POCA Wong Siu Ching Sec. Sch.

F.6 Chemistry Teaching Schedule (2000-01)

Textbook: New Way Chemistry for Hong Kong A-level (Book1, 2 and 3)
Cycle Date Syllabus Explanatory Notes References in texts Remark
1. Atom, Molecules and
Stoichiometry
1.1 The atomic structure
Protons, neutrons and electrons as constituents of the atom. Chapter 1
The relative masses and charges of a proton, neutron and electron.
The atomic nucleus. Relative size of the atom and atomic nucleus.
1.2 Radioactivity
Nature of α,β particles, and ofγradiation.
Equations for nuclear reactions.
Uses of isotopes in leak detection, radiotherapy, nuclear power and as
tracers. (Underlying principles and instrumentation are not required.)
1.3 Relative isotopic, atomic and
molecular masses A brief account of the mass spectrometer in determining relative
isotopic, atomic and molecular masses (instrumental details and
mathematical treatment of the mass spectrometer, and the use of
fragmentation in structure determination are not required.)
1.4 The mole concept
The mole and the Avogadro constant. Chapter 2
Molar volume of gases at R.T.P. (room temperature and pressure) and
S.T.P. (standard temperature and pressure). Ideal gas equation, pV=nRT

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and its application to the relative molecular mass determination.

(Non-ideal behaviour of real gases and kinetic theory are not required.)
Partial pressure of gas and its relationship to mole fraction.
1.5 The Faraday and the mole
The Faraday as the quantity of electricity of one mole of electrons.
Relationship between the mass liberated and the quantity of electricity
passed in electrolysis.
1.6 Empirical and molecular formulae
Derivation of empirical formula using combustion data or composition Chapter 3
by mass. Molecular formula derived from empirical formula and relative
molecular mass.
1.7 Chemical equations and stoichiometry
The stoichiometric relationship between reactants and products in a
reaction.
Calculation involving
i. reacting masses
ii. volumes of gases, and
iii. concentrations and volumes of solutions
2. The Electronic Structure of Atoms
and the Periodic Table

2.1 Atomic emission spectra and Characteristics of the emission spectrum of atomic hydrogen. Chapter 4
electronic structure of atoms Interpretation of the spectrum using the relationship, E=hυleading to the

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2.2 Electronic structure, ionization
enthalpies, electron shell
2.3 Atomic orbitals
2.4 Electronic configurations of atoms
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idea of discrete energy levels.
Convergence limits and ionization. (Calculation are not required).
An awareness of the uniqueness of atomic emission spectra.
Plots of the following graphs to introduce shells and sub-shells: Chapter 5
i. successive ionization enthalpies for a particular element, and
ii. first ionization enthalpies against atomic numbers (up to Z=20).
(Experimental determination of ionization enthalpy is not required).
An awareness of the wave nature of electrons, and that electrons are not
localized in fixed orbits. An atomic orbital as a representation of a region
within which there is a high probability of finding an electron. The
designation of s, p and d orbitals. The number and relative energies of
the s, p and d orbitals for the principal quantum numbers 1,2 and 3, and
also of 4s and 4p orbitals. Shapes of s and p orbitals only.
(The uncertainty principle is not required.)
Building up of electronic configurations based on three principles:
i. electrons enter the orbitals in order of ascending energy
(Aufbau principle),
ii. orbitals of the same energy must be occupied singly before
pairing occurs (Hund’s rule), and
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iii. electrons occupying the same orbital must have opposite spins
(Pauli’s exclusion principle).

Electronic configurations in relation to Electron configurations of isolated atoms from H to Kr.

the Periodic Table Electron configurations of atoms represented by
i. Notation using 1s, 2s, 2p, etc., e.g. Fe (ground state)
1s22s2sp63s23p63d64s2
ii. ‘electrons-in-boxes’ diagram

2.5 The Periodic Table and the atomic The Periodic Table, showing the s-, p-, d- and f-blocks. Interpretation of
properties of the elements the trends of ionization enthalpies and atomic radii of the elements in the
Periodic Table.
3. Energetics

3.1 Energy changes in chemical reactions Conservation of energy. Endothermic and exothermic reactions and their Chapter 6
relationship to the breaking and forming of bonds.

3.2 Standard enthalpy changes Enthalpy change, ΔH, as heat change at constant pressure.
Standard enthalpy change of:
i. neutralization,
ii. solution,
iii. formation, and
iv. combustion

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Experimental determination of enthalpy changes of reactions, limited to

simple calorimetric method. (Bomb carlorimeter is not required).

