviously the
Plot of UCEP field
comparison stars have to be “Normal”, not
variables. From a few years ago, there is an
astrographic satellite, Hipparcos, which task is the measurement of the position and the
magnitude of the stars very precisely, because it is out of the aberrations introduced by the
Earth atmosphere to the path of light. Comparison stars can be founded on catalogs and
they are plotted in “Finder Charts” like the one in Figure 9. Just those stars labeled as
Comparison can be used, (Figure 10) because we know precisely the magnitude and they
are not variables for sure.

8
OBSERVATIONS OF U CEP

R.A. 01h 02m 18.34s

DECL. +81° 52’ 32.1”
Mag. 6.85 – 9.40
Type EA/SD
Period 2.49307 days
Spectral Type B7 – G8 III

Figure 12
Figure 11
UCEP light curve
Palomar Sky survey
picture of UCEP field

Figure 14
Figure 13
File: UCEP -6
File: UCEP-5

Figure 16
Figure 15 File: UCEP -8
File: UCEP-7

9
Figure 17 Figure 18
File: UCEP-9 File: UCEP-10

Figure 20
Figure 19 File: UCEP-12
File: UCEP-11

10
 UCEP DATA
TIME
MJD FILE NAME CCD DATE TIME UTC EXP TIME
JD-2450000.5 .FTS TYPE DD MM YY HH MM SS DECIMAL SEC
2751.342581 UCEP_1 1 22 4 2003 6 23 19 6.388611 100
2754.497928 UCEP_2 1 25 4 2003 10 7 1 10.11694 120
2755.282454 UCEP_3 1 26 4 2003 4 56 44 4.945556 120
2756.347975 UCEP_4 1 27 4 2003 6 31 05 6.518056 10
2757.248738 UCEP_5 1 28 4 2003 4 8 11 4.136389 5
2757.250139 UCEP_6 1 28 4 2003 4 10 12 4.17 2
2758.274630 UCEP_7 1 29 4 2003 4 45 28 4.757778 5
2758.334201 UCEP_8 1 29 4 2003 6 11 15 6.1875 5
2758.356863 UCEP_9 1 29 4 2003 6 43 53 6.731389 5
2758.388148 UCEP_10 1 29 4 2003 7 28 56 7.482222 5
2759.284873 UCEP_11 1 30 4 2003 5 0 13 5.003611 5
2759.375012 UCEP_12 1 30 4 2003 7 10 1 7.166944 5
2760.667523 UCEP_13 2 1 5 2003 4 21 14 4.353889 5
2760.779271 UCEP_14 2 1 5 2003 7 2 9 7.035833 5
2761.665729 UCEP_15 2 2 5 2003 4 18 39 4.310833 5
2761.737072 UCEP_16 2 2 5 2003 6 1 23 6.023056 5
2762.693692 UCEP_17 2 3 5 2003 4 58 55 4.981944 5
2764.699699 UCEP_18 2 5 5 2003 5 7 34 5.126111 5
2764.778970 UCEP_19 2 5 5 2003 7 1 43 7.028611 5
2764.781042 UCEP_20 2 5 5 2003 7 4 42 7.078333 2
2765.730914 UCEP_23 2 6 5 2003 5 52 31 5.875278 2
2765.741655 UCEP_24 2 6 5 2003 6 7 59 6.133056 5
2765.743032 UCEP_25 2 6 5 2003 6 9 58 6.166111 2
2767.674965 UCEP_26 2 8 5 2003 4 31 57 4.5325 2
2767.676366 UCEP_27 2 8 5 2003 4 33 58 4.566111 5

