INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Surveying Surveying is the art of making suitable measurements in horizontal or vertical planes. This is one of the important subjects of civil engineering. Without taking a survey of the plot where the construction is to be carried out, the work cannot begin. Levelling Levelling is the art of representing relative positions in the vertical plane of different points on the earths surface. It helps in determining the areas that are to be levelled to achieve a certain slope. Principles of Surveying All the surveys that are conducted are based on two fundamental principles. They are as follows: 1. Working from whole to part In order to localize errors and prevent their accumulation, a set of control points is always established with great precision first for the whole area to be surveyed. Later on, details or filled in between these control points to a relatively smaller precision. This fundamental work principle is known as Working from whole to part. 2. Fixing a point with reference to two fixed points Survey stations are fixed by atleast two measurements, either both linear or angular measurements or linear and angular measurements from two control points. Purpose of Surveying in the field of Civil Engineering

To determine the relative positions of the existing futures of the ground. To layout our marked positions of proposed structures on the ground. To determine areas, volumes and other related quantities. To prepare a map of a country of detailed out location of cities, towns, villages and major roads. To prepare the engineering detailed plans and sections of various sections such as roads, railways, bridges, dams and other structure. To prepare a topographical map showing details of hills, valleys and rivers.

COMPASS SURVEYING | Open and Closed Traverse

Compass Survey is also known as Angular Surveying. The branch of surveying in which the position of the object is located by angular measurements taken by the compass is known as Compass Surveying. Purpose of Compass Surveying When the area to be surveyed is relatively large, then the area cannot be divided into triangles.For example: -Towns, colonies etc. -When the survey work is to be completed quickly -When the area is full of obstacles which prevent chaining. *Compass Surveying is unsuitable in areas having magnetic rock, iron core, power lines etc which attracts a magnet. Traversing A traverse is formed by joining the points on the ground by means of series of connected straight line. There are two types: 1. Open traverse Traverse which do not return to its starting station or it closes on any other station is known as open traverse. 2. Closed Traverse When the traverse returns to its starting station, it is known as closed traverse.

CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS
Types of Bearings It is an angle made by the survey line with reference to some fixed meridian. Bearings are classified into three types: 1. True bearing - The angle made by a survey line with reference to the meridian is known as true bearing. It always remains constant. 2. Magnetic bearing - The angle made by a survey line with respect to magnetic meridian is known as magnetic bearing. It changes from place to place. 3. Arbitrary Bearing - The angle made by the survey line with reference to arbitrary meridian is known as Arbitrary Bearing. Designation of Bearings 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Whole circle bearing Reduced Bearing (RB) or quadrantal bearing (QB) Fore Bearing (FB) or forward bearing (FB) Back bearing or Backward bearing (BB) Calculated bearing

Whole Circle bearing Bearings measured from north in a clockwise direction is termed as whole circle bearing. The value varies from 0 degrees to 360 degrees. Reduced bearing/Quadrantal bearing The bearings measured either from the north or from the south towards east or west whichever is nearer is known as reduced bearing. The values vary from 0 degrees to 90 degrees for a particular quadrant.It is also known as quadrantal bearing (QB). Fore Bearing (FB) The bearings measured in the progress of surveying i.e. in the forward direction of survey lines is known as forebearing or forward bearing. Back Bearing (BB) The bearings measured in opposite to the progress of surveying i.e. in backward direction of survey line is known as Backward Bearing.

Observed Bearing The bearings taken in a field with an instrument is known as Observed Bearing. Calculated Bearing The bearings calculated from the field observation is known as calculated bearing.

TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENTS OF PRISMATIC COMPASS Fixing the compass to the tripod The box of prismatic compass is fixed to a spindle of ball and socket joint. By the ball and socket arrangement, this can be quickly levelled and rotated in any direction. Centering the compass The prismatic compass is centered over a survey station correctly by means of a plumb bob or by dropping a pebble from the centre of the instrument. Levelling the compass The compass is quickly levelled by ball and socket arrangement by eye judgement. It should be levelled in such a way that dial moves freely and does not touch the rim of the bob. Sighting the object The object is sighted with the help of eye vane and object vane in the compass. The surveyor views through the eye vane and rotate the box until the ranging rod at a station is bisected. Observation of Bearing After citing the object correctly, the bearing of the survey lines are noted through prism at which the line of sight and object cuts the image of the graduation on the dial.

Methods for Correcting the bearings affected by Local Attraction Local Attraction | Methods for Correcting the bearings affected by Local Attraction
The deflection of a magnetic needle from its true position due to the presence of magnetic influencing material such as iron ore, magnetic rock, underground pipeline, electric cables, iron pipes, electric poles in its vicinity is called Local Attraction.

Methods of Correcting the bearings

There are two methods of correcting the bearings affected by local attraction: 1. Included angle Method 2. Error Computation

Included angle Method

In this method, the included angles of the traverse are calculated first, then starting from the line which is unaffected by local attraction and using the included angles, the corrected bearings of the traverse are computed.

Error Computation Method

In this method, the direction and the amount of local attraction at each survey station is determined. Then starting from the line which is unaffected by local attraction, the corrected bearing of the traverse are computed. This method is more accurate than the included angle method. Hence it is adopted by most of the surveyors.

Precautions
The substance of attraction with the surveyor such as buch of keys, iron buttons, spectacles etc. It should be kept away from the compass. The chain, arrows, clearing axe etc should be kept away from the compass. If the entire area is magnetic, then compass surveying is not suitable in those places. The correction to the survey lines are made starting from the line free from local attraction.