3.3 Hess’s law Use of Hess’s law to determine enthalpy changes that are not easily
obtainable by experiment.
Enthalpy level diagrams.
Calculations involving enthalpy changes of reactions. Mid-term test
4. Bonding and Structure

4.1 The nature of forces holding atoms Electrostatic interactions between electrons and nuclei leading to Chapter 7
together different types of bonding.

4.2 Ionic bonding Formation of ions – the tendency for atoms of elements in Groups I, II,
VI and VII to attain electronic configurations of noble gases.
‘Dot and cross’ diagrams for simple ionic compounds.

Energetics of formation of ionic
compounds
Born-Haber cycles for the formation of ionic compounds in terms of
enthalpy changes of atomization and ionization, electronic affinities and
lattice enthalpies.
(Electronic affinity is the enthalpy change when one mole of electrons is
added to one mole of atoms or ions in the gaseous state,
e.g. O(g) + e-  O-(g) ΔH = -141 kJ mol-1
O-(g) + e-  O2-(g) ΔH= +791 kJ mol-1;

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Lattice enthalpy is the enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic

compound is formed from its constituent ions in the gaseous state,
e.g. Na+(g) + Cl-(g)  NaCl(s) ΔH = -781 kJ mol-1

Stoichiometry of ionic compounds Consideration in terms of electronic configurations and enthalpy changes
of formation.

Ionic crystals Extended three-dimensional structures of ionic compounds limited to

sodium chloride and caesium chloride. Unit cells and coordination
numbers.
(Calculations involving ionic radii in a unit cell are not required.)

Ionic radii Comparison of sizes of ions with their parent atoms.

Comparison of sizes of isoelectronic particles.

4.3 Covalent bonding Formation of covalent bonding – sharing of electron pairs. Chapter 8
The simple idea of the overlapping of atomic orbitals.
‘Dot and cross’ diagrams for simple molecules, e.g. CH4, NH3, H2O, HF.
Octet rule and its limitation, e.g. PCl5 and BF3.

Dative covalent bonding Treated as a special example of covalent bonding, illustrated by

H3N->BF3. The simple idea of the overlapping of an empty orbital with

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an orbital occupied by a lone pair of electrons.

Bond enthalpies, bond lengths and
covalent radii
Estimation of bond enthalpies using data from energetics.
Bond enthalpies as a comparison of the strength of covalent bonds.
Relationship between covalent bond enthalpies and bond lengths as
illustrated by hydrogen halides.
Addition of covalent radii to give approximate covalent bond lengths as
illustrated by simple molecules.

The shapes of covalent molecules The shapes of simple molecules and polyatomic ions explained in terms
and polymeric ion of the repulsion between electron pairs(as illustrated by BF3, CH4, H2O,
PCl5, SF6, NH4+ and NH2-). The directional nature of covalent bonds.
Bond angles.

Multiple bonds Comparison of bond lengths and bond enthalpies leading to the idea of
multiple bonds, illustrated by ethane and ethyne. Shapes of carbon
dioxide and sulphur dioxide molecules explained in terms of repulsion
between electron pairs.

Covalent crystals Exemplified by diamond, graphite and quartz.

4.4 Bonding intermediate between ionic Chapter 9

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and covalent

Incomplete electron transfer in ionic Comparison of the experimental lattice enthalpies of e.g. silver halides
compounds and zinc sulphide, with the theoretical values calculated on a completely
ionic model leading to the idea of polarization of ions. (Calculation of
the theoretical value of lattice enthalpy is not required).

Polarity of covalent bond
Displacement of an electron cloud leading to the formation of a polar
covalent bond. Dipole moment as evidence for bond polarization in
simple molecules. (Calculation of dipole moment is not required.)
Unequal sharing of bonded electron pair(s) explained in terms of the
electronegativity difference between bonded atoms.
Electronegativity (Pauling’s scale) introduced as an arbitrary measure of
an atom’s tendency in a molecule to attract electrons. (The formal
definition of electronegativity and its experimental determination are not
required.)

4.5 Metallic bonding Metallic bonding illustrated by a model of cationic lattice and mobile Chapter 10
valence electrons. Simple explanation of the metallic conduction of
electricity based on the model.
Strength of metallic bond in terms of metallic radii and the number of
valence electron(s) per atom.

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Metallic crystals Cross-packed and open structures: hexagonal and cubic close-packed,
and body-centred cubic structures. Unit cells and coordination numbers.
(Calculations related to atomic radii in a unit cell are not required.)