11
 The above table is the file information and observational data. I take 27 pictures in
total, in this work I only show 8 that represent the first part of the light curve (Figures 13 to
20). In this sequence of observations there are 2 minimum, the first on MJD = 2758.388148
and the second around MJD = 2768.3, unfortunately the sky was not clear enough to take
more pictures. The following minimum was on MJD = 2768.36.
The original FITS files are stored in a CD rom, and they are available on request.
The 8 pictures are a Jpeg copy of some of that files. The Palomar Sky survey plate is a 15’
x 15’ field around U Cep, and for coincidence is almost the same field of view of the
telescope I am using to take the CCD pictures, a Takahashi Mewlon 300 equipped with a
Dream Machine 1024 CCD sensor and a Takahashi TRC300 equipped with a SBIG ST8XE
sensor camera, this way it is simple to find comparison stars. Not shown in this work
because it is not relevant is the table of all the star in the field of view. I am using the Viziar
Catalogue services for this purpose.
The following table represent the value of the CCD pixel in the picture that correspond to
the star. The back ground value is the value of the dark frame in the picture. The star value
is the result dividing the pixel value (star value) and the back ground value. Half of the
pictures are taken with a SBIG ST8XE 1530x1020 pixel CCD, and the other half with a
Dream Machine IMG1024 CCD, the different pixel size make the difference in sensitivity,
so I do a kind of normalization between the two CCD back ground. The graph show the
relative brightness of the star at some MJD value. To get the magnitude I have to do more
analysis and compare with some comparison stars, but no one is in the field of the picture.

STAR BACK RELATIVE

MJD
VALUE GROUND BRIGHTNESS
60771 17622 2751.34258 3.449
54559 17622 2754.49793 3.096
55171 17652 2755.28245 3.125
54235 17221 2756.34797 3.149
55015 17188 2757.24874 3.201
54679 17162 2757.25014 3.186
54803 17178 2758.27463 3.190
45675 17172 2758.3342 2.660
39547 17176 2758.35686 2.302
30585 17178 2758.38815 1.780
55119 17175 2759.28487 3.209
54039 17175 2759.37501 3.146
61871 13699 2760.66752 3.577
60818 13652 2760.77927 3.528
61737 13701 2761.66573 3.569
62176 13711 2761.73707 3.592
61802 13731 2762.69369 3.565
61592 13692 2764.6997 3.563
62317 13693 2764.77897 3.605
60176 13685 2764.78104 3.483
60746 13693 2765.73091 3.514
62403 13712 2765.74166 3.605
59625 13705 2765.74303 3.446
52854 13689 2767.67497 3.058
61930 13701 2767.67637 3.580

12
From my observation and measurement data, I realize the follow plot:

The variation period of the star make almost impossible the record of 2 or 3 consecutive the
minimum brightness. It is possible to see in the light curve the beginning of 2 more
minimum cycles MJD=2754 and MJD=2765.

Zoom-in on the light curve of U CEP around the minimum.

13
In this plot there are clearly 1 minimum and for the others it is possible to predict when
they will occurs by interpolation of the values in the table. The separation between the 2 in
this plot is exactly 4 periods.

OBSERVATION OF DY HER

R.A. 16h 31m 18s

DECL. +11° 59’ 52”
MAG. 10.1 – 10.6
TYPE DELTA SCUTI
PERIOD. 0.148631353 days
SPECTRAL TYPE A7 III – F4 III

Figure 21
Palomar Sky Survey Field
DY HER Field

14
 DY HER DATA

DATE TIME UTC EXP.

FILE NAME CCD TIME
MJD TIME
.FTS TYPE DECIMAL
JD-2450000.5 SEC.
DD MM YY HH MM SS

2756.271076 DYHER_A 1 27 4 2003 4 40 21 4.6725 30

2756.298009 DYHER_B 1 27 4 2003 5 19 8 5.318889 30

2756.330417 DYHER_C 1 27 4 2003 6 5 48 6.096667 30

2756.400289 DYHER_D 1 27 4 2003 7 46 25 7.773611 30

2760.684583 DYHER_3105_1 1 1 5 2003 4 45 48 4.763333 30

2760.710463 DYHER_3105_2 1 1 5 2003 5 23 4 5.384444 30

2760.748634 DYHER_3105_3 1 1 5 2003 6 18 2 6.300556 30

2760.770266 DYHER_3105_4 1 1 5 2003 6 49 11 6.819722 30

2760.827720 DYHER_3105_5 1 1 5 2003 8 11 55 8.198611 30

2785.773009 DYHER_1 2 26 5 2003 6 53 8 6.885556 30

The method to record data is the same as I explained above in the U CEP paragraph. The
instruments are also the same. I choose this star because it has a very short period, and a
deep minimum. I suppose that I have been able to “Catch” a complete minimum cycle in
one night. Fortunately the sky help me and I can see 2 minimum.

