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Physics Form 4: Chapter 5 - Reflection of Light on Plane Mirror

Reflection involves a change in direction of the light ray. The ray of light approaching the mirror is known as incident ray. The light ray that leaves the mirror is known as reflected ray. The angle of incidence is the angle between normal line and the incident ray. The angle of reflection is the angle between normal line and the reflected ray.

If the reflecting surface is very smooth, the reflection of light that occurs is called specular or regular reflection. The laws of reflection are as follows: 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the reflection surface at the point of the incidence lie in the same plane. 2. The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection. 3. The reflected ray and the incident ray are on the opposite sides of the normal.

Ray Diagram

Characteristic of image formed


Virtual Upright Laterally inverted Same size as the object As far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it.

Uses of ray diagram Six students - Al, Bo, Cy, Di, Ed, and Fred sit in front of a plane mirror and attempt to see each other in the mirror. Whom can Al see?

Al could see any student positioned between Ed and Fred by looking at any other positions along the mirror. However in this case, there are no other students between Ed and Fred; thus, Ed and Fred are the only students whom Al can see.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 4 - Charles's Law of Gas

Charles's law states that for a fixed mass of ideal gas, the volume is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at constant pressure.

Explanation of Charles law by the kinetic theory When the temperature of a gas in an enclosed cylinder is raised, the gas molecules receive heat energy and their average kinetic energy increases. This means that molecular velocity will increase and the frequency of collision between the molecules and the wall of the cylinder also increases. Thus, the gas pressure increases. Increase in pressure will cause the piston to be pushed up and this indicates that the volume of the gas has increased.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 4 - Absolute Temperature

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of a system particles. When temperature rises, the average kinetic energy of particles also increases. Temperature is the degree of hotness, a measure of heat intensity.

Absolute temperature is based on the Kelvin scale. Units on the Kelvin scale are called Kelvins (K) and no degree symbol is used.

The concept of an absolute zero of temperature evolved in connection with experiments with gases. When a fixed mass of gas is cooled at a constant pressure (volume), its volume (pressure) decreases with its temperature. A plot of the experimental values of volume (pressure) versus temperature can be extrapolated to cross the temperature axis when the volume (pressure) would be zero. The temperature is the absolute zero of temperature. It is 273.15 C, or more approximately -273 C.

What happens to the matter at absolute zero temperature?


At absolute zero temperature, it's the point at which particles have a minimum energy. Near absolute zero, the matter stops acting the way it should and starts exhibiting some strange

properties. Some types of matter become superconducting, carrying electric current with absolutely no resistance, and some of them, like helium, become superfluid at this temperature, exhibiting absolutely no friction, becoming a Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC). This means that a droplet of superfluid helium can rotate inside a container forever, as if it were in a vacuum.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 4 - Boyle's Law of Gas

Boyle's law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume of gas provided the temperature of the gas is constant. The law was first proposed in 1662 by Robert Boyle Because pV = constant that means that p1V1 = constant and so does p2V2. We can therefore write:

where V1 = equals the original volume, V2 = equals the new volume,


p1 = the original pressure, and p2 = the new pressure.

Explanation of Boyle's law by the kinetic theory:

At constant temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules is constant. When the gas is compressed, the volume is decreased. Therefore, the number of molecules per unit volume will increase. The rate of collision of the gas molecules with the wall of container will increase. Thus, the pressure of gas increases.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 4 - Latent Heat


Latent heat is the quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance to change its physical state without any change in temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion (haba pendam tentu pelakuran) is the quantity of heat needed to change 1kg of a solid to liquid at its melting point without change in temperature. The temperature does not change even though heat is being absorbed by the solid particles. This is because the heat absorbed does not increase the kinetic energy of particles but is used to overcome the force of attraction between the particles.

Specific latent heat of vaporization is the quantity of heat needed to change 1kg of a liquid to gas at its boiling point without change in temperature.

The temperature does not change even though heat is being absorbed by the liquid particles. This is because the heat absorbed does not increase the kinetic energy of particles but is used to overcome the force of attraction between the particles.

