Ecosystems - Case study notes

PNG Tropical Rainforests

Spatial patterns and dimensions: location, altitude, latitude, size, shape and continuity Adjustments in response to natural stress The nature and rate of change which affects ecosystem functioning Human impacts (both positive and negative) Traditional and contemporary management practices.

Spatial patterns and dimensions: location, altitude, latitude, size, shape and continuity
1ha can consist of 600 large trees representing 150 species Location Found in tropical and temperate areas usually found in a region that straddles the equator PNG Altitude Montane forests = 1000-1400m Lowland = lower Latitude Lies between 3S and 11S the equatorial latitudes Size 70% of PNG is covered with TRF 460 000 km sq. Structure Only 2% of light makes it to the forest floor There are 4 layers each reduces the amount of light and energy to the layers below Emergents Canopy Shrub layer Forest floor Continuity No dominant species = forest continually varies PNG has only 40% of its original primary forests intact(1989) primarily due to traditional agriculture and natural disasters

Adjustments in response to natural stress

Forest can re-grow but takes 400-800 years The stresses that TRFs are sensitive to are localised (landslip, natural fires etc) Given time TRFs can recover from these natural stresses

Examples of natural stress:

Long term climate change

Ecosystems - Case study notes

After many years of change the glaciers retreated and the tree line returned to its present level about 8000 years BP. TRF covered 90% of PNG until man 3000 years BP Geological instability Lithosphere Earth quakes, landslips, volcanic activity Windstorms Atmosphere and Hydrosphere A cyclone in 1996 destroyed 650ha of TRF Erosive action of water has turned large areas seral rather than climatic/ climax nature

The nature and rate of change which affects ecosystem functioning

Combination of water, temperature and a large biomass (45kgs per square metre) provides a rich ecological niche for bacteria, insects, herbivores and omnivores, making PNG TRFs a very bio-diverse environment = sort of resilient Although they appear robust and resilient they are actually very fragile and vulnerable Specialisation by organisms to tolerate specific tree defences has resulted in tree specific organisms = vulnerable Grow on relatively infertile soils = vulnerable Insects form the major links between the organisms in the trophic hierarchy Can recover from both natural and human stresses but human stress = larger scale + accelerated TRFs = chaotic and extremely complex systems Change is always occurring and an equilibrium is never reached No dominant tree species trees are not replaced by same species Specific trees = provide specific micro-habitats for specific communities of organisms

Ecosystem functions and how they are affected:

The pattern of nutrient storage and cycling: Rapid release of nutrients from decomposing leaf litter rapid re-utilisation of nutrients by trees Much of the dead organic matter does not reach the forest floor trapped in canopy and rapidly re-utilised by plants 33-50% of nutrients are held in the forest biomass How it is affected: o Removal of trees = loss of nutrients = ecosystem becomes impoverished + degraded The nature of soil: Soils = poor and lack in nutrients Vulnerable to human induced stress How it is affected: o Continued use of land by humans = limited fertility of soils = leached out by rainfall and erosion. o Indigenous PNG new this so used shifting cultivation

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The features of propagation and reproduction of TRF plants Conditions - constantly hot and wet environment = excellent growing conditions for plants = vulnerable to any change from this state. How it is affected: o 25+ day drought = seeds will not germinate Pollination no wind to transport pollen = rely of insects that are often specific How it is affected: o Ripple effect the complex inter-relationships show how vulnerable the TRF ecosystem is o If an insect pollinator is removed from environment = dependent species will not produce seed = impact on animals that rely on that plant species.

