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By
_____________________________
Ryan Foreman
_____________________________
Andrew Solitro
_____________________________
Christopher Wolfertz
Approved:
______________________________
John McNeill, WPI Advisor
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES .......................................................................................................4
1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................6
1.1 GOALS .........................................................................................................................................6
1.2 ABOUT ALLEGRO MICROSYSTEMS ................................................................................................7
1.3 THE MAJOR QUALIFYING PROJECT (MQP) ....................................................................................7
2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................................8
2.1 VOLTAGE REFERENCES ................................................................................................................8
2.1.1 Zener References................................................................................................................9
2.1.2 Bandgap References .........................................................................................................10
2.2 METHODS OF TEMPERATURE STABILIZATION ..............................................................................12
2.2.1 Basic Bandgap Reference .................................................................................................13
2.2.2 Brokaw Reference ............................................................................................................14
2.2.3 Curvature Correction .......................................................................................................17
2.3 METHODS OF ADJUSTING AND TRIMMING RESISTORS ..................................................................18
2.3.1 Abrasive Trimming...........................................................................................................19
2.3.2 Laser Trimming................................................................................................................20
2.3.3 Link Fuse Trimming .........................................................................................................25
2.3.4 Circuit Adjusting with Potentiometers...............................................................................27
2.3.5 Using Zener Diode Sets for Adjustments ...........................................................................27
2.3.6 Electronically Programmable Analog Devices ..................................................................27
2.3.7 Comparison of Different Trimming Techniques .................................................................29
3 METHODOLOGY.......................................................................................................................33
3.1 DEVELOPING A BACKGROUND ....................................................................................................33
3.2 DESIGN OF THE INTEGRATED CIRCUIT .........................................................................................34
3.2.1 Desired Specifications ......................................................................................................34
3.2.2 Choosing a Design Model (Brokaw vs. Widlar).................................................................34
3.2.3 Choosing Design Layout Tools .........................................................................................35
3.2.4 Choosing a Fabrication Process .......................................................................................35
3.2.5 Trimming Technique.........................................................................................................36
3.3 SIMULATING AND TESTING OUR DESIGN .....................................................................................37
3.4 COMPLETION OF THE PROJECT ....................................................................................................37
4 DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................39
4.1 THE BROKAW CELL AND THE BANDGAP VOLTAGE ......................................................................40
4.2 AMI 1.2µ PROCESS ....................................................................................................................41
4.3 BJT MODELS .............................................................................................................................42
4.3.1 Diode Connected Transistors............................................................................................42
4.3.2 NPN Transistors in a CMOS Process................................................................................43
4.3.3 PNP Transistor in a CMOS Process .................................................................................44
4.3.4 Saturation Currents..........................................................................................................46
4.4 CURRENT SETTING TRANSISTORS................................................................................................47
4.4.1 Primary Current Source ...................................................................................................47
4.4.2 Startup Circuit .................................................................................................................47
4.5 OPERATIONAL TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER ........................................................................48
4.5.1 Input Offset Voltage..........................................................................................................49
4.5.2 PMOS Current Source......................................................................................................50
4.5.3 Differential Pair...............................................................................................................50
4.5.4 Active loads......................................................................................................................50
2
4.5.5 Biasing.............................................................................................................................51
4.5.6 More Current Sources ......................................................................................................51
4.5.7 Capacitor Compensation ..................................................................................................51
4.5.8 Cascoded Output ..............................................................................................................53
4.5.9 Inverting and Non-Inverting Terminals .............................................................................54
4.5.10 Specifications of the Amplifier ..........................................................................................55
4.6 DESIGN OF POLY RESISTORS .......................................................................................................59
4.6.1 Absolute Error in Resistors Due to Process Variations......................................................59
4.6.2 Resistor Values.................................................................................................................60
4.6.3 Initial Accuracy................................................................................................................61
4.7 TRIM RESISTOR CONSIDERATIONS ..............................................................................................63
4.8 NON-INVERTING GAIN AMPLIFIER...............................................................................................67
4.8.1 Amplifier Modifications ....................................................................................................67
4.8.2 Gain Setting .....................................................................................................................69
4.9 FINAL LAYOUT ..........................................................................................................................69
4.9.1 Test Structures .................................................................................................................70
4.9.2 Bandgap Circuit ...............................................................................................................70
4.9.3 Pin Assignments ...............................................................................................................72
5 TRIM SCHEME PROCEDURE .................................................................................................77
5.1 DEVELOPING THE TRIM PROCEDURE ...........................................................................................77
5.2 ACTUAL TRIM PROCEDURE .........................................................................................................79
6 TEST PROCEDURE ...................................................................................................................85
6.1 DESIGNING THE PC BOARD ........................................................................................................85
6.2 ACTUAL TEST PROCEDURE .........................................................................................................86
7 TEST RESULTS ..........................................................................................................................89
7.1 TEST PREPARATION ....................................................................................................................90
7.2 NPN TEST .................................................................................................................................91
7.3 PNP TEST ..................................................................................................................................94
7.4 AMPLIFIER TEST RESULTS ..........................................................................................................98
7.5 PROBLEMS WITH PROBE STATION FUNCTIONALITY ....................................................................100
7.6 TEST CIRCUIT #3 (PNP) ...........................................................................................................100
7.6.1 Trimming VBANDGAP to 1.25 .............................................................................................101
7.6.2 Voltage Supply Sweep.....................................................................................................104
7.7 TEST CIRCUIT #2 (NPN)...........................................................................................................105
7.8 MEASURE TRIM RESISTOR ........................................................................................................107
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .....................................................................108
8.1 OVERALL DESIGN ....................................................................................................................108
8.2 TRANSISTORS IN A CMOS PROCESS ..........................................................................................109
8.3 AMPLIFIER ...............................................................................................................................109
8.4 TRIMMING ...............................................................................................................................110
8.5 TRIMMING CONSIDERATION......................................................................................................110
8.6 RECOMMENDATION FOR START UP CIRCUIT ..............................................................................110
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................111
3
List of Figures and Tables
4
Figure 4.9.1.1: NPN and PNP Test Structures 70
Figure 4.9.1.2: Single Bandgap Circuit #2 with NPNs 71
Table 4.9.3.1: Pin Assignments 74
Figure 4.9.3.1: Layout view of Final Design 75
Figure 4.9.3.2: Schematic view of Final Design 76
5
1 Introduction
Creating a precise voltage reference with superior performance capabilities has been
under continuous development, and integrated circuit (IC) design techniques have
permitted references to become increasingly more accurate in recent years. Voltage
references in the past have been based upon base-emitter voltage references, Wilson and
Widlar current sources, and Zener diode technologies. Of these methods, the zener
diode voltage reference had emerged as the leading technology and had shown the
highest quality of performance in comparison to the previous two methods. That was,
until the design of a voltage reference utilizing the band gap principle came about.
Bandgap voltage references that utilize trimming techniques have been proven to
achieve a very low temperature coefficient and high initial accuracy. Therefore, the
performance capabilities of the band gap voltage reference appear to be far greater than
any of the previous designs. However, the value of resistors on an IC can vary by as
much as ±20 percent. For most analog circuits, this is not a problem. For example, the
voltage gain of an op-amp circuit depends on the ratio of resistances, so the inherent
matching between components in ICs is desirable. Nevertheless, there is still a need for
absolute accuracy, especially, in the design of a voltage reference, which must produce a
given output voltage to an absolute tolerance.
1.1 Goals
Faced with this problem, Allegro Microsystems, Inc. has commissioned a team of
WPI students to design an IC voltage reference using inaccurate components while
maintaining accuracy to ±1 percent. Thus, the principal goal is to research and design the
most simplified cost-effective design of a voltage reference that will remain stable and
accurate under a wide variety of inherent dynamic conditions including temperature
variations. Also, at the conclusion of the study, it will be known whether it is feasible to
achieve ±1-percent accuracy with a voltage reference using components with a ±20
percent tolerance.
6
1.2 About Allegro Microsystems
Allegro Microsystems, Inc. of Worcester, Massachusetts, specializes in the design
and manufacturing of mixed-signal integrated circuits for the automotive, office
automation, and industrial markets. Originally owned by the Sprague Electric Company,
a division of Sanken Electronic Company Ltd. of Japan, Allegro was founded in 1990
when the division was sold. Allegro currently grosses $200 million annually and also has
plant facilities in Pennsylvania, New Hampshire, and the Philippines. With this report,
the company will be able to incorporate the new voltage reference design into existing
and future applications and designs.
Our completed proposal will be orally presented to representatives of Allegro
Microsystems on October 7, 1998. At this meeting, the specifications and objectives will
be modified to suit Allegro’s needs. From the results of this research, Allegro may
terminate the project or authorize the group to proceed with the primary design and
testing of the proposed reference design.
To accomplish this task, the research from past and present precision voltage
references is essential, including methods of adjusting and trimming the circuitry. Other
important aspects that will be examined embrace the issues of cost analysis and
complexity of the design and fabrication. Therefore, this project, will be a study of
technical feasibility, along with a study of cost versus complexity of active and passive
bipolar components.
7
2 Literature Review
8
company that has constantly been involved in the research and development of highly
accurate voltage references.