4.6 Intermoleular forces

Van der Waals’ forces Brief discussion of the origin of van der Waals’ forces in terms of Chapter 11
permanent, instantaneous and induced dipoles. Comparison of the
covalent and van der Waals’ radii of non-metals to indicate the relative
strength of the covalent bonds and van der Waals’ forces.

Molecular crystals Exemplified by iodine and carbon dioxide.

Hydrogen bonding A study of the boiling points and enthalpy changes of vaporization of the
hydrides of Groups IV, V, VI and VII and compounds like alcohols and
carboxylic acids leading to the idea of hydrogen bonding.
Nature of hydrogen bonding.
Relative strength of van der Waals’ forces and hydrogen bonding.
Hydrogen bonding in ice, proteins and DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

4.7 The relationship between structures Differences in physical properties (viz. melting and boiling points, Chapter 12
and properties of materials electrical conductivity, hardness and solubility) between ionic

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5. Chemical Kinetics
5.1 Rates of chemical reactions
5.2 Factors influencing reaction rate
5.3 Rate equations and order of reactions Simple rate equations determined from experimental results.
POCA Wong Siu Ching Sec. Sch.
compounds, covalent substances and metals
The meaning of the rate of a chemical reaction. Chapter 13
Following a reaction by chemical and physical methods, viz. following
the change in amount of reactant/product by titration, determining the
volume of gas formed, or colorimetric measurement of light intensity at
different times. (The theory of colorimetry is not required.)
Effects of concentration, temperature, pressure, surface area, catalyst and Term examination
light on reaction rate.
Chapter 14
Zeroth, first and second order reactions. Rate constants. Half-life of a
first order reaction.
Radioactive decay as a typical example of a first order reaction.
Carbon-14 dating in the estimation of the age of an archaeological
specimen.
Cabon-14 dating in the estimation of the age of an archaeological
specimen.
Calculations involving rate equations. (Deriving of integral forms of rate
equations is not required.)
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5.4 The effect of temperature change on Explanation of the effect of temperature change on reaction rate in terms Chapter 15
reaction rate of activation energy.
Application of the Arrhenius equation
k = A exp(-Ea/RT)
to determine the activation energy of a reaction. (Derivation of the
Arrhenius equation is not required.)

5.5 The interpretation of rates of gaseous Distribution of molecular speeds in a gas. (Zartmann experiment and
reactions at molecular level calculations involving molecular speeds are not required.)
Graphical representation of the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution and its
variation with temperature. Simple collision theory. (Qualitative
treatment only.)

5.6 Energy profile Energy profile as a representation of the changes in potential energy
during a reaction. Simple stage and multi-stage reactions.
The rate determining step in a multi-stage reaction.

5.7 Catalysts and their effect on reaction Catalysts can change the rate of a reaction by providing an alternative
rates pathway for the reaction.

Homogeneous and heterogeneous Acid-catalysed esterification as an example of homogeneous catalysis.

catalysis Effect of manganese(IV) oxide on the decomposition of hydrogen

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Applications of catalysts
6. Chemical Equilibria
6.1 Dynamic equilibrium
The equilibrium law
The effect of changes in
concentration, pressure and
temperature on equilibria
POCA Wong Siu Ching Sec. Sch.
peroxide as an example of heterogeneous catalysis.
The use of catalysts in Contact and Haber processes, and the
hydrogenation of unsaturated oils. Catalytic converters in car exhaust
systems. An awareness that enzymes are example of biological catalysts.
Reversible reactions. Chapter 16
Dynamic nature of chemical equilibrium.
Characteristics of chemical equilibrium.
Equilibrium constants expressed in terms of concentration (Kc) and
partial pressure (Kp). Simple calculations of Kc and Kp. (The quantitative
relationship between Kc and Kp is not required.)
Le Chatelier’s principle. Changes in concentration and pressure result in
the adjustment of the system without changing the value of equilibrium
constant, K; a change in temperature results in the adjustment of the
system to a new equilibrium constant.
Reaction of temperature and the value of K for exothermic and
endothermic reactions illustrated by the equation,
ln K = constant – ΔH/RT
(Derivation of the equation is not required.)
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6.2 Acid-base equilibria
Concepts of acid/base
Dissociation of water
pH and its measurement
Strong and weak acids/bases
Buffers
Indicators
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Simple calculation on equilibrium composition involving changes in
concentration/pressure.
Bronsted-Lowry theory Chapter 17
Ionic product of water, Kw
The use of indicators and pH meters to measure pH. (The theory and
instrumentation of pH meters are not required.)
Dissociation constants for weak acids (Ka) and weak bases (Kb). Use of
Ka and Kb (pKa and pKb) values to compare the strength of weak acids or
weak bases. Calculations involving pH, Ka and Kb.
(For dissociation involving more than one step, calculations are limited
to one of these steps only.)
Principle of buffer action. Calculations involving the composition and Chapter 18
pH of buffer solutions.
Simple theory of acid-base indicators and pH range of their colour
changes.
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Acid-base titrations pH titration curves and the choice of indicators.