Specific latent heat of vaporization is greater than its specific latent heat of fusion because:

More energy is required to break the bonds between liquid molecules in order to change into gas phase. Extra energy is required to overcome atmospheric pressure. Energy is used to overcome the surface tension of a liquid when its molecules change into the gas phase.

Latent heat sublimation (haba pendam pemejalwapan) Latent heat vaporization (haba pendam penyejatan) Latent heat condensation (haba pendam pemeluwapan) Latent heat fusion (haba pendam pelakuran)

Physics Form 4: Chapter 3 - Liquid Pressure


Liquid pressure is due to the weight of liquid acting on the surface of any objects in the liquid.

P = Pressure h = depth = density of liquid g = Gravitational Field Strength

Liquid pressure increases with depth. The deeper the object in the liquid, the higher the pressure exert on the object.

Pressure acts in all direction perpendicularly to the surface area of the object.

Pressure in liquid does not depends on - the size of the container. - the area of its surface - the shape of the container

Pressure in liquid depends only on its vertical distance from the surface of the liquid. Pressure at A = Pressure at B

Physics Form 4: Chapter 3 - Pressure

Pressure is defined force per unit area applied in a direction perpendicular to the surface of an object The unit of pressure is Pascal.

The larger the area of surface, the lower the pressure exerted on an object. The greater the force, the higher the pressure exerted on an object.

Application of pressure:

When the area is small, a moderate force can create a very large pressure. This is why a sharp knife is good at cutting things: when you push the very small area of the sharp blade against something, it creates a really large pressure.

Supermodel can damage floors by walking on then in high-heeled shoes. This is because the area of the heel is small, so you can easily create enough pressure to cause a dent in the floor.

Camels have large feet to increase surface area of contact with sand. Pressure produced is small. This is why a heavy camel will not sink into sand while walking on dessert.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 3 - Gas Pressure


Gas pressure in a closed container is caused by the frequency of collision between the gas molecules and the walls of the container. All collisions are elastic.

A molecule with a mass, m moving with a velocity v, has a momentum = mv After colliding with the wall elastically, the momentum with it bounces back is mv. Change in momentum = mv (-mv) = 2 mv. Thus, produce an impulsive force. The force acting on an area of the wall produces pressure in the container. Gas pressure can be increased by:

increasing the temperature of the gas reducing the volume of the gas. increasing the number of gas particles.

Gas pressure can be measured by using manometer as shown below:

Physics Form 4: Chapter 3 - Atmospheric Pressure


Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the weight of air particles in Earth's atmosphere.

Units of atmospheric pressure: 1 atm = 105 Pa 105 Pa = 105 N m-2 Barometer mercury gives atmospheric pressure to 76 cm Hg Vertical column of water gives atmospheric pressure to 10.3 m.

Atmospheric pressure depends on the height of a place above sea level and decreases with altitude. At higher altitude, the density and temperature of the air are lower, so the number of collisions between molecules are less and the pressure is lower. Atmospheric pressure can be measured by using barometer mercury, barometer Aneroid and barometer Fortin Barometer Aneroid

Barometer Fortin

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Hooke's Law

Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its original shape/length when the stretching force or the compressing force is no longer acting on it. Hookes law states that the force applied is proportional to the extension of spring, provided the elastic limit is not exceeded.

Gradient = spring constant Area under the graph = elastic potential energy

Spring constant quantifies the stiffness of a spring. Steeper gradient of graph F against x, extension has a stiffer spring. Spring A is stiffer than spring B.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Principle of Conservation of Energy


The principle of conservation of energy shows that energy cannot be created or destroyed but can change from one form to another. The principle of conservation of energy states that the total quantity of energy in an enclosed system is always the same.

For example: Energy transformation on a roller coaster

At the top of the hill, the cars possess the maximum quantity of potential energy. Potential energy is dependent upon the mass of the object and the height of the object. The car's large quantity of potential energy is due to the fact that they are elevated to a large height above the ground. As the cars descend the first drop, they lose much of this potential energy in accord with their loss of height. The cars subsequently gain kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is dependent upon the mass of the object and the speed of the object. The train of coaster cars speeds up as they lose height. Thus, their original potential energy (due to their large height) is transformed into kinetic energy (revealed by their high speeds). As the ride continues, the train of cars are continuously losing and gaining height. Each gain in height corresponds to the loss of speed as kinetic energy (due to speed) is transformed into potential energy (due to height). Each loss in height corresponds to a gain of speed as potential energy (due to height) is transformed into kinetic energy (due to speed).