Table 2.1.1: Voltage Reference Characteristics from Analog Devices
PART OUTPUT INITIAL MAXIMUM SUPPLY
NUMBER VOLTAGE ACCURACY TEMPCO CURRENT
AD780 +2.50 V ± 1 mV 3 PPM/°C 1 mA
REF-195 +5.00 V ±1 mV 4 PPM/°C 40 mA
AD588 ±10 V, ±5 V ±1 mV 1.5 PPM/°C 10 mA
REF-43 +2.50 V ±1.5 mV 10 PPM/°C 450 mA
AD584 +10 V ±2.5 mV 5 PPM/°C 1 mA
AD680 +2.50 V -5 mV 20 PPM/°C 250 mA
The simplest form of the voltage reference is the zener diode reference. To review,
it is a diode, which operates in the reverse-bias region, where current begins to flow at a
set voltage and increases dramatically as the voltage increases. To use it as a reference,
constant current must be provided. This is done with a resistor from a higher supply
voltage; this is the most basic of references.
One feature of zener diodes is that in the operating region of 6V, the zener becomes
very stiff against changes in current and simultaneously achieves a zero temperature
coefficient. This behavior comes from the fact that zeners employ a zener breakdown
(low voltage) and an avalanche breakdown (high voltage). If, on the other hand, a zener
were used as a stable voltage reference it would not matter what voltage it was as long as
one of the zener references, with approximately a 5.6V, is in series with a forward biased
diode. The zener voltage is chosen to give a positive coefficient to cancel the diode's
temperature coefficient (tempco) of -2.1mV/ °C. The tempco depends on the zener bias
current and on the zener voltage; hence, by choosing a proper zener current, one can
slightly adjust the tempco.
However, there is a downside to this type of zener reference, because they are
somewhat difficult to use. The voltage tolerance is poor except in costly precision
9
zeners. They are noisy and the zener voltage depends on current and temperature.
Despite these drawbacks, there is a zener diode that does not suffer from some of these
weaknesses.
The buried (or subsurface) zener diodes are fabricated beneath the surface of a chip.
The surface of the chip is prone to contamination and diodes at the surface are noisier and
less stable than buried ones. Buried zener diodes can be made with a range of voltages
and have good low noise performance (better than bandgap references), but the ones that,
in combination with their temperature compensating diodes, have a breakdown voltage
just below 7V, have the best temperature performance. Figure 2.1 shows a few examples
of buried zener diodes with a few bandgap references.
10
Figure 2.1.2.1: Basic Bandgap Circuit
Another type of bandgap circuit is the Widlar bandgap circuit, shown in Figure 2.2.
This circuit utilizes a feedback loop to establish an operating point in the circuit such that
11
the output voltage is equal to a VBE (on) plus a voltage proportional to the difference of
two base-emitter voltages. If the transistor Q3 is turned off initially, transistor Q4 will
drive V1 in a positive direction. This will continue until the base of Q3 develops enough
voltage to produce a collector current equal to the value of I. This circuit will then
stabilize with voltage V2 equal to the base-emitter voltage of Q3. Once the circuit
becomes stable, the output voltage is
Vout = VBE(Q3) + VR2 (2.1.2.1)
where VR2 is
VR2 = (VR3)(R2/R3) (2.1.2.2)
The voltage drop across R3 is
VR3 = VBE(Q1) – VBE(Q2) (2.1.2.3)
The ratio of currents in Q1 and Q2 is set by the ratio of R2 to R1.
Bandgap reference circuits appear in many different configurations, but they all
operate under a specific format. These references involve the summation of a VBE with a
voltage generated by a pair of transistors, which operate under a certain current density
ratio. The goal of this project is to create a bandgap circuit, which creates a voltage
reference stable to 1% over a temperature range of -55° to 125°C. Why use a bandgap
and not a buried zener voltage reference? The zener or buried zener configurations will
not be used mainly because they are limited to a higher supply voltage than that of the
bandgap. With the bandgap reference, these limitations are not present.
1
IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, “New Developments in IC Voltage Regulators,” Robert Widlar,
Vol. SC-6, No.1, p. 2, February 1974.
12
2.2.1 Basic Bandgap Reference
The basic bandgap reference, or VBE reference, stabilizes its output by taking
advantage of the of a transistor’s temperature dependent parameters and characteristics.
where Vg0 is the bandgap voltage of silicon, VBEQ3 is the emitter-base voltage of Q3, and
the ratio J1/J2 is the quotient of current densities in Q1 and Q2. If the sum of the terms on
13
the right side of the equation equal 1.205V, Vg0, then it is clear that the output is
temperature invariant. While the nature of this circuit makes it difficult to produce
voltages above Vg0, having multiple stages of this circuit in a series string can attain
higher voltages.3
The above derivation ignores certain effects from base currents which arise from
production flaws which, in turn, cause variations in the gain, βF, and produce output drift.
These effects can be extreme when the current in Q2 is much too small to produce the
required deference in current density.4 Also, the derivation ignored two terms involving
the collector current because these terms are of the same magnitude as errors from non-
theoretical behavior and can be disregarded. 5
The resistors used in the process for the above reference also deserves some
scrutiny since diffused resistors exhibit non-linearities as the temperature changes.6
Since an accurate reference depends heavily on the ratio of resistors R2 and R3, it is
imperative these issues become resolved. Layout techniques exist that counteract some
of the effects of temperature gradients, such as cross-quadding, but unfortunately, no
circuit design can eliminate these temperature effects completely. 7
Using the bandgap circuit as a method of temperature stabilization is possible
because the emitter-base voltage is the most predictable parameter over a temperature
range and the differential voltage depends almost completely on the matching of the
transistors.8 The amplifier used in the reference circuits also use the same components,
namely resistors and transistors, such that the reference does not become a source of
noise, as does the zener reference.
2
“New Developments in IC Voltage Regulators,” p. 4.
3
IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, “A Simple Three-Terminal IC Bandgap Reference,” A. Brokaw, Vol
SC-9, No. 6, p 388, December 1974.
4
Ibid., p 388.
5
“New Developments in IC Voltage Regulators,” p. 3.
6
“A Simple Three-Terminal IC Bandgap Reference,” p. 388.
7
Ibid., p. 388.
8
“New Developments in IC Voltage Regulators,” p. 4.
14
Brokaw improved on the basic bandgap reference by solving many of the
aforementioned problems. His design, shown below, has two transistors and collector
current sensing to establish the voltage reference. 9
This circuit eliminates gain variations, reduces difficulties involved with boosting
the output above 1.205V, and is able to use thin-film resistor technology. Through circuit
analysis, it is seen that the differential pair produces the same ∆VBE as in the basic
bandgap circuit and is directly proportional to the current density ratio and the absolute
temperature.
Also, the voltage across R1 is
R1 kT J1
V1 = 2 ln (2.2.2.1)
R2 q J2
since the currents through Q1 and Q2 are equal. 10 This voltage has a negative temperature
coefficient assuming that the resistors and current ratios are uniform. Thus, the voltage
at the base of Q1 is the sum of VBE (of Q1) and V1 creating a temperature invariant circuit
as before.
9
“A Simple Three-Terminal IC Bandgap Reference,” p. 389.
10
Ibid., p. 389.
15
2.2.2.1 Resistor Adjustments to the Brokaw Reference
11
Ibid., p. 393.
12
Ibid., p. 393.
13
Ibid., p. 389.
16
2.2.3 Curvature Correction
Usually the impedance ratios of the bandgap circuit can be manipulate to keep the
Vref
1.235
1.225
1.215
T °C
125
-55 25
Vref curve within a desired range. Figure 2.2.3.1 shows how the parabolic shape of the
reference voltage can be shifted to stay inside the voltage range over a temperature drift.
However, sometimes curvature correction is necessary if the slope of the Vref curve
is too great. This section investigates the implementation of a precision CMOS bandgap
reference. This process embodies curvature compensation and differential offset
cancellation to achieve typical temperature drifts of 13.1 and 25.6 PPM/°C. In this
reference, a temperature-stable voltage is developed by adding linear and quadratic
temperature correction voltages to a forward-biased diode voltage, which is obtained
from the substrate p-n-p transistor available in CMOS processes. The linear temperature
correction voltage is proportional-to-the-absolute-temperature (PTAT) while the
quadratic temperature correction voltage is PTAT2. They are adjustable to set the
reference output voltage for a minimum temperature drift.
The overall concept of bandgap reference temperature compensation can be seen in
Figure 2.4. The first step is to add a PTAT correction voltage (KVT) to VBE to cancel out
the linear temperature variation of VBE. After the correction is added, the reference output
(VREF) will exhibit mostly the quadratic temperature variation as shown in the figure
below. A PTAT2 correction voltage (FVT2) can also be added to cancel out the quadratic
temperature variation of VBE. The final reference output should drift only due to higher
17
order temperature variations, and a zero tempco is achieved at TO, the temperature at
which the reference output temperature coefficient is zero. TO is also known as the
ambient temperature and is normally chosen to be near room temperature (25°C).
KVT FVT2
PTAT PTAT2
T T
TO TO
TO T TO T TO T
18
Up-trimming is a means of increasing a resistor’s value by cutting into the resistor
and ultimately, reaching a selected value. Whereas, down-trimming through a method
called wire bonding, can jumper a section of the resistor. Of the two methods, up-
trimming is most commonly used. However, in all types of trimming, the resistor value
is constantly monitored as the material is being removed, ensuring that the required value
is reached at the right time and not over trimmed. There are also two basic ways of
trimming. The first, called static trimming, is a means of adjusting the resistor value
without power being applied. The second, dynamic or functional trimming consists of
adjusting a resistor to a specified value while the circuit is under power. Dynamic
trimming will be of importance to this study because the circuit will be powered while it
is being trimmed.