6.3 Redox Equilibria

Redox reactions Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer. Oxidation states. Balancing Chapter 19
redox equations.

Electrochemical cells E.m.f. measurement of electrochemical cells of metal-metal ion systems. Chapter 20
E.m.f. values to compare the relative tendencies of half cells to release or
gain electrons. Other systems involving non-metal ions.
(e.g. I2(aq) , 2I-(aq) | Pt), ions in different oxidation states(e.g. Fe3+(aq),
Fe2+(aq)|Pt) and metal-metal salt (e.g. PbSO(s), [Pb(s) + SO42-(aq)]|Pt).
Cell equations. IUPAC convention in writing cell diagrams.

Electrode potentials The standard hydrogen electrode as a reference. The convention of

standard reduction potentials is adopted. The electrochemical series
(redox potential series). Use of the standard electrode potential (E)
values to compare the strength of oxidizing/reducing agents, and to
calculate the e.m.f. of cells.
Prediction of the feasibility of redox reactions from electrode potential
values and the limitation of this approach due to kinetic factor.

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Secondary cell and fuel cell Lead-acid accumulator and the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell: structure,
electrochemical processes and uses.

Corrosion of iron and its prevention The electrochemical process involved in rusting.
Prevention of corrosion by coating and cathodic protection.
Socioeconomic implication of corrosion and prevention.
7. Phase Equilibrium

7.1 One component systems The pressure – temperature diagrams of water and carbon dioxide. Chapter 21
(Phase rule is not required.)

7.2 Two component systems Studies limited to phase diagrams for mixtures of two miscible liquids: Chapter 22
i. Vapour pressure against mole fraction (with temperature
constant), and
ii. Boiling point against mole fraction (with pressure constant).

Ideal systems Rauolt’s law. The characteristic properties of an ideal system explained
in terms of molecular interactions.

Non-ideal systems Positive and negative deviations from Rauolt’s law explained in terms of
molecular interactions. Enthalpy changes on mixing as evidence for non-
ideal behaviour. Azeotropic mixtures.

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Fractional distillation
7.3 Partition of a solute between two
phases
12. Fundamentals of Organic
Chemistry
12.1 Natural sources of organic
compounds
12.2 The unique nature of carbon
12.3 Functional groups and homologous
series
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Explanation of the principle of fraction distillation using the boiling
point – composition curve.
Application of fraction distillation in oil refining.
Partition coefficient of a non-volatile solute distributed between two Chapter 23
immiscible liquids. (Calculations involving dissociation or association of
solute are not required.) Application to solvent extraction.
Paper chromatography as an application of partition. Rf value. Term test
Alkanes, alkenes and aromatic hydrocarbons from crude oil and coal. Chapter 24
Carbohydrates, proteins and fats in living organisms.
Ability of carbon to catenate leading to the existence of a vast number of
carbon compounds.
Studies limited to the following functional groups:
C=C, C≡C, -X, -OH, -O-, -CHO, C=O, -COOH, -NH2, -NHR, -NR2,
-CN, -COOR, -COX, -CONH2 and (-CO)2O.
Effects of functional groups and the length of carbon chains on physical
properties of compounds in homologous series.
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12.4 Structures and shapes of Chapter 25

hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons The tetrahedral arrangement of the bond electron pairs around a carbon
atom explained in terms of repulsion between electron pairs and in terms
of sp3 hybridized orbitals. (Conformation is not required.)

Unsaturated hydrocarbons Formation of the C=C and C≡C bonds explained in terms of sp2 and sp
hybridized orbitals respectively. σandπbonds. Shapes associated with sp2
and sp hybridized carbon atoms.

Aromatic hydrocarbons Shape of the benzene molecule.

Delocalization of π-electrons in benzene giving rise to a unique class of
compounds which are chemically different from alkenes.

12.5 Systematic nomenclature Systematic nomenclature limited to compounds containing carbon chains Chapter 26
of not more than eight carbon atoms.

12.6 Isomerism Chapter 27

Structural isomerism Isomers containing the same functional group and isomers containing
different functional groups.