Conclusion: 1. Potential energy convert to kinetic energy and vice versa 2. Total energy in the system is still the same.

Physics Form 4: Resolving Forces Into Components


Addition of vector

Any force can be resolved into the addition of two mutually perpendicular forces which are called components of force. The components of force are resolved along the x-axis = horizontal component and the y-axis = vertical component.

For example:

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Safety Car Features

According to the Newton's First Law, a moving object will continue moving in a straight line unless external force acted on it. As a result, if you are sitting on braking car, you will keep on moving and been thrown out of the seat due to inertia effect.

Impulsive force is produced during collision according to the Newton's Second Law. If time of impact is reduced, the greater the impulsive force produced causing severe damage to the car. In making a car safer to drive, engineers have to overcome these two factors that are inertia effect and impulsive force. Here are some safety features incorporated in a car: 1. Safety belt - help to hold the passengers in their position during collision to prevent them from being thrown forward due to inertia. 2. Front and rear crumple zone - easily crushed to increase the time of impact. 3. Shatter-proof windscreen - it will not break into pieces easily. 4. Airbags - to increase the time of impact and to cushion the driver from being hitting the front of the car. 5. Passenger safety case - reinforced to protect passenger. 6. Collapsible steering - to increase the time of collision if the driver crashes against it. 7. ABS braking system - to prevent the car from skidding if sudden brake is applied. 8. Headrests - prevent the passengers from suffering severe neck injury. 9. Padded dashboard - increases time interval of collision so that impulsive force is reduced.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Forces in Equilibrium

If an object is at equilibrium, then the forces are balanced which means that resultant force is zero. According to F = ma, the object's acceleration also zero when force in equilibrium achieved.

An object at equilibrium is either ...

at rest and staying at rest, or in motion and continuing in motion with the same speed and direction.

Object at equilibrium position. The load is static.

Force A = 3.4 N at an angle of 161 degree Force B = 9.2 N at an angle of 70 degree Force C = 9.8 N at an angle of 270 degree

A triangle of forces diagram showing forces are in equilibrium

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Newton's Second Law of Motion

F=ma
Newton's second law of motion can be stated as follows: The rate change of momentum of an object is directly proportional to the magnitude of the resultant force, in the same direction as the resultant force, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Momentum

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and velocity.

The principle of conservation of momentum states that in a system of collision or explosion, the total momentum is constant if no external force is acted upon the system.

Total Momentum Before Reaction = Total Momentum After Reaction

Elastic collision is the collision where the kinetic energy is conserved after the collision.

Inelastic collision is the collision where the kinetic energy is not conserved after the collision.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 -Graph of Motion


Displacement-Time Graph:

Gradient of the graph is equal to velocity Gradient = 0 , velocity = 0. Gradient is negative and constant, hence velocity is uniform and in opposite direction. Gradient is increasing, hence velocity is increasing.

Velocity-Time Graph:

The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives acceleration. Gradient = 0, hence velocity is constant but acceleration = 0. The area below the velocity-time graph gives a value of the object's displacement.

Physics Form 4: Chapter 2 - Newton First Law of Motion (Inertia)


Inertia is the tendency of an object to remain in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. Law of inertia is also known as Newton's First Law of Motion Newton's First Law of Motion state that an object will in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted upon by a net external force.

Examples of effect of inertia:

When the cardboard is jerked quickly, the coin will fall into the glass. Explanation:

The inertia of the coin resists the change of its initial state, which is stationary. As a result, the coin does not move with the cardboard and falls into the glass because of gravity.

Pull slowly - Thread A will snap. Explanation:


Tension of thread A is higher than string B. Tension at A = Weight of the load + Pulling Force

Yank quickly - Thread B will snap. Explanation:

The inertia of the load prevents the force from being transmitted to thread A, hence causing thread B to snap.

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