Depending on the methods used to trim, thin-film resistors can be trimmed to ±0.1
percent of value and thick-film resistors to ±1.0 percent. Also, when trimming thin-film
resistors, special care and controls are necessary to avoid too much penetration into the
dielectric area of the resistive material. However, the application of thick-film resistors is
suitable only for printed circuit board environments due to the process of applying the
resistive material and the size of the resistor. Also, the use of thin-film resistors proves to
be more beneficial because higher accuracy can be obtained when up-trimming.
19
far greater than that of a laser beam. And even though abrasive trimming has cost
benefits in terms of setup and capital costs, the process is dirty and even dangerous.
Particles being shot out of an air-abrasive nozzle at high speed bounce off the resistor
being trimmed and often end up acting as destructive projectiles.
20
direction by manipulating the mirrors to produce a desired cut. Thus, the ease of
movement of the beam is a certain advantage over conventional methods and allows for
several different resistors to be trimmed in one setup. A list of laser trimming terms, in
Appendix A, is provided in order to assist those unfamiliar with the terms used in this
section.
Laser cuts are created by a series of short physically overlapping pulses, typically
100 µsec and 0.001 inches in diameter. Laser parameters are usually set to be short
pulses and at a high peak power, in order to eliminate problems such as thermal shock
and microcracking in the resistor’s material. Thereby, the amount of heat flow into the
bordering regions is also reduced.
The laser trim process is completely automated. And despite its stop-and-go style,
can trim at a rate of several inches per second. The laser beam and the X-Y table is
controlled by a computer, and laser stations are typically setup with a TV camera to
monitor the trim process. A laser trim station, basically, operates as follows:
1) The resistor is examined.
2) A digital voltmeter (DVM) measures the resistor value.
3) The laser is positioned at the start of the trim. This point is programmed into the
computer.
4) The laser pulses and cuts away at the resistor’s material
5) The DVM takes another reading.
6) The computer compares the reading with the required reading and either shuts off the
pulsing, if the value is within tolerance, or it pulses the laser again.
7) This process continues until the resistor value is within the specified tolerance.
Figure 2.3.2.1, on the next page, shows the difference between a laser pulse with a
small bite size verses one with a large bite size. The time it takes to complete a trim
varies based on the number of pulses and the size of the bite. However, Figure 2.3.2.1
illustrates that in order to produce a clean laser cut without a ragged kerf, the bite size
must be small and therefore will take more time to trim.
21
Figure 2.3.2.1: Top View of Laser Trim Cut
If the tolerance is wide, or large, the trim time can be as short as 0.002 seconds, but if
the tolerance is close, or small, it can take as long as 2 seconds. There are many methods
to shorten the trim time, one is described below and shown in the flow chart, Figure 2.9.
1) The resistor is examined.
2) A DVM reads the resistor value.
3) The computer compares the required value with the measured value.
4) Information previously stored in the computer relates the length of the trim with the
percentage increase.
5) Based on the information from step 4, the computer calculates the length of the trim
to bring the resistor within a few percent of the desired value.
6) The computer positions and directs the laser to trim for the length calculated in step 5.
7) Another measurement is taken and steps 3-7 are repeated, until the resistor value is
within the desired tolerance.
22
This technique requires fewer measurement and laser stops, which results in a faster
trim time. It should be noted that typically, increasing the complexity of the process
involves more complex software and thereby making the process more expensive. But if
a large quantity of resistors is to be produced, software complexity and cost becomes
small compared to the savings brought about by a faster throughput. The following
figures are flow charts of the basic laser trim system and the faster method described
above.
READ VALUE
HIGH
GO TO NEXT WITHIN COMPARE WITH
SCRAP
RESISTOR REQUIRED
TOLERANCE VALUE
LOW
PULSE THE
LASER
READ
VALUE
CALCULATE
LENGTH OF
TRIM NEEDED
TRIM TO
CALCULATED
LENGTH
23
Laser trimming, as previously discussed, has clear advantages over abrasive trimming,
but is by no means a panacea. A list of advantages and limitations of laser trimming
follows in Table 2.3.2.1.
Table 2.3.2.1: Advantages and Limitations of Laser Trimming
Pro’s Con’s
High speed Intense heat at trim area – causes microcracks
Permits data logging Cracks cause noise in high value resistors (over 5 MΩ)
Automated Large capital investment
Highly accurate Requires software development
Clean
To conclude this section, a list and definition of different types of resistor trims as
well as physical drawings are provided for each method. Shown in Figure 2.10, are
various types of trims but the most popular are the plunge cut, L-cut, scan cut, and
serpentine cut.
Plunge Cut: A fast cut that is usually used on resistors of one square or less.
Disadvantages include the most disturbance of current through the resistor and the cause
of a hot spot to form at the top of the trim.
Double Plunge Cut: Allows a coarse trim followed by a fine trim. Laser damage is less
then the L-cut, but this cut can cause an even bigger hot spot than the single plunge cut.
L-Cut: Provides more accuracy than the plunge cut. The perpendicular leg provides a
coarse trim, while the parallel leg provides a fine adjust. The angular and J-Cut are more
stable and provide fewer hot spots then the L-Cut. This is due to the removal of any
sharp turns in the trim.
Scan Cut: The slowest but the most stable and accurate. It does not disturb the current
flow as much as the other trims. Best for high frequency applications. They result in low
thermal noise because no hot spots are formed in the resistor.
Serpentine Cut: Usually used when a large resistance change is needed when increasing
the current path length. Must be used on large area resistor designs.
24
Figure 2.3.2.4: Types of cuts for resistor trimming
25
programmed easily and the process is fast compared to the other methods of trimming
previously discussed.
There are two types of resistors that are used when link trimming. Metal resistors
typically have a sheet resistance of 0.07 Ω/
(ohms per square) while typical polysilicon
resistors have a sheet resistance of 23.1 Ω/
. Because metal resistors have such a low
sheet resistance, the designer could use the resistor as the fuse, whereupon blowing the
fuse would result in an open circuit. Another advantage of metal resistors is that really
low values can be obtained because of their sheet resistance of 0.07Ω/
. However,
using metal resistors requires an extra step to added to the fabrication process and is not
worth using, especially since high currents are not needed to blow the links in the
intended design. This is why polysilicon resistors should be used when link fuse
trimming. Figure 2.11 below shows a graphical representation of a typical link fuse trim
system.
26
2.3.4 Circuit Adjusting with Potentiometers
In the past, the multi-turn trimming potentiometer has been the traditional tool used
for adjusting a resistance within a circuit. A multi-turn potentiometer, or trimpot, is an
electromechanical device that usually has a shaft that is turned to set its resistance or
voltage division ratio. The shaft is usually adjusted with a screwdriver and the output of
the circuit is viewed on an instrument. When the output is at its desired level, the
operator applies a drop of paint or glue to fix the shaft’s position. This concept is a
simple one and also inexpensive. Prices for trimpots range from $0.25 to as high as
$1.00 for one trimpot. However, price does decrease as the volume bought increases.
Nevertheless, automating the process is costly and difficult, and in order to trim precise
values skilled workers must be used.
27
barrier into the oxide and onto the floating gate. This floating gate is made up of a layer
of polysilicon embedded in the layers of oxide bridging the control gate and the channel
of the transistor. Once in the floating gate, the electrons are trapped and indefinitely
retained. Even when power is removed, the charge remains, this is called nonvolatile
electron charge storage.
Epads come on a single silicon chip that contain two or four devices. Each device
is a trimmer whose threshold voltage can be programmed by a series of voltage pulses.
These pulses are rapidly delivered until the required threshold voltage is obtained. These
devices can be programmed and configured in many different ways depending on the
application needed.
To use Epads, one must load a specific software product that ALD offers, onto a
PC that will be used as an interface between the user and the programmer. The
programmer, which is a customized device sold by ALD, is setup to an adapter, which is
also an ALD product. The adapter is then connected to the Epad that can be used in a
variety of applications. If necessary or desired, the user can create a program that will
interact with the customized ALD software and the PC. Once software is loaded and the
system set up, adjusting a circuit is just a matter of inputting a variety of values into the
PC based program. These values include, the threshold voltage, a baseline voltage
threshold, and resolution parameters and each of these values are entered into one of two
windows that appear on the PC screen. Programming is then activated with a push of a
button, whereupon, a series of pulses begin, and continue until the required threshold
voltage is reached. The process is completed within seconds, the actual time depending
CUSTOMIZED
USER
CONTROL PC
PROGRAM
SOFTWARE
28
on the application. Figure 2.12 shows this flow of processes for a basic model.
Disadvantages of Epad trimming is as follows:
• The threshold voltage will vary slightly with temperature.
− A crossover point, a point where the threshold voltage is very stable, is
68µA
• Epads are subject to voltage relaxation, where stored electrons, particularly the ones
located near the oxide-silicon interface, gain enough energy to escape the barrier
holding them in.
− Typically the threshold voltage drops about 0.3 percent and stabilizes 6
hours after programming. However, this can be compensated for, by
programming a higher initial threshold voltage.
• Epads are sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD) and proper precautions need to be
taken.