The removal of TRF trees may result in the following problems:

Destroys root systems that circulate nutrients Removes the important nutrient store in the biomass Allows for rapid erosion of topsoil = exposes underlying soil layer Exposes ground to heavy rainfall Destroys pollination processes Soil turns hard material called clay-pan Creates clearings = more vulnerable to cyclone, drying and fire damage Establishes a different plant association e.g. grasslands

Human impacts (both positive and negative) Traditional uses of the forest
With population doubling every 25 years these traditional uses are becoming unsustainable with a pop growth rate of 2.3% and current pop of 5 million. Using forest resources Used for building, food, fuel and medicine etc Sustainable due to small population and low pop growth Slash and burn techniques Used by the traditional bush-fallow farmers 10,000 sq. km of TRF have been converted into anthropogenic grasslands This is being extended by 200 sq. Km each year Ring-barking, felling and burning Forested areas = better to cultivate in Clear on average half a ha Incomplete tillage of soil still stumps left Main staples = yams and taros Shifting cultivation When crop yields diminish after a season or two = garden abandoned to fallow for up to 20 years It is now realised that fertility does not recover and continues use of TRF leads to long term decline in soil fertility

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Each subsequent human interference for cultivation = prolongs the recovery process 200,000 ha of forests are disturbed each year through shifting cultivation Stages in the formation of human induced grasslands
Recovery possible

Primary TRF

Secondary TRF

Tall Grassland

Short Grassland

Continued human interference

Commercial use TRFs

Main cause of forest loss = clearance for agricultural land for palm oil and rubber plantations The commercial exploitation of forests is largely in control of foreign companies Grasslands = not attractive for investors TRF that already have a thin layer of humus = attractive In 1998 was clearing 2% of millable forest each year By 2002 had cleared 25% By 2032 total clearance of forests at current rates In 1994 - 17% of total exports = forest products (97.5% in the form of logs)

Traditional and contemporary management practices. Traditional management practices

Shifting cultivation Staple crop = sweet potato Clearing done by stone axes and fire-hardened digging sticks Was a good management system when populations = low and farming tools were primitive In the 1950s population was growing due to: Introduction of medicines The higher yielding crop of sweet potato = supported a larger population Steel tools introduced Impact Fallow periods grew shorter due to pop pressure Garden sizes grew due to steel axes TRF was converted to grassland = poorer soils Resulted in skirmishes over land

Contemporary management practices

National governments philosophy Forests are a valuable resource which should be maintained for the use of future generations Forest development should be on an ecologically sustainable basis involving active participation of PNG citizens Government strategies to bring order to corrupt forestry industry (1991)

Ecosystems - Case study notes

A call for 30 million kina from developed nations has only be promised half Establishment of a Statutory Authority run by a board Aimed to phase out all log exports by 2000 Reality: o 97.5% of forest product exports are still logs (a raw product) o Instead of shipping raw logs to places like China, they should export sawn timber, plywood and furniture. o This will create employment, training and value-adding for the country Traditional uses of TRFs should be permitted as 60% of pop rely on it Management practices The implementation of strategies was very poor due to political corruption, too few forestry officers, poor governance and corporate disregard Management of foreign corporations Environmental Planning Act (1978) No logging on slopes over 30 degrees No logging within 50m of streams Protection of rare species There have been numerous breaches to this act Over 3 quarters of logging companies have not submitted environmental impact assessments Too few forestry officers = Transfer pricing The method of transferring profits offshore The loss of millions of earnings each year Mis-declaration of species Companies under-graded, under-measured, misidentified logs to cheat landowners and governments out of royalties Government Passed a law in 2010 that protects companies from lawsuits related to environmental destruction To improve these practices and strategies the following changes will need to take place: The culture of corruption needs to be changed an removed More forestry officers to implement strategies Phasing out all whole log exports A detailed database should be developed so that good sustainable decisions can be made Poverty is a major issue as cash offered by companies = too difficult to resist

Ecosystems - Case study notes

TOWRA POINT INTERTIDAL WETLANDS

Ecosystem def.: Ecosystems are delicately balanced natural systems in which there are complex interactions between plants and animals and the environment.

