PREFACE

First of all I pray praise and thanksgiving to Almighty God for all blessings and gifts I was given the opportunity so that I can complete the biology paper was entitled: "Plant Tissue". Hopefully with the establishment of this paper, may be able to add insight and intelligence of the students of SMA Negeri 1 Tebingtinggi and my understanding to learn about the tissue in plants. In this paper, explained the meaning of plant tissues, various plant tissues, plant tissue structure, and so on. I realize that this paper has not been perfect as expected by the supervising teacher of biology. For that I greatly apologize for my imperfections of this paper. However, I really want to accept criticism, suggestions, and proposals for improvement of my paper. Finally, I say thank you very much.

Sincerely, Writer

Lamtiur Rapitaida Harianja

The Plant Tissue| Biology

PLANT TISSUE
Tissue is a group of cells. The cells in a tissue can be similar or different. The group of cells thus formed carry specific functions. A group of different tissues make an organ. Histology is the science that studies tissues using special techniques of microscopy ; preserving, staining and sectioning of the studied living material. A plant tissue is a group of cells of similar shape, structure and origin specialized for a particular function. Based on the degree of specialization, plant tissues are grouped into two major categories, that is meristem tissue and permanent tissue. Plant tissue culture is a practice used to develop plant under sterile laboratory conditions, often to produce clones of a plant. The production of exact copies of plants that produce particularly good flowers, fruits, or have other desirable traits. Advantages of Tissue Culture : To quickly produce mature plants. The production of multiples of plants in the absence of seeds or necessary pollinators to produce seeds. The regeneration of whole plants from plant cells that have been genetically modified. The production of plants in sterile containers that allows them to be moved with greatly reduced chances of transmitting diseases, pests, and pathogens. The production of plants from seeds that otherwise have very low chances of germinating and growing, i.e.: orchids and nepenthes. To clean particular plant of viral and other infections and to quickly multiply these plants as 'cleaned stock' for horticulture and agriculture.

The Plant Tissue| Biology

A. TYPE OF PLANT TISSUE

1. Meristem Tissue
Plants grow permanently throughout their lives, because they have unspecialized cells at certain places that are able to divide continously. Such cells form a tissue called meristem. Meristematic cells are small, rounded, thin-walled with dense cytoplasm and large nucleus. They lack vacuoles and chloroplasts but have undifferentiated plastids. The cells produced by meristems can specialize into consolidated tissues of different types.

Characteristic features of the meristematic cells

The cells are relatively smaller in size compared to mature cells. They are either rectangular or isodiametric in shape.

The cells are always compactly arranged, without any intercellular spaces. The cells have a thin cell wall, which is composed of only cellulose. The cells enclose a large amount of clear and transparent cytoplasm. Every cell has a single, conspicuous nucleus, which is situated in the center of the cell. The chromosomes are always found in some phase of mitotic division. Except mitochondria, other cell organelles are either absent or present in a nonfunctional state. For example, the plastids may be present in a non-functional state called proplastids.

Vacuoles are absent. Ergastic substances such as reserve food materials or secretory products or excretory products are completely absent.

The Plant Tissue| Biology

The cells are capable of undergoing regular, continuous mitotic divisions. Based on its location in the plant, there are three kinds of meristems, that is apical

meristem, intercalary meristem and lateral meristem.

1. Apical Meristem
The apical meristem, or growing tip, is a completely undifferentiated meristematic tissue found in the buds and growing tips of roots in plants. Its main function is to begin growth of new cells in young seedlings at the tips of roots and shoots (forming buds, among other things). Specifically, an active apical meristem lays down a growing root or shoot behind itself, pushing itself forward. Apical meristems are very small, compared to the cylinder-shaped lateral meristems (see 'Secondary Meristems' below). Apical meristems are composed of several layers. The number of layers varies according to plant type. In general the outermost layer is called the tunica while the innermost layers are the corpus. In monocots, the tunica determine the physical characteristics of the leaf edge and margin. In dicots, layer two of the corpus determine the characteristics of the edge of the leaf. The corpus and tunica play a critical part of the plant physical appearance as all plant cells are formed from the meristems. Apical meristems are found in two locations: the root and the stem. Some Arctic plants have an apical meristem in the lower/middle parts of the plant. It is thought that this kind of meristem evolved because it is advantageous in Arctic conditions.