29
When ranking each method a number from 1 to 4 will be assigned, where the number 1
will represent the best method and the number 4 will represent the worst method.
A ranking metric, in general, can often be confusing and misleading because the
difference between one comparison and another can be much larger than the given rank
shows. This comparison metric will show two different methods to have the same rank
when the comparison between the two is different but still close enough to negate any
major advantage. The number is placed in bold font if this factor proves to be a major
disadvantage or advantage for the method being examined.
Categories covered in this metric will be cost vs. time to trim, cost vs. area used in the
IC, and cost vs. total investments to be made. Other areas to be examined include
accuracy and simplicity and therefore will also be entered into the metric. These
different factors will also be ranked in order of importance so some categories will
outweigh others. In Table 2.3.7.2, the time column represents the time it takes to trim
one component. The column labeled area consumed refers to how much chip area this
trimming technique will take up on the actual IC. Finally, the column labeled total cost
refers to the combination of an initial cost and a price per unit trimmed. Initial costs refer
to all costs that are spent before any trimming actually takes place, and can also be
considered non-recoverable engineering costs. Whereas, price per unit trimmed shows
how much money will be needed to trim one unit, based on a certain volume of
components being trimmed.
Based on these guidelines, the following metric was formed, which shows major
advantages in choosing laser trimming and link fuse trimming when compared to the
other methods of trimming. A note to be made regarding laser trimming is that total cost
30
decreases as the volume produced becomes larger. Therefore, if the anticipated volume
were extremely large compared to the initial price, then laser trimming would be the
method of choice for this project.
In this metric, it is shown that Epads and zener diode sets can be useful methods of
trimming, but for this process they should be considered of lower rank to laser and link
fuse trimming. For zener diode sets, the combination of area used on the chip and poorer
initial accuracy eliminates this method from a high recommendation. As for Epad
technology, the idea and concept seems to be easily incorporated, but the fact that an
extra IC eliminates the option of buying and utilizing this product. However, there is one
option that can be suggested if this technology is requested. ALD, the creator of Epad
technology, could be contacted with an offer to purchase the rights to the patented design
and combine their design within the new bandgap reference design. In doing this, a
certain amount of money would have to be paid to ALD whenever their design is used.
This can be costly if plans are made to mass-produce the bandgap reference. It would
also require a more complex design than is necessary to complete this task, but still
remains an option to be considered.
From this comparison, laser trimming appears to be too expensive a process to
recommend at this time. Link fuse trimming on the other hand, provides benefits due to
the fact that this process is currently being implemented at Allegro, rendering the initial
and total prices to be low. But laser trimming provides many more advantages, such as
less area consumed on the IC, high accuracy, as well as a simpler process. Whereas, link
fuse trimming requires the use of large probe pads that take up much space on the IC,
31
making this process unattractive to IC design. For these reasons, it was decided to use
another option, to combine both laser trimming and link fuse trimming, therefore
achieving the benefits of both methods and eliminating some of the disadvantages. This
process would use link fuse trimming but with a laser in place of two probe pads breaking
the fuse between the resistor pairs with current. This would also speed up the trimming
process considerably, making this method appealing.
To conclude this analysis, the techniques shown below, in order of preference, are
the methods of recommended trimming:
1. Combining link fuse and laser trimming techniques in one technique
2. Applying a full laser system for circuit trimming to the design process
3. Utilize the current process of link fuse trimming
4. Obtain the rights to ALD’s Epad technology and implement it in the new deisngn
5. Using zener diode sets as a method of trimming resistor values
32
3 Methodology
Being able to design an accurate voltage reference and ensuring the output
remains constant over temperature is the fundamental problem of this project. A project
of this magnitude requires a carefully planned approach in order to accomplish all the
required objectives. This chapter serves as a procedural guide as to how this project will
be completed in the terms to come. Developing an accurate voltage reference relies on
many factors that involve the development of an accurate specification sheet, the design
of our own integrated circuit, and testing that procures favorable results. The goals of
this project include determining the best type of voltage reference for this project,
utilization of trimming to obtain accuracy over temperature, and, ultimately, designing an
IC that will be used by Allegro Microsystems. Specifically, it is suggested to involve the
bandgap voltage reference for our design and link fuse trimming as our form of adjusting
the IC’s components.
33
made recommendations to incorporate this process. Next, after our background research
is completed we will be able to put together a specification sheet that will be used as a
reference when designing our circuit.
Once the decision was made to use a bandgap reference, there became another
choice of which model to follow Brokaw or Widlar. As stated in Chapter 2, the Widlar
bandgap reference is a basic reference circuit with many flaws that will probably be
encountered throughout the design phase. Such flaws are:
34
• Current is derived from the power supply and may vary with power supply
variations
• Variations in the gain
• Output drift
The Brokaw model was chosen because it eliminates these problems and can be used
with trimmable thin film resistors so that a higher grade of accuracy could be obtained.
35
smaller area. The ability to manufacture true NPN bipolar transistors was also a
necessity since correct operation of our circuit depended on a base-emitter voltage of a
bipolar transistor. However, the availability of a NPN option was not critical in the
decision to choose a process because PNP transistors could still be made in either process
using the p-type bulk.
The foundry of choice, the MOS Implementation Service (MOSIS) from
California, provided two processes that would be suitable for the fabrication of our
circuit: a 2.0µ 2-metal, 2-poly, NPN, 5V supply process from Supertex, Inc and a 1.2µ 2-
metal, 2-poly, NPN, 5V supply process from AMI. Since both processes had many of the
same features, either process could have been used. However, when examining the
fabrication schedule, it was noticed that the AMI process runs correlated with the WPI
academic schedule and that a run would be done at the end of the fall semester. This
scheduling of the process runs, along with a smaller feature size, prompted us to use the
AMI 1.2µ process.
As stated earlier in the second chapter, the process of link fuse trimming will be used
in order to achieve our goal for initial accuracy. To recap, the reason link fuse trimming
will be used is mainly due to laboratory equipment restraints, the only means of trimming
an IC we have access to is a probe station, which can be used to cut links. Other reasons
include insufficient funding for laser trimming equipment, research purposes, and
Allegro, our sponsors, currently use link fuse trimming. For all these reasons, we chose
the process of link fuse trimming.
In order to prepare for designing a link fused-trimmable resistor, other restraints
had to be considered. We had to make sure our fabrication process would provide the
necessary tools to layout all the components of this trimmable resistor. One example is a
probe pad that is typically a square of metal, which can be accessed by placing a glass
opening over the metal square. This probe pad is one component in the link fuse process
that we need to be able to layout and have our fabrication process be able to handle.
After evaluating the AMI process, we concluded our trim resistor would consist of
metal2-probe pads with a glass opening, metal2 fuses, and poly resistors. This process
36
provides us with all the necessary criteria to stay within our limits of a two-metal, two-
poly process.
37
include recommendations regarding any future studies that can be looked into as a result
of our project.
38
4 Design
The circuit is modeled after the Brokaw's Cell and is shown in Figure 4.1
39
design of a 1.25 volt reference that is amplified to 2.50 volts, where both references are
considered outputs and can be used together or individually.
Also, by substituting this expression into the equation for ∆VBE, it is seen that
I I
∆VBE = nVt ln C 1 − nVt ln C 2 (4.1.4)
I S1 I S2
40
The term nVt is common to each expression and due to matching, should not vary
from one transistor to another. Factoring out nVt then leaves the difference of two natural
logarithm functions. By simplifying the natural log expressions, it is then seen that
I I
∆VBE = nVt ln C1 S 2 (4.1.5)
I C 2 I S1
It is seen now that ∆VBE is directly proportional to the thermal voltage that is
directly proportional to temperature itself and that the output is a direct function of two
voltages, one CTAT and one PTAT.
Now that the equation for the bandgap output voltage has been derived, further
simplifications can be made. It has been previously established that the voltages at each
terminal of the amplifier are equal. Thus, it is indisputable that the voltage across the
resistor R1 is equal to the voltage across Rt. So if,
VR1 = VRt (4.1.6)
then it is permissible to say that
I C1 R1 = I C 2 Rt (4.1.7)
Then the ratio of IC1 to IC2 is equal to the ratio of Rt to R1. Substituting the resistor ratio
Rt/R1 into the expression for ∆VBE results in
R I
∆VBE = nVt ln t S 2 (4.1.8)
R1 I S 1
Then the new equation for the bandgap output voltage is given as
R I Rt
VBANDGAP = VBE1 + nVt ln t S 2 (4.1.9)
R1 I S1 R2
This new equation expresses the output voltage not only as a function of CTAT and
PTAT voltages, but also as a ratio of the resistances Rt, R1, and, R2.
41
The smallest available die size was a 2.20mm by 2.20mme "TinyChip" that was
packaged in a standard ceramic 40-pin DIP package with a lid taped on that was easily
removed.
While the minimum feature size of this process was 1.2 microns, MOSIS made
the suggestion that if the design included analog signals, the minimum gate length for a
MOSFET should be at least 1.8µ because the ABN process was a scaled version of
another AMI process. From previous runs, it was learned that a 1.8µ gate length better
preserved the intended analog signal transmission. For digital signals, however, a 1.2µ
gate size was acceptable.
IC = I S e nVt (4.3.1.1)
For diodes, the constant n is can vary between 1 and 2 (depending on the physical
structure and material used) whereas for transistors, n is usually 1. For transistors
operated at relatively high or low currents, n approaches 2. The transistors in this circuit
will only see approximately 100µA of current and, therefore, n should stay around 1.
