Flexion - Bending movement that decreases the angle between two parts.

Bending the elbow, or clenching a hand into a fist, are examples of flexion. When sitting down, the knees are flexed. Flexion of the hip or shoulder moves the limb forward (towards the anterior side of the body). Extension - The opposite of flexion; a straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts. In a conventional handshake, the fingers are fully extended. When standing up, the knees are extended. Extension of the hip or shoulder moves the limb backward (towards the posterior side of the body). Abduction - A motion that pulls a structure or part away from the midline of the body (or, in the case of fingers and toes, spreading the digits apart, away from the centerline of the hand or foot). Abduction of the wrist is called radial deviation. Raising the arms laterally, to the sides, is an example of abduction. Adduction - A motion that pulls a structure or part towards the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb. Dropping the arms to the sides, or bringing the knees together, are examples of adduction. In the case of the fingers or toes, adduction is closing the digits together. Internal rotation (or medial rotation) of the shoulder or hip would point the toes or the flexed forearm inwards (towards the midline). External rotation (or lateral rotation) is the opposite of Internal Rotation. It would turn the toes or the flexed forearm outwards (away from the midline). Elevation - Movement in a superior direction. Depression - Movement in an inferior direction, the opposite of elevation. Pronation - A rotation of the forearm that moves the palm from an anterior-facing position to a posterior-facing position, or palm facing down. Supination - The opposite of pronation, the rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces anteriorly, or palm facing up. The hand is supine (facing anteriorly) in the anatomical position. (See also Supinator muscle.) Dorsiflexion - Extension of the entire foot superiorly. Plantarflexion - Flexion of the entire foot inferiorly, Occurs at ankle. Eversion - the movement of the sole of the foot away from the median plane. Inversion - the movement of the sole towards the median plane (same as when an ankle is twisted). Protraction - Anterior movement of the arms at the shoulders. Circumduction - The circular (or, more precisely, conical) movement of a body part, such as a ball-and-socket joint or the eye. It consists of a combination of flexion, extension, adduction, and abduction. Retraction - Posterior movement of the arms at the shoulders. Opposition - A motion involving a grasping of the thumb and fingers. Reposition - To release an object by spreading the fingers and thumb. Synovial joints contain the following structures:

Synovial cavity: all diarthroses have this characteristic space between the bones that is filled with synovial fluid Articular capsule: the fibrous capsule, continuous with the periosteum of articulating bones, surrounds the diarthrosis and unites the articulating bones; the articular capsule consists of two layers - (1) the outer fibrous membrane that may contain ligaments and (2) the inner synovial membrane that secretes the lubricating, shock absorbing, and joint-nourishing synovial fluid; the articular capsule is highly innervated, but avascular (lacking blood and lymph vessels), and receives nutrition from the surrounding blood supply via either diffusion (a slow process) or by convection, a far more efficient process achieved through exercise. Articular cartilage: the bones of a synovial joint are covered by this layer of hyaline cartilage that lines the epiphyses of joint end of bone with a smooth, slippery surface that does not bind them together; articular cartilage functions to absorb shock and reduce friction during movement Many diarthroses also contain: Articular discs or menisci - the fibrocartilage pads between opposing surfaces in a joint Articular fat pads - adipose tissue pads that protect the articular cartilage Tendons - cords of dense regular connective tissue composed of parallel bundles of collagen fibers Bursae - saclike structures that are situated strategically to alleviate friction in some joints (shoulder and knee) that are filled with fluid that is similar to synovial fluid.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS: Allow Flexion, Extension, Adduction, Abduction, Rotation