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Geometrical isomerism
Enantiomerism
12.7 Structure determination of organic
compounds
Use of infra-red (IR) spectrum in the
identification of functional groups
13. Chemistry of Organic Compounds Mechanisms other than those mentioned specifically are not required.
13.1 Alkanes
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Rigidity of C=C bond leading to cis/trans isomers. Geometrical isomers
limited to acyclic compounds containing one C=C.
Studies limited to structures with one chiral cabon.
(Absolute configuration and resolution of racemic mixtures are not
required.)
Calculation of empirical formula from analytical data (linked with Chapter 28
section 1.6). Molecular formula. Structure deduced from reactions of
functional groups and physical properties.
An awareness that spectroscopic methods such as infrared spectroscopy
and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) can provide information about
the structure of a molecule.
IR spectrum and its use in the identification of the following groups:
C-H, O-H, N-H, C=C, C≡C, C=O and C≡N. (Instrumentation is not
required.)
Crude oil as a source of alkanes. Chapter 30
Chemical principles and economic importance of fractional distillation
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13.2 Alkenes
Addition reactions
(linked with 7.2) and cracking process (Industrial detail are not
required.)
Combustion of alkanes. Chlorination of alkanes as light-initiated chain
reactions. Mechanism of the chlorination of methane.
Chapter 31
Reactions of alkenes with bromine (aqueous and non-aqueous),
hydrogen bromide and sulphuric(VI) acid. Mechanism of the
electrophilic addition of hydrogen bromide to alkenes. Markownikoff’s
rule.
Catalytic hydrogenation and its application in the hardening of oils.

Ozonolysis Conditions and reaction products. Use in the determination of positions

of the carbon-carbon double bonds in alkenes.

Polymerization of alkenes Formation of poly(ethene), poly(propene) and poly(phenylethene).

Mechanism of free radical polymerization of ethane.

13.3 Aromatic hydrocarbons Benzene and methylbenzene. Chapter 32

Stability of the benzene ring: comparison of the enthalpy changes of
hydrogenation and combustion for benzene and cyclohexene leading to
the concept of increased stability in a delocalized system. Resistance of
benzene to oxidation and addition reactions.

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Substitution
Oxidation of alkylbenzene
13.4 Halogeno-compounds
Nucleophilic substitution reactions
Elimination reaction
Uses of halogeno-compounds
13.5 Hydroxy compounds
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Nitration, halogenation, sulphonation and alkylation. (limited to mono-
substitution only)
Reaction with potassium manganate(VII)
Primary, secondary and tertiary haloalkanes, halobenzene. Term examination
Reactions with sodium hydroxide, potassium cyanide and ammonia. Chapter 33
(Experimentation involving potassium cyanide should not be attempted.)
Comparison of rates of hydrolysis of haloalkanes and halobenzene.
Mechanism of SN1 and SN2 as exemplified by substitution with –OH
group. (Linked with 5.6)
Reaction of haloalkanes with alcoholic sodium hydroxide to form
alkenes and alkynes.
Halogeno-compounds as solvents in dry-cleaning and as raw materials in
the manufacture of poly(chloroethene) and poly(tetrafluoroethene).
Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; phenol. Chapter 34
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Acidic properties of hydroxy Comparison of the acidic properties between alcohols and phenol.
compounds
Reactions of alcohols Reactions include halide formation, alkoxide formation, oxidation,
dehydration, esterification and triiodomethane formation.

Distinction between primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols.

Reactions of phenol Reactions with sodium and sodium hydroxide.

Esterification.

Uses of alcohols Alcohols as solvents.

Ethanol in beverages and as a motor fuel blending agent.
Ethane-1.2-diol as an anti-freeze and a raw material in the manufacture
of terylene.

Cycle Date Syllabus Explanatory notes Reference in text Suggested Experiments

Carbonyl compounds Structures of aldehydes and ketones. Benzaldehyde and phenylethanone as
aromatic carbonyl compounds.

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Reactions with hydrogen cyanide and sodium hydrogensulphate( IV).

Nucleophilic addition reactions (Experimentation involving hydrogen cyanide should not be attempted.)

Mechanism of the addition of hydrogen cyanide to carbonyl compounds.

Use of the reaction with sodium hydrogensulphate( IV) in the purification of

carbonyl compounds.

Reactions with hydroxylamine and 2, 4- dinitrophenylhydrazine.

Addition- elimination (condensation) reactions Identification of a carbonyl compound by

Oxidation of aldehydes with acidified dichromate( VI), Tollens' reagent and preparing its derivative.
Oxidation and reduction Fehling's reagent. Resistance of ketones to oxidation.

Reduction of aldehydes and ketones with sodium tetrahydridoborate (sodium Investigation of the reactions of aldehydes and
borohydride) and lithium tetrahydridoaluminate (lithium aluminium hydride). ketones.