SPATIAL PATTERNS AND DIMENSIONS:

Location: 16 KMS South of CBD, Southern shore of Botany Bay, Altitude: less than 5m Latitude: 340 S - (1510 E) Size: 386 ha. 7/32 ha of mangroves remains. (75% gone)

BIOPHYSICAL INTERACTIONS:
Atmospheric Processes o 1088mm pa. o 200 C - 130 C (small temp range) o Wind = sediment = peninsula. o Protected from harsh winds by landforms Geomorphic Processes: (how we got landform) o Fluvial sediments alternately with deposited marine sands 4000 7000 years ago. o The muddy sand flats damaged by coastal erosion. o Spit is actively extending with the sediment from the eroding beach. Hydrological Processes: o Dynamic equilibrium with the forces of wind and water (mostly wave action) o TIDES o Tidal range is between 0.1m to 2.0m. o The catchment area = extensive urban Bio geographical Processes: (limiting factor for each ecosystem = TIDES) o Continuous succession of plant communities = marine seagrasses mudflats mangroves salt marshes

Mangroves produce leaf litter food for aquatic invertebrate species.

Ecosystems - Case study notes

o o o Utility value reduces water pollution, provides shelter, refuge and food for many species, prevents erosion Everything relies on mangroves (food web) Important for energy flows (captures sunlight)

Adjustments in response to Natural Stress: o o o o Salinity - Secreted to leaves Tidal Movement = Anaerobic soils soil = salty = no oxygen. Use pneumatophores to access oxygen Nutrient Deficiency - nutrients come from adjacent ecosystems (nitrogen in air), leaf litter/ detritus, pneumatophores Windstorm roots

NATURE AND RATE OF CHANGE WHICH AFFECTS ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING

o Sea level change = marine sands o Georges river = fluvial sands o Weeds introduced. o Urban Development; Industrial Development; Recreational Land use; Infrastructure HUMAN IMPACTS Human induced modifications Sydney Airport runways dredging and land reclamation Port Botany dredging for large shipping access Human Impacts on TPIW - loss of sea grass beds - changed wave action (increased wave energy and changed direction) eroded TP coast 50 metres in 30 years, now breached the Freshwater wetland saline affected - Potential oil spills - Damaged sea grass beds, - Disturbance to habitats - Spread of weeds Management - Groynes - Revetment wall - Rocks- slow down refraction - Sand nourishment - Sand bagging - Rangers - Fines - Signs - Volunteer weeders - State pollution control commission

Recreation Anchors and propellers Horse riding and bike riding in the nature reserve Desalination Plant - Requires metals and chemicals to treat the water. Dredging the bay to construct pipelines

-loss of sea grass beds -Highly saline, chemical and metal discharge water = Temperature fluctuations may also kills plant and animal species.

Ecosystems - Case study notes

TRADITIONAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES Aboriginals o Stewardship nurturing + embracing o Totems each person looks after a particular species o Nomadic o Low tech life

CONTEMPORARY MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Run by State Govt. departments; o o o o o o o o o o Signposting - developing regulative signs oiled bird rehabilitation facility for use in an oil spill management of Little Tern breeding site and season - tagging, census, sedimentation control has reconstructed the island through engineering works 2004 sand nourishment along Towra Beach funded by NSW Environmental Trust - cost $1.5 million restore beach alignment. Not enough funds to engineer a permanent solution. law enforcement/ policing permits restricted access/ no dogs or horses managing recreational use virtually eliminated horse riding, trail-bike riding and camping Weed clean up with volunteers - one Saturday per month. Research and education Botany Bay Field Study Centre. More data Is needed if management is to be effective. Its status as a RAMSAR site has helped gain media attention therefore raising awareness.

MANAGEMENT ISSUES:
UNDERFUNDED budget and labour. Its funds are part of the overall budget for Botany Bay National Park. Specific grants for specific projects only. eg. Beach nourishment funds for engineering project. o Overall lack of funding makes it difficult to commit to management objectives. Management is COMPLEX o Both Federal and State involvement and the large number of State Govt. depts. who have JURISDICTION over the area. This makes management very FRAGMENTED and difficult to achieve for the BIOREGION. There are CONFLICTS of INTEREST that jeopardise the future of TPIW. It appears that there will continue to be significant problems related to biodiversity and habitat. The recent beach nourishment program is helping to hold the line and there may be cause for cautious optimism about TPIWs future prospects. o