Features: Ligaments Join bone to bone, prevent dislocation but stretch slightly to allow bones to move Joint Capsule Tough fibrous layers, surrounds bone ends and helps hold them together Synovial Membrane and Fluid Lining on the inner surface of joint capsule, secretes small amount of lubricating fluid, which oils joint cavity Hyaline Cartilage Covers ends of bones in a synovial joint, with fluid greases surface of joint, allowing smooth and friction-free movement Bursae Pouches formed by breakdown of synovial membrane lining the joint capsule, separating tendons and muscles from the underlying bone, cushions to reduce friction
Gliding joints (or planar joints): the carpals of the wrist, acromioclavicular joint, Between the articular processes of the vertebrae. These joints allow only gliding or sliding movements. Gliding joints allow two flat bones to slide over each other like in the bones of the foot and wrist. Hinge joints: the elbow (between the humerus and the ulna) Knee joint, Elbow joint (humeroulnar part), joints between the fingers. These joints act as a door hinge does, allowing flexion and extension in just one plane. Allow the body parts to bend and straighten. Hinge joints are places in the human skeleton where the ends of bones meet and rotate uniaxially (in a single plane, like a knuckle or elbow). They are lubricated with synovial fluids, secreted by the synovial membrane, to ensure easy, pain-free movement. Pivot joints :Atlanto-axial joint, proximal radioulnar joint, and distal radioulnar joint. One bone rotates about another - The atlas (C1) pivots around the dens of the axis (C2). Saddle joints Carpometacarpal or Trapeziometacarpal Joint of thumb (between the metacarpal and carpal - the trapezium), sternoclavicular joint Saddle joints, which resemble a saddle, permit the same movements as the condyloid joints Ball and socket joints "Universal Joint": the shoulder (glenohumeral), and hip joints. These allow for all movements except gliding.

Skeletal Functions: supports tissues, provides framework, protects organs, tissues provide minerals, bone marrow site for red blood cell production, provide levers on which muscles pull to produce movement Bone Types: Long bones Femur, Humerus and Tibia but are also some of the smallest including the Metacarpals, Metatarsals and Phalanges. are characterized by a shaft, the diaphysis, that is much longer than it is wide. They are made up mostly of compact bone, with lesser amounts of marrow, located within the medullary cavity, and spongy bone. Most bones of the limbs, including those of the fingers and toes, are long bones. The exceptions are those of the wrist, ankle and kneecap. Short bones - The bones of the wrist and ankle are short bones, as are the sesamoid bones; are roughly cube-shaped, and have only a thin layer of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. Flat bones - Scapula (shoulder blade). The Sternum (breast bone), Cranium (skull), os coxae (hip bone) Pelvis and Ribs are also classified as flat bones. Are thin and generally curved, with two parallel layers of compact bones sandwiching a layer of spongy bone. Irregular bones - Vertebrae, Sacrum and Mandible (lower jaw), Spine, Hips. Do not fit into the above categories. They consist of thin layers of compact bone surrounding a spongy interior. As implied by the name, their shapes are irregular and complicated. Sesamoid bones Patella ,Pisiform (smallest of the Carpals) and the two small bones at the base of the 1st Metatarsal. Sesamoid bones are usually present in a tendon where it passes over a joint which serves to protect the tendon

Diaphysis - the long, relatively straight main body of a long bone; region of primary ossification. Also known as the shaft. Epiphysis - the end regions of a long bone; regions of secondary ossification. Periosteum - a sheet of connective tissue that encompasses a bone excluding articular surfaces. Articular Cartilage smooth, slippery and bloodless; bones of a synovial joint make contact at cartilaginous ends Cancellous tiny beams of bone form a latticed truss; capable of reorientation, resists stresses of weight and postural changes, as well as muscular development Compact Bone dense bone of diaphysis; repeating patterns of solid bone tissue in organized layers; nutrient blood transported by a system of integrated canals Medullary Cavity in the diaphysis, serves to lighten bone weight and provide space for marrow Nutrient Artery enters medullary cavity and branches throughout, supplying the shaft with nutrients

Bone Features: Articular process - projection that contacts an adjacent bone. articulation The region where adjacent bones contact each other a joint. Canal - long, tunnel-like foramen, usually a passage for notable nerves or blood vessels. Condyle - large, rounded articular process. Crest - prominent ridge. Eminence - relatively small projection or bump. Epicondyle - projection near to a condyle but not part of the joint. Facet - small, flattened articular surface. Foramen - opening through a bone. Fossa - broad, shallow depressed area. Fovea - small pit on the head of a bone. Line long, thin projection, often with a rough surface. Also known as a ridge. Sinus cavity within a cranial bone. Spine - relatively long, thin projection or bump. Suture - articulation between cranial bones. Trochanter - one of two specific tuberosities located on the femur. Tubercle - projection or bump with a roughened surface, generally smaller than a tuberosity. Tuberosity - projection or bump with a roughened surface.

The (pelvis pl. pelvises or pelves) is the bony structure located at the base of the spine (properly known as the caudal end). It is part of the appendicular skeleton, consists of three bones: the Ilium, Ischium, and the Pubis. The ilium is the largest and upper most part, the ischium is the posterior-inferior (backlower) part, and the pubis is the anterior (front) part of the hipbone.

The Shoulder (pectoral) girdle consists of the consists of the Clavicle and Scapula.