Formation of triiodomethane as a test for compounds containing

a CH 3 CO − group or a CH 3 CH( OH) − group.

Methanal in the manufacture of urea- methanal resin.

Uses of carbonyl compounds Propanone as a solvent and a raw material in the manufacture of perspex.

13.7

Carboxylic acids and their derivatives Structures of carboxylic acids, acyl chlorides, anhydrides, amides and esters.

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The formation of carboxylic acid Hydrolysis of nitriles. Oxidation of alcohols, aldehydes and alkylbenzenes.

Reactions of carboxylic acids Formation of salts, acyl chlorides, anhydrides, amides and esters. Reduction with Investigation of the reactions of carboxylic
lithium tetrahydridoaluminate. acids.
Preparation of an ester.
Acidity of carboxylic acids Comparison of the acidity of carboxylic acids with alcohols.

Influence of substituents, viz. alkyl and chloro groups, on

acidity.

Reactions of acyl chlorides and Anhydrides Reactions with water, alcohols, ammonia and amines.

Reactions of amides Hydrolysis, dehydration, Hofmann degradation and reduction with lithium

tetrahydridoaluminate.

Reactions of esters Acid and base hydrolyses. Reduction with lithium tetrahydridoaluminate. Analysis of commercial aspirin tablets.

Uses of carboxylic acids and their derivatives Benzoic acid and benzoates as food preservatives. Polyamides and polyesters as

synthetic fibres e. g. nylon 6. 6 and terylene.

Uses of esters as solvents and flavourings.

Nitrogen compounds Primary, secondary and tertiary aliphatic amines, phenylamine and amino acids.

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The formation of amines Primary amines from Primary, secondary and tertiary aliphatic amines, and quaternary ammonium

nitriles and amides. compounds by alkylation. Phenylamine from nitrobenzene.

Base properties of amines Salt formation. Comparison of the basic strength of ammonia, primary aliphatic

amines and phenylamine.

Reaction of amines Reactions with ethanoyl chloride and benzoyl chloride. Reaction with nitric( III) Investigation of the reactions of amines.
. acid limited to primary amines only. Coupling reaction of benzenediazonium ion

with naphthalen- 2- ol. (Test to distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary

amines is not required.)

Uses of amines and their derivatives Azo- compounds as dyes in dyeing industries. Amine derivatives as drugs.

Amino acids Amino acids (e. g. aminoethanoic acid and 2- amino- propanoic acid) as

bifunctional compounds having both acidic and basic characteristics. Zwitterion.

Dipeptides and polypeptides as dimers and polymers of amino acids. (Methods

of formation of polypeptides are not required.)

14. Chemistry and Society

14.1 Chemistry and the environment

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(a) Air pollution

Some air pollutants Carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, ozone and

particulates. Combustion of fossil fuels as the main source of air pollutants.

The effects of polluted air on the environment The harmful effects of pollutants depend on their concentrations and the duration

of exposure to the pollutants. Parts per million (ppm) as one way of indicating

concentrations of pollutants. Acid rain and photochemical smog: their formation

and effects on the environment.

The ozone layer and chlorofluoro- carbons Sources and properties of ozone. The desirability of ozone in the stratosphere. Project work on air pollution, e.g. acid rain,
Chlorofluorocarbons as aerosol propellants, solvents for the cleaning of smog or ozone depletion.
electronic components and metals, refrigerants, and blowing agents in foam

plastic manufacturing. Causes for the accumulation of chlorofluorocarbons in the

stratosphere. The free radical chain reactions involved with chloro-

fluorocarbons leading to the depletion of the ozone layer. Control of the ozone

depletion problem. Possible alternatives for chlorofluorocarbons.

(b) Water pollution

The causes of water pollution and its effects The adverse effects on water quality due to livestock waste, oil spillages,

on the environment residues of pesticide, detergents in sewage, and industrial effluents.

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Water quality An awareness that oxygen dissolved in water is necessary for aquatic life. Determination of dissolved oxygen in water
Dissolved oxygen (DO) as an indicator of oxygen content in water, expressed as samples.
percentage saturation or mg dm –3 . Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) as an

indicator of the extent of water pollution.

(c) Solid waste Plastics, paper and metals. Disposal of solid waste by landfilling and ncineration.

Pollution problems associated with the disposal of plastics. Development of

degradable plastics and recycling of plastics as possible solutions to pollution

problems.