Also, the I-V characteristic of a diode-connected transistor remains the same as the IC-
VBE characteristic since the transistor is still being operated in the active region (VCB=0V,
VBE>0.7V).
42
4.3.2 NPN Transistors in a CMOS Process
A NPN transistor consists of two pn junctions that are connected back to back.
Usually, it is not possible to fabricate a bipolar transistor in a CMOS process, but the
AMI ABN process provided a special p-type base layer that would serve as the base of
the transistor. The NPN transistor was designed according to recommended
specifications from the MOSIS home page.
Figure 4.3.2.1 shows how impurities will be diffused into the silicon to create a
NPN transistor.
43
Figure 4.3.2.2: Layout of NPN Transistor
The dark green, orange, and lime green areas represent the n-well collector, p-type base
layer and the n-active emitter respectively. The blue is Metal-1 and can be seen
connecting the collector to the base. To reduce contact resistance and distribute signals
evenly, multiple contacts in the form of a ring were used to connect layers. A single
diode-connected NPN transistor measured 57.60µ by 52.50µ with an emitter area of
83.25µ2.
44
ground, the collector is also automatically tied to ground. The current flow in this device
is both vertical and lateral depending on sizing considerations of the base and emitter
areas. There were no recommendations from MOSIS or AMI on how to size this device
since it is not a supported or suggested option in this CMOS process.
45
The dark green and orange areas represent the n-well base and p-active emitter
respectively. The blue is Metal-1 and can be seen connecting the base to the ring of
collector (substrate) contacts. There is a ring of collector/substrate contacts so that the
substrate around the device can be grounded directly. A single diode-connected PNP
transistor measured 31.20µ by 28.80µ with an emitter area of 12.96µ2.
The PNP device was much smaller than the NPN transistor and should not be
considered a device of equal performance when compared to the NPN transistor. It
should however provide an accurate base-emitter voltage drop.
The output voltage of the Brokaw cell includes a term that is directly proportional
to the ratio of saturation currents between the two bipolar transistors used. It is possible
to set this ratio to a factor other than one by increasing or decreasing the emitter area of
one of the transistors in the pair. Because the emitter areas were already made to
minimum size, the only option would be to increase the emitter area of one of the
transistors in the pair. Instead of simply scaling one of the transistors to make it larger, a
ring of eight parallel transistors was made around a single transistor which can be seen in
Figure 4.3.4.1. This decreases the susceptibility of the circuit to process parameters and
other gradients (such as temperature) between the two transistors, but preserves the
saturation current density ratio of 1:8.
46
Figure 4.3.4.1: NPN 1:8 Transistor Array
47
voltage difference to amplify. However, this is generally not the case due to offset
voltages and currents.
Upon startup, or initial powering of the Brokaw Cell, there are two possible states.
There will inherently be a difference at the terminals and this difference will be amplified
and feedback to the gate of the NMOS transistor, M1, which is being operated in the
saturation region as a current source. If the output of the amplifier is not higher than the
threshold voltage of an NMOS transistor, 0.72V, then the transistor will not fully turn on,
that is, it will stay in the triode, or linear, region. If this is the case, then there may not be
enough current supplied to create a large enough differential at the amplifier inputs. If
so, then the circuit is held in this state and a 1.25V output will never be achieved.
It is unlikely that the circuit will start in the other state with an initial voltage
difference at the amplifier terminals. To prevent that from happening, a startup circuit
was needed. In order to create a differential at the inputs large enough to drive an NMOS
transistor, a current source was needed that was also turned on as soon as the circuit was
powered. To accomplish this, a PMOS transistor, M2, with dimensions 32.4µ/3µ was
designed to supply 50µA of current when in saturation. To bias this PMOS current
source, an internal 3.5V bias was drawn from the op-amp.
Thus, when the amplifier is powered, so is the PMOS current source. The current
source will provide enough of a differential at the input terminals of the amplifier so as to
drive the NMOS transistor. Once the NMOS current source is powered, the PMOS will
continue to supply 50µA of current and will work in tandem with the NMOS transistor to
supply approximately 200µA of total current to the bipolar transistors.
48
Figure 4.5.1: Amplifier Schematic
49
4.5.2 PMOS Current Source
To provide a bias current to the differential pair, transistors M4 and M15 were
used as a current source to provide 10.67µA of current. They were each sized with a
W/L ratio of 9/3. It is known that each device will provide equal currents because their
gate-source voltages and dimensions are equal. Also, the gate voltage of these amplifiers
was used as the 3.5V bias for the startup circuit.
The PMOS input differential stage of the amplifier (M1, M2) was designed to draw
10.67µA from the PMOS current source when in equilibrium. The transistors were
equally sized with a W/L ratio of 36/3.
Because the bias current from the current source mentioned above cannot change,
there will always be a total of 10.67µA flowing through the two transistors. Thus, if one
transistor is fully on, then it will draw all the current from the source. If there is no
differential, then the transistors will each draw a current equal to half of the bias current,
or 5.3µA.
The outputs of the differential pair were kept separate and not converted to a single
ended output. This conversion would be done later at the output of the amplifier.
A current mirror has a finite output resistance that is inversely proportional to the
current flowing through it. Also, the current source will act as a gain stage. Thus, they
are called active loads. The NMOS transistor pairs M8, M6 and M10, M19 worked as
active loads for the differential pair. All four devices were equally sized as 18/6 and
mirrored the current flowing through them.
For example, the current from M1 would be forced through M6. This current
would mirrored and also flow through M8. In equilibrium, 5,3µA would flow through
M1 and be mirrored through M8.
The purpose of M9 is to ensure that M7 operates under the same conditions as M0.
That is, its sole purpose is to provide a voltage drop for M7 and match the conditions
seen be M0. Since M7 already has its gate and drain tied together, it does need to be
50
cascoded, but still needs to be at an appropriate voltage under the same conditions as the
output stage. M9 was sized as 18/6 and biased with 2.1V from a FET ladder.
4.5.5 Biasing
To bias several of the transistors in out circuit, bias voltages needed to be set up.
This was accomplished through the use of a ladder of PMOS transistors operating in the
linear region. By providing a voltage drop of 2.1V, transistor M17 set a 2.1V bias for
both M9 and M18. Transistor M11 was also used in the ladder to ensure the correct
region of operation. Transistor M11 and M17 were sized with ratios of 9/3 and 3/3
respectively.
Likewise, another ladder was created with PMOS transistors M12, M13, and M14
to establish a 2.7V bias for transistor M5. It was designed in a similar manner, each
transistor operating in the linear region acting as resistors and providing voltage drops.
M12, M13, and M14 were sized as 3/3, 15/3, and 15/3 respectively.
To set the dominant pole in the amplifier, a capacitor was added to the output and
included in the internal design of the amplifier. Capacitors in an integrated circuit are
usually quite large, relatively speaking, and, therefore, costly since die area is expensive.
51
Because this process had 2 poly and 2 metal layers, it was possible to sandwich these
layers together and create a small capacitance which would be suitable to the task.
The goal was then to create a 3pF capacitor that would contribute a pole to the
system at approximately 100Hz. The capacitor was constructed using 4 overlapping
capacitive layers, each of the same size, which, when connected in parallel, would create
a 3pF capacitor.
Table 4.5.7.1 summarizes the different capacitances between layers available to the
designer. These were capacitances were from the N88Z run of the AMI process at
MOSIS.
To create the 4-layer device, it was decided that both poly and both metal layers
would be used. First, a poly layer would be put down and on top of the poly layer, a
layer of poly2 would be placed. This would act as one capacitor with a capacitance of
596 aF/µ2. Thirdly, a layer of metal-1 would be placed on top of the two poly layers
creating a second capacitance whose layers were poly2 and metal-1. This second
capacitor had the value of 45 aF/µ2. Lastly, a layer of metal-2 was added on top of the
growing stack and created a third capacitor with a value of 38 aF/µ2. Each capacitor was
connected in parallel as seen in Figure 4.5.7.1 below.
52
Therefore, to create a 3pF capacitor, the equation
C = AP1P 2 (596 aF
µ2
) + AP 2 M 1 (45 aF
µ2
) + AM 1M 2 (38 aF
µ2
) (4.5.7.1)
needed to be solved. Each area between layers was equal to create a uniformly shaped
device. The area of the capacitor calculated to be approximately 4400 µ2. To fit the
layout of the capacitor into the design easier, the capacitor was made with dimensions
126.9µ by 34.8µ.
While a poly layer over a p-active or n-active area would create a larger
capacitance in a smaller area, a device created in this fashion would not have linear
characteristics and was avoided.
Had the output stage not been matched appropriately, the capacitor would cause
problems. If, perhaps, the output PMOS mirror were to source more than 5.3µA of
current and the NMOS could, at maximum, sink only 5.3µA, then, by principle of KCL,
the remaining current must go into the output node and through the capacitor. Because
the current equation for a capacitor is equal to the capacitance times the change in
voltage, the capacitor would continuously charge while there was a current, eventually,
rupturing.
The output stage was also cascoded to increase the output resistance and therefore, the
open-loop gain of the amplifier. The principle behind a cascoding the output is to
increase the voltage swing available to keep the transistors in saturation.