The Plant Tissue| Biology

2. Intercalary Meristem
It is the meristem that occurs between permanent tissues. It represents the remnant of the apical meristem. It is particularly common at the nodal regions. It may also occur at the base of the leaves. The intercalary meristem also contributes towards the increase in length as it brings about elongation of the internodal regions. It is also responsible for the formation of branches at the nodal regions. The apical and intercalary meristems are examples of primary meristem.

3. Lateral Meristem
Lateral meristems, are located parallel to the organ in which they are (mainly in stems and roots, sometimes leaves). There are two: cork cambium (phellogen) and vascular cambium. Be present in gymnosperms and most Dicotiledineas. Ends occur when the primary growth of the plant. The felageno causes secondary tissue that protects the stems and roots of a diameter (periderm). The vascular cambium originates abundant secondary transport tissue (xylem and phloem), producing growth in thickness (diameter) of roots and stems.

The Plant Tissue| Biology

Based on the origin of the formation, meristem is divided into two region, that is primary meristem and secondary meristem.

1. Primary Meristem
Primary meristems is those who cause Longitudinal growth of the root and stem and giving rise to the ramifications of these bodies. Have spherical-like cells, which can then be differentiated in terms of growth and tissue formation of the corresponding organ. The primary meristem is located in the area of root growth and vegetative Cones terminal and axillary buds of the stem. Primary meristems may differentiate into three kinds of primary meristem, that is Protoderm, Procambium, and Ground meristem. Protoderm is lies around the outside of the stem and develops into the epidermis. Procambium is lies just inside of the protoderm and develops into primary xylem and primary phloem. It also produces the vascular cambium, a secondary meristem. Ground meristem is develops into the pith. It produces the cork cambium, another secondary meristem.

2. Secondary Meristem
Secondary meristem is the growing meristem of the permanent tissues that have undergone differentiation and specialization (already stopped growing) but become embryonic again. Examples of secondary meristem is the cork cambium and the cambium of the stem dicot and gymnosperms can be formed from cells of the cortex beneath the epidermis.
6 The Plant Tissue| Biology

Cambium tissue that lies between the carrier beam (xylem and phloem) on the trunk dicot a secondary meristem. Cambium active Tues divide, toward the forming secondary xylem and phloem form a secondary exit. As a result, stem dicot plants grow.

2. Permanent Tissue
Permanent tissues are derived from meristematic tissues. They have lost the power of dividing, having attained their definite form and size. In their earlier stages the cells are more or less similar in structure but slowly they become specialized and form permanent tissues. They can be classified into simple and complex tissues. Permanent tissues generally are not growing anymore or temporarily stop its growth. The cells of permanent tissues are generally hollow and thickened. The term applies to a permanent tissue of tissues that have undergone differentiation that are not reversible (irreversible). The characteristic of permanent tissues include:

Not have activities to multiply Having a relatively large size Having a large vacuole, so that little cell plasma membrane and is attached to the cell wall

The Plant Tissue| Biology

Sometimes the cells are dead The cell wall has been thickened in accordance with its function Among the cells found intercellular space

There are three tissue types in plants that have lost the ability of dividing and have been consolidated for carrying out special functions: dermal tissues, vascular tissues and ground tissues.

1.

Epidermis Tissue
The body of most plants in covered with a continous layer of tightly packed cells, the

epidermis. This outer protecting covering is usually one cell thick and the cells are flat, brickshaped or of an irregular shape without intercellular spaces. Epidermal cells dont contain chloroplasts. In some plants, a lipid-like protecting layer can appear on the surface, the cuticle and in some plants a waxy layer adds to the cuticle. These additional layers are waterproof and resistant to chemicals. The waxy layer can be seen on the surface of the spruce leaves, on plums or apples giving them the downines that repels water.