(d) Pollution control in Hong Kong Measures to improve air quality: use of unleaded petrol and installation of Visit to
catalytic converters in car exhaust systems, limitation of sulphur content in fuels, a. the Environment Resource Centre,
desulphurization of flue gas, installation of electrostatic precipitators and b. the Chemical Waste Treatment Centre, or
installation of low nitrogen oxide burners in power plants. c. a sewage treatment plant.

Measures to improve water quality: screening, sedimentation and digestion of

pollutants by micro- organisms in the treatment of sewage; physical and

chemical methods, and incineration in the treatment of chemical waste from

industry and laboratories. (Technical details of the above treatment processes are

not required.)

Measures to reduce solid waste:

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reuse/ recycling of paper, plastics and metals to minimize waste and save

resources.

14.2 Chemistry and food

(a) Principal components of food Proteins Proteins as macromolecules made up of amino acids via peptide linkages. Separation of amino acids by paper
Hydrolysis of proteins. Separation of amino acids by paper chromatography. chromatography.
(Linked with Sections 7.3 and 13.8)

Carbohydrates Classification into monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide. Open chain Investigation of the hydrolysis of sucrose and
and ring structures of glucose and fructose. Glycosidic linkage in carbohydrates. testing for reducing sugars.
Hydrolysis of sucrose and starch. Fehling's test to distinguish between reducing

and non- reducing sugars.

Fats and oils Fats and oils as esters of propane- 1, 2,3- triol and fatty acids. Hydrolysis of fats

and oils (Link with Section 13.7). Use of iodine value tocomparethe degree of

unsaturation. Hardening of vegetable oils. (Link with Section 13.2) Hydrolytic

and oxidative rancidity.

(b) Food preservation

The need to preserve food Prevention of food spoilage due to microbial activities and chemical changes.

Principles and techniques of food preservation Principles of food preservation: Investigation of the effects of air and

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killing of micro- organisms, inhibition of microbial growth, retardation of preservatives on apple browning.
chemical changes by removing moisture, altering temperature, changing pH, and

the use of osmotic process and chemical additives. Common techniques include

heat treatment, irradiation, drying, dehydration, refrigeration, canning, sugaring,

salting and chemical preservation such as meat- curing, pickling and the use

of food additives.

(c) Food additives Food additives to serve as preservatives (e. g. nitrates( III), nitrates( V), sulphur Library search on different functions of
dioxide, sulphates( IV), benzoic acid and benzoates) and antioxidants (e. g. common food additives.
BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) and BHT (butylated hydroxytoluene)), to Analysis of sulphur dioxide content in wine.
enhance the flavour (e. g. MSG (monosodium glutamate), saccharin), texture

(e. g. emulsifying agents), appearance (e. g. colouring agents) or nutritional

value (e. g. vitamins) of food.

Principle of BHA/ BHT as antioxidant to retard atmospheric oxidation of oils

and fats.

The possible menace of The side effects of MSG, the toxicity of nitrates( III) and sulphur dioxide, and Debate on the use of food additives.
food additives the potent carcinogenic nature of nitrates( III) and saccharin.

An awareness that the use of food additives is monitored by research findings

and by legislation.

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8. Periodic Properties of the Elements in

the Periodic Table

8.1 Periodic variation in physical properties of Variations in first ionization enthalpies (linked with Section 2. 2), atomic radii,

the elements H to Ar electronegativities and melting points. Interpretation of these variations in terms

of structure and bonding.

8.2 Periodic relationship among the oxides, Bonding and stoichiometric composition of the hydrides, oxides and chlorides of Investigation of the properties of the oxides and
chlorides and simple hydrides of the elements these elements, and their behaviour with water. (Hydrides of boron are not chlorides of the period 3 elements.
Li to Cl required.)

9. The s- Block Elements

9.1 Characteristic properties of the s- block Metallic character and low electronegativity. Formation of basic oxides and Flame tests for Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+
elements hydroxides. Predominantly ionic bonding with fixed oxidation state in their ions.
compounds. Characteristic flame colours of salts. Weak tendency to form

complexes.