STAR BACK RELATIVE

MJD
VALUE GROUND BRIGHTNESS

5724 63 2756.271 90.857

4884 62 2756.298 78.774
3615 62 2756.330 58.306
7189 57 2756.400 126.123
9261 61 2760.685 151.820
8829 62 2760.710 142.403
5725 61 2760.749 93.852
3409 61 2760.770 55.885
4113 61 2760.828 67.426
29310 5823 2785.773 95.280

15
This plot is the complete light curve of DY HER based on my observation data. The period
of the minimum is exactly the published data (see the table at the beginning of the
discussion about this star). The two minimum are separated 30 full periods.
The ephemerid for the second minimum is (30 cycles * 0.148 days) + 2756.33 = 2760.77,
exactly as it appear in the light curve.

Light curve showing the minimum on MJD = 2756.3304

Light curve showing the minimum on MJD = 2760.7703

16
 Figure 22 Figure 23
File DY HER-a File DY HER-b

Figure 25
Figure 24 File DY HER-d
File DY HER-c

This pictures (figure 22 to 25), a Jpeg, copy of the original Fits files, represent the sequence
for the first minimum. For helping me to find comparison stars I compare this fields with
the Palomar Sky Survey plate of the same area in the figure 21. The reader can find the
reference data for this pictures in the observation data table.

CONCLUSIONS

The realization of this work was not an easy task, because I first start to observe on
my site, but light pollution and bad sky condition, don’ t help to much. I decided, then, to
rent a telescope in Arizona, USA, and operate it on line via internet
(www.arnierosner.com). This way I could use a CCD ( this was my first time) and the
image process work was another problem. When I observe visually I used the Argelander
Method, but for CCD data reduction I use some software like IRIS, DS9 and CADET.

17
 In this work I only include the observations of 2 stars, because of the result
achieved. The other stars I was working with are: SS LEO, BL HER, W UMA, BB HER
and AN UMA. For those stars I can not realize a satisfactory light curve, due to the times I
take the pictures, and, the availability of the telescopes not all the time when I need it.
Anyway I get a good result, because for DY HER the minimum of the stars in
published data and in my own data are the same, With a little interpolation work I can say
the same for U CEP. I am working now to transform the pixel value to a magnitude value,
but I need more time and I can find almost 2 comparison stars in the field of the pictures,
and I have not found anyone yet.

REFERENCES

Burnham R.,BURNHAM’S CELESCTIAL HANDBOOK, Dover, 1978

Bartali R., LAS ESTRELLAS VARIABLES, La Via Lactea num 2,5, 1979
Cora A., L’ OSSERVAZIONE AMATORIALE DELLE STELLE VARIABILI, Nuovo
Orione num.2, 1992
Bulletins of the Unione Astrofili Italiani, Variable Stars section, 1976..1981
Dogget L et al, THE ALMANAC FOR COMPUTERS FOR THE YEAR 1978, U.S. Naval
Observatory, 1978

Internet references
www.aavso.org
http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/aladin.gml
http://vizier.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/VizieR
http://www-gsss.stsci.edu/support/data_access.htm
http://www.time.gov/timezone.cgi?Central/d/-6/java
www.arnierosner.com
http://astro.estec.esa.nl/Hipparcos/HIPcatalogueSearch.html
http://www.aerith.net/misao/index.html
http://www.astrosurf.com/astronosur/variables.htm
http://www.astrogea.org/VARIABLE/variables.htm
http://aladin.u-strasbg.fr/AladinPreview

Software references
DS9: http://hea-www.harvard.edu/RD/ds9/index.html
CADET: http://www.terra.es/personal2/oscarcj/introeng.htm
IRIS: http://www.astrosurf.com/buil/us/iris/iris.htm

Image credits
Figure 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,12: Burnham’s Celestial Handbook
Figure 7: Coelum num. 5-6, 1976
Figure 11,21: Palomar Sky Survey
Figure 10: VSNET Univ. of Kyoto
Figure 13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25: Roberto Bartali

18