The epidermis has multiple protecting functions: it protects the plan against water loss, against infections by pathogens and against mechanical damages. The epidermis often contains highly specialized cells, unicellular or multicellular plant hairs whit different functions. Epidermal cells can develop into an additional tool or epidermal derivatives, such as stoma, trichome, bulliform cells, cystolith, silica cells and cork cells.
8 The Plant Tissue| Biology

1.

Stoma
Stoma is a hole or gap found in the epidermis of plant organs that are restricted by special cells called the cell cover. Tues cover surrounded by cells of the same shape or different from other epidermal cells, and cells are called neighbors. Neighboring cells plays a role in osmotic changes that cause the movement of the cover the cells that regulate the width of stomata. The location of the stomata are mostly located on the lower surface of leaves. Stomata serve as a place to exchange gases.

2. Trichome
Trichome derived from the epidermal cells, usually in the form of hair. There is also trichome shaped scales and spines. Trichome function for the plant are as follows: a. Reduce evaporation (if present in the epidermis of leaves) b. Forward excitatory c. Protect plants from animal disorders d. Assist seed dispersal e. Help pollinate flowers f. It absorbs water and mineral salts from the soil.

3. Bulliform Cells
Bulliform cells can be found in the epidermis or leaf plants Graminae or tribe or family Cyperaceae. Bulliform cells is composed of several thin-walled cells with a size larger than the epidermal cells around it. Bulliform cell serves to reduce evaporation by rolling the leaves.

4. Multiple Epidermis
At the plant members of the family Moraceae, Piperaceae, Begoniaceae, Malvaceae and there are more than one cell layer beneath the epidermis. Double the orchid root epidermis is called velamen. In the epidermis of leaves of banyan (Ficus. Sp) also artifacts centripetal thickening towards the stalk composed of cellulose with

The Plant Tissue| Biology

the deposition of Ca-carbonate (calcium carbonate) which form a honeycomb-like building called cystolith. Cells that contain cystolith is called lithocysts.

2.

Parenchyma Tissue
A ground tissue chiefly concerned with the manufacture and storage of food. The

primary functions of plants, such as photosynthesis, assimilation, respiration, storage, secretion, and excretionthose associated with living protoplasmproceed mainly in parenchymal cells. Parenchyma is frequently found as a homogeneous tissue in stems, roots, leaves, and flower parts. Other tissues, such as sclerenchyma, xylem, and phloem, seem to be embedded in a matrix of parenchyma; hence the use of the term ground tissue with regard to parenchyma is derived. The parenchymal cell is one of the most frequently occurring cell types in the plant kingdom. Typical parenchyma occurs in pith and cortex of roots and stems as a relatively undifferentiated tissue composed of polyhedral cells that may be more or less compactly arranged and show little variation in size or shape. The mesophyll, that is, the tissue located between the upper and lower epidermis of leaves, is a specially differentiated parenchyma called chlorenchyma because its cells contain chlorophyll in distinct chloroplastids. This chlorenchymatous tissue is the major locus of photosynthetic activity and consequently is one of the more important variants of parenchyma. Specialized secretory parenchymal cells are found lining resin ducts and other secretory structures. See also Photosynthesis; Secretory structures (plant).

10

The Plant Tissue| Biology

3. Supporting Tissue 1. Collenchyma

Collenchyma is Greek word where "Collen" means gum and "enchyma" means infusion. It is a living tissue of primary body like Parenchyma. Cells are thin-walled but possess thickening of cellulose and pectin substances at the corners where number of cells join together. This tissue gives a tensile strength to the plant and the cells are compactly arranged and do not have intermolecular spaces. It occurs chiefly in hypodermis of stems and leaves. It is absent in monocots and in roots. The functions of Collenchyma: Collenchymatous tissue acts as a supporting tissue in stems of young plants. It provides mechanical support, elasticity, and tensile strength to the plant body. It helps in manufacturing sugar and storing it as starch. It is present in margin of leaves and resists tearing effect of the wind.