The gate of PMOS transistor M5 was biased at 2.7V so that its gate-source and
drain-source voltage were at -.83V (VTHRESHOLD) and –1.03 respectively. This ensured
that the drain of transistor M0 did not vary and kept it in saturation. Otherwise, the
output could swing high enough to set M0 into the triode region.
NMOS transistor M18 was designed in the same manner except its gate was
biased at 2.1V. Transistor M18 had a gate-source voltage of 0.71V, which allowed
operation in the saturation region and also shielded the source of M19 from any voltage
swing.
Cascode transistors M5 and M18 had W/L ratios of 30/3 and 18/3 respectively.
53
4.5.9 Inverting and Non-Inverting Terminals
The inverting and non-inverting terminals of the amplifier are determined by
tracing a signal path to the output through the circuit. In every instance where the signal
must traverse through the gate to the drain (or vice versa), the signal becomes inverted, as
is the case with any common-source amplifier.
Using this convention, M1 is the inverting terminal since a signal from M1 to the
output undergoes three inversions. Likewise, M2 is the non-inverting terminal since a
signal would undergo two inversions thereby making it non-inverted.
54
4.5.10 Specifications of the Amplifier
The amplifier was simulated in Cadence using Analog Artist to verify its
operability. First, a DC sweep was performed across the inputs to verify that the high
gain region of the amplifier was centered as close to around zero as possible. The results
from the sweep are shown in Figure 4.5.10.1
The high gain region is easily seen centered on 0V input, which means that there
is virtually zero offset voltage. Also, at 0V input, the output of the amplifier is
approximately 2.5V. The sloped regions extending from the high gain region occur
because of transistors M0 and M19 going into the linear operating region and drifting out
of the saturation region because they are no longer biased properly.
More information can be gathered if the high gain region is looked at more
closely. Figure 4.5.10.2 shows a zoomed view of the high gain region.
55
Figure 4.5.10.2: Zoomed View of High Gain Region
The markers A and B indicate where the amplifier left its high gain region. Also,
the slope between markers A and B indicate the open-loop gain of the amplifier is
approximately 20,000. Furthermore, it is seen that the offset voltage is actually on the
order of 174µV and not zero as assumed before.
To further characterize the amplifier, Bode plots were done to verify its open-loop
gain and phase.
56
Figure 4.5.10.3: Magnitude Bode Plot
Figure 4.5.10.3 shows the magnitude of the gain of the amplifier as it varies over
frequency. The –3dB frequency, or break frequency, of the amplifier where the gain is
70% of its maximum value occurs at a corner frequency of approximately 110Hz. In
addition, the unity gain bandwidth is approximately 2.3MHz.
57
Figure 4.5.10.4: Bode Plot of Phase Response
Figure 4.5.10.4 shows the phase response of the amplifier over frequency. The
pole at 110Hz drops the phase to 90º from 180º. There is another pole past 10MHz that
will not affect the system. At the unity-gain frequency of 2.3MHz, there is still well over
75º of phase margin so the amplifier would be stable in an open-loop configuration.
58
The final layout of the design was 164.10µ by 122.70µ (~20,135µ2) is shown
below in Figure 4.4.10.5.
One challenge of this project is to design the values of the resistors that will produce a
1.25-volt output. Another task is to determine which resistors affect the output the most
and, ultimately, must be trimmed to meet specifications. To answer both these questions,
each node in the circuit must be analyzed to see how each resistor affects the output and
to what degree.
59
R I R
VBANDGAP = VBE1 + nVt ln t S 2 t (4.6.1.1)
R1 I S1 R2
It is seen in this equation that VBANDGAP relies on the ratios of the three resistors Rt,
R2, and R3. It is known that the precise values of the resistors cannot be controlled
because of process variations and may vary by as much as 20%. Also, since all three
resistors will be made on the same die at the same time, the percentage of relative error
for each resistor should be equal. Thus, when captured in a ratio, the error term should
cancel out.
For example, in the ratio of resistance Rt to R2, each resistor can be more accurately
represented by the designed resistor value plus some relative error term, which would
then make the ratio.
Rt + ∆Rt
(4.6.1.2)
R2 + ∆R2
The error term for each resistor is an equal to some fraction of the original resistance
desired. This percentage error is the same for each resistor due to the process. Thus, the
error term effectively cancels itself and the desired original resistor ratio remains.
60
The resistance R2 has the voltage of ∆VBE, or,
R I
nVt ln 3 S 2 (4.6.2.1)
R1 I S 1
applied across it.
Because the transistors Q1 and Q2 were designed with an emitter area ratio of 1:8,
then the saturation current density through the emitters is the inverse of that ratio, or 8:1.
It is already known that R1 and R3 should be equal and that the term nVt is equal to 26mV
at room temperature for a silicon transistor. Thus, ∆VBE should be equal to
approximately 55mV-58mV. Using Ohm's law again, with a current of 100µA flowing
through the resistor, R2 should be equal to approximately 580Ω.
The final consideration was to determine which resistor(s) was to be the trimmable
resistor. The best way to determine this was to see what resistor, or resistors, affects the
output the most.
The reason one needs to trim in a bandgap circuit is due to the variation in the
saturation current, IS. As previously stated in Equation 4.6.1.1,
R I R
VBANDGAP = VBE1 + nVt ln 3 S 2 3 (4.6.3.1)
R1 I S1 R2
and
I
VBE1 = nVt ln C1 (4.6.3.2)
I S1
Through this equation it is seen that VBANDGAP will vary as IS1 varies and it is known
that IS can vary up to six times what it is originally designed for in a CMOS process. To
compensate for this variation in IS one, two, or all three of the resistors must be trimmed.
This could also be seen when simulations of the circuit were run in Cadence after
changing the IS parameter six times from 1*10-17 to 6*10-17 and stepping up R3 from
3000Ω according to actual trim resistor values, which are calculated in the next section of
this report. By taking these data points from simulations, at room temperature, a plot of
the output voltage versus the change in R3 was created. These results are shown in
Figure 4.6.3.1.
61
Figure 4.6.3.1: Graph of VBANDGAP versus R3
This graph verifies that R3 or another resistor will have to be trimmed in order to get
VBANDGAP within ±5mV initial accuracy because the operating point changes greatly due
to changes in IS.
Next, it is evaluated as to which resistor should be the trim resistor and why. By
evaluating the output equation, it is seen that R3 is in the numerator of both ratios
whereas R1 and R2 appear in the denominator of one ratio each. The ratio however of
R3/R1 is in a natural logarithm function and, because R1 should equal R3, will result in a
minute contribution to the total bandgap output. However, the ratio of R3/R2 is a direct
proportion of the two resistors. Thus, while R1 affects the output, it can be eliminated as
the trimmable resistor since it is seen that R3 and R2 are more of a factor in determining
the output voltage.
There are two resistors left that could be trimmed, but due to space constraints on
chip only one trimmable resistor will be allowed to save space. Therefore, one of the two
remaining resistors R2 or R3 needs to be eliminated as the trimmable resistor. Taking this
into account, R2 can be eliminated because of its small value of resistance. In order to
trim a resistor using a link fuse technique, many steps of geometrically increasing
resistors are needed to provide maximum resolution and to ensure that the proper output
could be achieved. Thus, resistor R3 was decided to be the trimmable resistor because it
would be on the scale of 3.5kΩ to 5.5kΩ. With a large resistor of this magnitude, it is
62
easier to define geometrically increasing coarse and fine trim steps than with a smaller
resistor. When designing a resistor of smaller magnitude, it would be more difficult to
define a coarse and fine trim. In conclusion, Rt was defined to be equal to R3, and it
should be known that R3=Rt.
This can also be shown in the finalized layout in Figure 4.7.2. In this layout, it is
seen that two probe pads are formed in a square, each side with length equal to 120µ.
These probe pads consist of metal1 and metal2 with metal1 to metal2 contacts covering
the entire square. On top of this square was placed a 99.9µ by 99.9µ square glass
opening to allow the user to probe down on the pads using any type of probing station.
63
Figure 4.7.2: Layout View of One Trim Link
As shown in both figures, there are four resistances to design. The first step is to
look at the sheet resistances of the different materials involved. To begin designing for a
specific resistor value, unwanted resistances, such as contact resistances, must first be
accounted for.
Each contact between layers contributes a resistance and, unless accounted for,
will skew the intended value of the trim resistance. The specific resistances involved are
summarized below in Table 4.7.1 and were originally taken from parameters, found on
the MOSIS website, from the N88Z run of the AMI process.
64
Table 4.7.1: MOSIS Resistance Parameters for the AMI 1.2µ Process
Component Color Material Resistance
( in Figure 4.7.2)
Rtrim Red Poly 29.0 Ω/❒
Rfuse Pink Metal2 0.03 Ω/❒
Rcontact Purple Metal2 to Metal1 0.05 Ω
Rcontact Red/Purple Metal1 to Poly 32.5 Ω
65
to produce poly resistors and contacts with the same step size, the smaller resistors
needed extra contacts to further minimize resistance and therefore, the last three resistors
in the fine trim were scaled differently from the first three resistors. The fine trim thus
consisted of linked resistors ranging in magnitude from 33.6Ω to 1.8Ω. The final layout
of this link-fused resistor along with the base 3.0kΩ resistor is shown in Figure 4.7.3
below. The number "1" is also laid out on chip using metal1 to denote the start of the
fine trim along with the number "14" to indicate the last coarse trim in the trim resistor.