9.2 Variation in properties of the s- block Variations in atomic radii, ionization enthalpies, melting points and hydration Investigation of the effect of heat on carbonates
elements and their compounds enthalpies. Interpretation of these variations in terms of structure and bonding. of Group II elements.
Reactions of the elements with hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine and water. Investigation of the solubility of sulphates(VI)

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9.3 Uses of the compounds of the s- block
elements
10. The p- Block Elements
10.1 The halogens
Characteristic properties of the halogens
Variation in properties of the halogens and
their compounds
POCA Wong Siu Ching Sec. Sch.
Reactions of the oxides, hydrides and chlorides with water, acids and alkalis. and hydroxides of Group II elements.
Relative thermal stability of the carbonates and hydroxides.
Relative solubility of the sulphates( VI) and hydroxides.
Sodium carbonate in the manufacture of glass.
Sodium hydrogencarbonate in baking powder. Sodium hydroxide in making
soap. Magnesium hydroxide as an antacid. Slaked lime in neutralization of acids
in industrial effluents. Strontium compounds in fireworks.
High electronegativity and electron affinity. Ionic and covalent bonding in
oxidation state –1.
Variations in melting and boiling points, electronegativities and electron Investigation of the reactions of
affinities. Interpretation of these variations in terms of structure and bonding. a. halogens with alkalis,
Relative oxidizing power of halogens: comparative study of reactions (Cl 2 , b. halides ions in solution, and
Br 2 and I 2 ) with sodium, iron( II) ion and phosphorus. c. solid halides with sulphuric(VI) acids.
Disproportionation of the halogens in alkalis.
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Comparative study of the reactions of halide ions with halogens, sulphuric( VI)

acid, phosphoric( V) acid and silver ions. Acidic properties of hydrogen halides

and the anomalous behaviour of hydrogen fluoride.

Uses of halogens and halogen containing Fluoride in fluoridation of water. Chlorine in the manufacture of poly(

compounds chloroethene), bleach and disinfectant. Silver bromide in photographic films.

Unreactive nature of nitrogen. Direct combination of nitrogen and oxygen

10.2 Nitrogen and its compounds leading to formation of nitrogen oxides. Manufacture of ammonia by Haber

process and its underlying physicochemical principles. Ammonia as a reducing

agent and a base. Catalytic oxidation of ammonia in the manufacture of nitric(

V) acid. Nitric( V) acid as an oxidizing agent, limited to the study of the

reactions with copper, iron( II) ion and sulphur only.

Action of heat on nitrates( V). Brown ring test for nitrate( V) ions.

Investigation of the action of heat on

Burning of sulphur. Oxidizing and reducing properties of sulphur dioxide as nitrates(V). Brown ring test for nitrate(V) ions.
10.3 Sulphur and its compounds exemplified by the reactions with manganate( VII) ion, dichromate( VI) ion, Investigation of the redox properties of sulphur
bromine and magnesium metal. Manufacture of sulphuric( VI) acid by contact dioxide.
process and itsunderlying physicochemical principles. Sulphuric( VI) acid as an

oxidizing agent and a dehydrating agent.

Test for sulphate( VI) ions. Uses of sulphuric( VI) acid in the manufacture of

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fertilizers, detergents, paints, pigments and dyestuffs. Investigation of the redox Test for sulphate(VI) ions using acidified
properties of sulphur dioxide. barium chloride solution.

11. The d- Block Elements

Electronic configurations (linked with Section 2. 4). d- Block elements as metals.

11.1 General features of the d- block elements Comparison of ionization enthalpies, electronegativities, melting points,

from Sc to Zn hardness, densities and reactions with water between d- block and s- block

metals.

Interpretation of the characteristic properties, viz. variable oxidation states,

11.2 Characteristic properties of the d- block complex formation, coloured ions, and catalytic properties in terms of electronic

elements and their compounds: structures, successive ionization enthalpies, atomic and ionic radii.

Studies limited to common oxidation states of vanadium (+ 2, +3, +4, +5) and

(a) Variable oxidation states manganese (+ 2, +4, +7). Interconversions of oxidation states of each element. Investigation of the redox reactions of vanadium
or manganese compounds.
Studies limited to complexes of Fe( II), Fe( III), Co( II) and Cu( II) with the

(b) Complex formation following ligands: H 2 O, NH 3 ,Cl –and CN –. Investigation of the relative stability of some
Nomenclature of these complexes. Displacement of ligands and relative stability copper(II) complexes.
of complex ions. (Experimentation involving cyanide ions should not be

attempted.) (Calculations involving stability constants are not required). Stereo-

structures of 4- and 6- coordinated complexes.(Optical isomerism of complexes

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is not required.)

Studies limited to the hydrated ions of Fe( II), Fe( III), Co( II) and Cu( II).

(c) Coloured ions

Exemplified by the use of Fe in Haber process, Fe 2+or Fe 3+in the reaction

(d) Catalytic properties of transition metals between peroxodisulphate( VI) and iodide ions, and MnO 2 in the decomposition Investigation of the catalytic action of d-block
and their compounds of hydrogen peroxide (linked with Section5.7). ions on the reaction between
peroxodisulphate(VI) and iodide ions.

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