2. Sclerenchyma
Sclerenchyma is Greek word where "Sclrenes" means hard and "enchyma" means infusion. This tissue consists of thick-walled, dead cells. These cells have hard and extremely
11 The Plant Tissue| Biology

thick secondary walls due to uniform distribution of ligin. Lignin deposition is so thick that the cell walls become strong, rigid and impermeable to water. Sclerenchymatous cells are closely packed without intra-cellular spaces between them. Thus, they appear as hexagonal net in transverse section. The cells are cemented with the help of lamella. The middle lamella is a wall that lies between adjacent cells. Sclerenchymatous cells mainly occur in hypodermis, pricycle, secondary xylem and phloem. They also occur in endocorp of almond and coconut. It is made of pectin, lignin, protein. Types of Sclerenchyma is : Fibers Fibres are long, elongated sclerenchyamtous cells with pointed ends. Sclereids Sclerenchymatous cells which are short and possess extremely thick, lamellated, lignified walls with long singular piths. They are called sclerides. The function of Sclerenchyma The main function of Sclerenchymatous tissues is to give support to the plant.

12

The Plant Tissue| Biology

4. Vascular Tissue
The vascular tissue system is one of three tissue systems that make up a plant, the other two tissue systems or ground and dermal, with dermal tissue being the outer layer and the ground tissue making up most of the inside of a plant. Vascular tissue is surrounded by ground tissue, but vascular tissue doesn't make up much of the inside of a plant, this is because vascular tissue transports water, mineral nutrient , and organic compounds, to all parts of a plant. Plants don't depend entirely on the vascular tissue system for transportation, the plants themselves can transport any necessary fluids and/or nutrients throughout their systems. A plant's vascular system is composed of two networks of hollow tubes, similar to our veins and arteries. Each network consists of a different type of vascular tissue that works to move different resources throughout the plant. These vascular tissues would be the tissues known as xylem and phloem.

1. Xylem
Xylem conducts soil water and dissolved minerals from the root upward to the leaves where these nutrients will be used up. Typical xylem cells are dead (without cytoplasm), elongated, hollow structures with lignified cell walls. Lingin makes xylem hard and rigid, therefore, important in supporting the plant. In trees and bushes, extensive sencodary xylem forms wood. There are several different cell types in xylem. A tracheid is a dead, elongated cell with closed, tapered ends. Adjacent cells overlap and have less lignified areas, so called pits through which water passes when it is moving upwards from one tracheid to the next. Ferns and gymnosperms have only tracheids, this simple and less efficient type of transporting cells. Angiosperms have some more specialized conducting cells, called xylem vessels. They are also elongated, non-living and lignified cells, which are arranged end to end, whit the adjoining walls dissolved completely when mature. Thus, many vessel members form a long, hollow tube with thick lignin wall, in which water is transported more efficiently than in tracheids, as there are no barriers to water movement. The wall of the vessels can be

13

The Plant Tissue| Biology

thickened by lignin in different ways demonstrated in figure. Lignification is important for giving vessels support. Xylem, in addition to the two conducting cell types, can contain parenchyma cells, which are simple, alive, thin-walled cells and fibers, which are completely lignified dead cells (so are not hollow) for strength.

2. Phloem
Phloem transports food (organic substances) from leaves, where it is produced by photosynthesis, to the rest of the plant. Phloem consists of elongated living cells with cytoplasm. The most specialized structures, in which sugars and other solutes are rapidly transported, are sieve tubes. A sieve tube is formed by the fusion of more thin-walled, elongated conductive cells whit sieve plates, perforated end walls, through which strands of cytoplam pass to connect the neighbouring cells. These cytoplasm strands are important in tranportation. Sieve tube members are functionally linked with companion cells, which are adjacent to them in the phloem. Each sieve cell has a companion cell with dense cytoplasm
14 The Plant Tissue| Biology

and a large nucleus, which may direct activities of both cells. Phloem also contains phloem parenchyma cells in between the sieve tubes and their companion cells.

15

The Plant Tissue| Biology