Figure 4.7.3: Layout of complete trim resistor with a base resistor of 3.0KΩ
One final aspect of this resistor is the length of the metal2 fuse that is placed in-
between the probe pads. The length of this fuse was determined based on principles of
maximum current allowed through a metal2 wire. This principle states that a current
equal to or greater than I will break or blow up a wire with diameter d in inches. This
equation, found in many common engineers' handbooks, is:
I = K ⋅ d 3/ 2 (4.7.2)
The fuse was designed out of metal2 and the characteristics in the handbook state
that for metal2 K=7585. This equation is based on a circular wire with a given radius
but, when designing in Cadence, all components are designed based on square values.
First a current was calculated that would blow a minimum sized metal2 wire of length
66
and width 1.8µm. This wire has an area of 3.24µm2 and when converted to inches,
equals 5.022*10-09inches2. This was calculated using the conversion factor:
1in 1cm
1µm ⋅ ⋅ (4.7.3)
2.54cm 1E 4µm
We also know that in a circular solid strand wire, the area is equal to
area = π ⋅ r 2 (4.7.3)
Therefore, substituting in the previously calculated area, r is equal to 3.99*10-05 inches.
If r=3.99*10-05 inches and K=7585, then the current needed to blow that wire I should be
any value greater than or equal to: I ≥ 5.42mA.
67
Figure 4.8.1.1: Schematic of the Non-Inverting Gain Amplifier
68
4.8.2 Gain Setting
To boost the bandgap voltage from 1.25 volts, the modified amplifier was used in
the non-inverting configuration. Because the output current of the amplifier was small,
large resistors would be needed to provide the appropriate feedback to the inverting
terminal. Due to area considerations, large poly resistors were avoided. Instead, two
PMOS transistors were operated in the triode region to provide the appropriate feedback.
The voltage required at the inverting terminal to provide an output of 2.5V was
equal to 1.25, the bandgap voltage for this circuit. Transistors M1 and M2 were designed
W/L ratios of 8.1/3 and 21.4/3 respectively. The reason being is that M1 and M2 must
drive equal currents while providing the necessary drop of 1.35 volts and 1.25 volts each.
With this configuration, the PMOS transistors act as gain setting resistors and the input is
amplified to 2.5 volts.
69
4.9.1 Test Structures
A single NPN transistor and PNP transistor were included on the final layout so
that individual testing of these devices would be able to be done. Each terminal of the
NPN and PNP transistors was bonded to an external pin for easy access to the devices.
The layout of these test structures and external bond pads can be seen in Figure 4.9.1.1.
70
Figure 4.9.1.2: Single Bandgap Circuit #2 with NPNs
71
4.9.3 Pin Assignments
The pin assignments were somewhat arbitrary and pins were conveniently
assigned as necessary from the layout view. It was decided that the first bandgap circuit
on the chip, which was made with PNP transistors, would be the primary circuit and
should include the most test points so that every node in the circuit could be analyzed.
These points included:
• Ground
• The base-emitter voltages of the first transistor, used to calculate the actual difference
in base-emitter voltage
• The base-emitter voltages of the second transistor, used for the same reasons
• The voltage at the negative terminal of the first amplifier, so that the actual offset of
the amplifier could be measured
• The 3.5V bias at the gate of the startup transistor
• The output of the amplifier driving the primary current source
• The 1.25V bandgap output, which feeds into the positive terminal of the second
amplifier
• The voltage at the negative terminal of the second amplifier
• The final 2.5V output voltage.
• Each bandgap circuit was also given their own power connection
These pin assignments for the primary bandgap circuit consumed 10 of the 40 pins
available on the chip.
For the second bandgap circuit, made with NPN transistors, not as many test
points were required because many of the measurements would be the same as the first
circuit. Thus, the pins were assigned as follows:
• Base-emitter voltage of Q1
• Base-emitter voltage of Q2
• The 1.25V output
• The 2.5V output
• The output of the first amplifier
• Power
• Ground
It was determined that the circuit could be evaluated with these test points only and used
7 pins.
The third bandgap circuit also used PNP transistors. Due to a shortage of area on
the chip, the trim resistor structure was altered such that the 100µ square probe pads were
not used and that to blow the links, external pins could be used just as easily. Thus, the
72
links were brought to bond pads on the chip and an approximate 1400µ2 of area was
saved. This space-saving design of the trimmable resistor used 13 pins.
Thus, a total of 35 pins had already been assigned among, the two other bandgap
circuits, test devices, and trim resistor, leaving only 5 pins left for the third bandgap
circuit. The pins brought to bond pads in this final circuit included:
• The base-emitter voltage of Q1
• The base-emitter voltage of Q2
• The 1.25V output voltage
• The 2.5V output voltage
• Power
It was decided that it was necessary for the circuit to be powered separately, but that the
ground connection for the second and third bandgap circuits could be shared.
The final assignment of each pin is summarized in Table 4.9.3.1 and is shown in a
manner which is representative of looking at an actual chip, that is, Pin #1 is in the upper
left corner while Pin #40 is in the upper right corner.
73
Table 4.9.3.1: Pin Assignments
Pin Pin
Description Description
Number Number
1 VDD 40 1.25V Bandgap
Bandgap
BG
#3
2 VBE, 8X Emitter 39 2.5V Output
#3
Bandgap #2
5 1.8, 2.6 36 VDD
6 2.6, 4.5 35 2.5V Output
7 4.5, 8.4 34 VBE, 8X Emitter
Bandgap #3 Trim Resistor
Bandgap #1
14 266, 562 27 3.5V Bias
15 562, 1065 26 VDD
16 End of trim resistor: 1065 25 Ground
17 NPN Collector 24 VBE, 1X Emitter
Test Devices
The final layout of all three bandgap circuits is shown in Figure 4.9.3.1.
74
Figure 4.9.3.1: Layout view of Final Design
This top-level layout is also shown in Figure 4.9.3.2 in schematic form on the following
page.
75
76
5 Trim Scheme Procedure
As previously stated a trimmable resistor was designed with a base 3.0kΩ resistor
and a series of link-fused resistors geometrically increasing from 1.8Ω to 1.065kΩ. In
order to trim this resistor on an untrimmed circuit a procedure has to be perfected in order
to avoid over trimming and ultimately scrapping the circuit. This chapter includes this
procedure along with a derivation of how it was developed and how it works.
I
which is the equation of a line. The VBE1 term, now ln C 1 , can be considered the y-
I S1
intercept constant of the equation. The other term on the right hand side can be
considered the slope m and variable x of the line equation, where Rt is the x value and the
remaining variables make up the slope of the line.
Using this knowledge, a trimming procedure was developed based on the
designed Rt values and the output voltage, which can be directly measured. This general
trim procedure can be shown in the flow chart on the following page.
77
Figure 5.1.1: Flow Chart of Trim Procedure
This procedure requires an initial trim to be made in order to start making any
calculations of slope, y-intercept, or trim resistor values. The flow chart simply states
that the value of VBANDGAP is measured and the circuit is then trimmed according to the
calculations and actual resistor values. Even though the actual resistor values in the
design are process dependent and can vary by up to 20 percent, the actual designed values
can be used in these calculations because the resistor ratios will never change with
respect to any change in sheet resistance.
78
The calculations shown below are the calculations that are needed in order to use the
trim procedure.
• Calculating the slope of the line:
VBANDGAP _ 2 − VBANDGAP _ 1
m =
R t _ new − Rt _ old (5.1.3)
V BANDGAP _ 2
b= (5.1.5)
Rt ⋅ slope
• Using the previously calculated values for slope and y-intercept and letting
VBANDGAP=1.25 (the desired value), x can be calculated and considered the value of Rt
needed to trim to 1.25 volts. This is shown in the following equation:
1.25 − b
x= (5.1.6)
slope
• Next, calculating the amount of resistor needed to complete this trim is performed by
subtracting the new Rt value by the old one, called ∆Rt. The equation for ∆Rt equals:
x − R previous (5.1.7)
where x=Rt_new.
The trim procedure that follows calls for these calculations and the formulas will be
provided in the actual procedure section.
79
trim procedure should only be used when trimming bandgap circuit #2 and should be
used in conjunction with the test procedure in Chapter 6.
80
TRIM PROCEDURE
Objective
Specifications
Materials
• Testing chip
• Variable dc supply
• DVM
• Probe station (or laser station)
Trim Procedure
81
2) Calculations (All equations are given on Measurements and Calculations page)
• Take output reading and record in Table 5.2.1
• Add previous resistor value in Table 5.2.1 to the value of link just cut and record
in next open slot in table
• Determine slope (m value in equation y=mx+b )
• Determine offset of line (b value)
• Solve for Rtrim (value of x) if y=1.25, and using the m and b values solved for in
previous two steps
• Subtract x from Rprevious to get ∆Rtrim
3) Cutting Links
Coarse Trim Begins Here
• Is 532.5 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 2 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 2 and return to step 2) Calculations
• Is 266.25 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 3 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 3 and return to step 2) Calculations
• Is 133.125 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 4 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 4 and return to step 2) Calculations
• Is 66.56 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 5 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 5 and return to step 2) Calculations
• Is 33.6 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 7 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 7 and return to step 2) Calculations
82
• Is 2.6 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 11 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 11 and return to step 2) Calculations
• Is 1.8 greater than ∆Rtrim?
♦ If yes, then do not cut link 12 and move to next step
♦ If no, then cut link 12 and return to step 2) Calculations
• End of Process
83
Measurements and Calculations Page
Calculations:
slope = m =
4065 − 3000
b=
1.25 − b
x= =
m
∆Rt = x − R previous =
*Consult Trim Procedure for instructions on how to use this page and continue until
VBANDGAP = 1.25 volts
84
6 Test Procedure
Testing is a necessity in any design. It is important to test and try to meet
specifications, and if they are not met, corrections are made accordingly. The testing of
the IC was very important in the research and development of the chip. The trimming of
the resistors was based on the values obtained from the testing. The results obtained by
this testing can be used to correct mistakes in the continuation of the bandgap design.
85
Figure 6.1.1: Layout of Test Board
86
TEST PROCEDURE
Objective
The purpose of this procedure is to test the voltage reference chip and compare
the results to specifications that have been previously set. The testing is of great
importance to the trim scheme so that it is known how much to trim. Three bandgap
circuits and two test transistors will be tested in this procedure. As of this writing,
previous data regarding pnp transistors being made using a CMOS process was
unavailable, so it is imperative to test the transistors separately for research purposes.
Specifications
Materials
• Testing chip
• Variable dc supply
• DVM
• Temperature control chamber
• Heat gun
• Female plugs and wires
• Temperature probe
• HP VEE
87
• Record output
• Trim, according to trim procedure, until desired 1.25V output is achieved
88
7 Test Results
After the five chips had been fabricated and returned after eight weeks of fab time,
testing of the design began. Armed with the trim and test procedures, the circuits were
powered up and tested.
A die photo of the entire chip with individual bandgap circuits and test structures
marked is seen in Figure 7.1
89
7.1 Test Preparation
Before testing began, several steps were taken to ensure that tests ran smoothly. First,
a controlled temperature chamber was constructed. A stiff cardboard box was used as this
chamber and access holes were carved in either end. The test board was put in the box
and connections to the circuit were routed through one end of the box. These connections
included power, ground, measurement probes, and a thermocouple. On the other end, a
heat gun was used to bring the box up to the desired temperature.
To power the circuit, a Tektronix PS2521G Programmable Power Supply was set to
5V with a current limit of 1mA. The output voltage was measured using a Hewlett-
Packard 3458A multimeter. The temperature of the chamber was measured using an
Extech Temperature Sensor with a Type K thermocouple. This device was mounted as
close to the die as possible without opening the packaged chip. There was a cause of
error but a better way of measuring and controlling temperature was not devised. The
thermocouple output a voltage that was directly relational to the temperature by 1mV/ºC.
This voltage was measured using a Hewlett-Packard 34401A multimeter.
Both meters were able to be programmed using HP-VEE v4.01. This allowed the
programming of the instruments to take a set number data points from each instrument
over time and plot them. After writing the code using visual objects, a user interface was
created to ease in the testing.
90
7.2 NPN Test
The first test to ensure that the bipolar transistors operated correctly was to use a
Tektronix 571 Curve Tracer to plot IB vs. VCE characteristics. The graphical output of the
curve tracer can be seen below in Figure 7.2.1.
91
Also, a test circuit was used to verify correct DC operation of the device. The
circuit is shown below. Attached to this circuit are two ammeters, labeled "A", and a
digital voltmeter, DVM.
To calculate the actual value of saturation current and the constant n, a plot of the
natural logarithms of IC and IB were plotted against VBE. Each point in the Gummel plot
below, IC, IB, and VBE were measured in the test circuit using the ammeters and the DVM
as the supply voltage VDC was changed from 0 volts to 5 volts. From this Gummel plot,
shown in Figure 7.2.3, the maximum difference between the ln(IC) and ln(IB) curves
represented the maximum β, a current gain factor, of the transistor.
92
Calculation of Is and n
-7.05
0.6326 0.6826 0.7326 0.7826
-8.05
-9.05
-10.05
Ln(I)
-11.05 ln(Ic)
-12.05 ln(Ib)
-13.05
-14.05
-15.05
-16.05
Vbe (V)
The saturation current and factor n were calculated by breaking down the equation
for the collector current of a transistor as follows.
VBE
ln I C = ln( I S ⋅ e n⋅Vt
) (7.2.1)
Using the properties of natural log functions, this equation can be simplified further to fit
the equation a line.
VBE
ln I C = + ln I B (7.2.2)
n ⋅ Vt
1
By setting the slope of ln (IC) vs. VBE equal to , as shown in equation 7.2.3,it
n ⋅ Vt
is possible to solve for n at room temperature, where Vt = 26mV.
1
slope = m = (7.2.3)
n ⋅ Vt
93
For the NPN designed in this project, a slope of 35.461 was measured and a value
of 1.08 was calculated for n, this measurment is shown below in Figure 7.2.4. Once n
was calculated, the y-intercept, ln (IS) could be determined by using any two points on the
ln(IC) vs. VBE curve. In doing so, IS was found to be equal to 1.60*10-15. The saturation
current was expected to be approximately 3*10-15 and n would ideally be 1.00. The
maximum β for this transistor was 167.14 and occurred at an IC of 198.6µA. It was
important to operate the transistors at maximum β because β is a function of a quadratic
equation and, by using the maximum value, the drifting of β was minimized.
Calculating Slope
-8.64
0.6326 0.6526 0.6726 0.6926 0.7126
-9.14
y = 35.461x - 34.021
-9.64
Ln(I)
-10.14
-10.64
-11.14
-11.64
Vbe (V)
94
Figure 7.3.1: IB vs. VCE for PNP transistor
Also, a test circuit was developed to verify correct DC operation of the device. The
circuit is shown below, and like the test circuit for the NPN it utilizes two ammeters and a
DVM to measure the currents IB, IC and the voltage VBE.
95
Figure 7.3.2: PNP Test Circuit
Once again, to calculate the actual values of saturation current and the constant n,
a plot of the natural logarithms of IC and IB were plotted against VBE. From the Gummel
plot in Figure 7.3.3, the maximum difference between the ln(IC) and ln(IB) curves
represented the maximum β, a current gain factor, of the transistor.
Calculation of Is and n
-10.32
-12.32
Ln(Ic)
Ln(I)
-14.32
Ln(Ib)
-16.32
-18.32
-20.32
Vbe (V)
96
The maximum β for the PNP transistor was 31.21 at an IC of 52.75µA. This β
was lower than expected at a collector current different than what was designed but the
transistor should otherwise perform as desired.
The saturation current and factor n were calculated by breaking down the equation
for the collector current of a transistor as shown in the previous section in equations 7.2.1
and 7.2.2. Using a graph, the slope of the line formed by plotting ln(IC) vs. VBE was
calculated and is shown below in Figure 7.2.4.
Calculating Slope
-13.62
-14.62
-15.62
-16.62
Vbe (V)
The slope is equal to 36.586 and by using Equation 7.2.3, n can be extracted.
This value of n was found to be equal to 1.05. IS was also calculated using Equation
7.2.2 by solving for ln(IS) and taking the exponential of both sides. This calculation
results in an IS = 2.42*10-17. The saturation current was expected to be of this magnitude
and, again, the n value should ideally be 1.00.
By evaluating the curve traces, nodal analysis, and Gummel plots, it was
determined that the PNP is operational and a successful design.
97
7.4 Amplifier Test Results
Since there were no separate amplifiers on chip, the only testing that could be done
were with amplifiers that were already included in a bandgap circuit. Had there been
more than 40 pins, a test amplifier could have been made.
A voltage source was injected at the non-inverting terminal of the buffer on the first
circuit. Measurements were made at the inverting terminal and the output to observe the
gain linearity and offset variation due to changes in the input. The gain of the amplifier is
almost linear when operated in a closed loop configuration. Figure 7.4.1 shows the
output of the buffer plotted against the input at the non-inverting terminal. The gain of
the amplifier closely follows an ideal gain of 2.07.
Figure 7.4.2 shows the difference between the ideal gain and the gain of the
amplifier in this closed loop configuration.
98
Figure 7.4.3: Absolute Difference of Gains
It can be seen that the amplifier exhibits nearly linear gain over the input range of
0.7 to 1.3V and the gain drops off when operating past 1.3V.
To further measure the gain of the amplfier, the output was plotted against the
input differential. The slope of the linear region of the plot in Figure 7.4.4 is the gain of
the amplifier in this non-inverting gain configuration.
99
In the linear gain region at 0V differential input, the gain is approximately 25 but at
2.5V (the output of the buffer) the gain is only 4.3. A die photo of the amplifier was
taken and is shown in Figures A3 and A4 of Appendix A.
100
Table 7.6.1: VBANDGAP vs. Rt
Link Resistance
Links Cut (Rt) VBANDGAP
Number Added
Base (3.0k ohm) - - 1.2358
Cut first link (1.065k ohm) 1 1.065K 1.5784
Cut second link 2 533.5 1.730
Coarse
Cut third link 3 266.25 1.780
Trim
Cut fourth link 4 133 1.7997
Cut fifth link 5 66.5 1.8065
Cut sixth link 6 33.2 1.8095
Cut seventh link 7 33.6 1.8117
Fine Cut eighth link 8 16.8 1.8134
Trim Cut ninth link 9 8.4 1.8140
Cut tenth link 10 4.5 1.8142
Once it was verified that circuit #3 was trimmable, an attempt to trim circuit #3 to
1.25, the desired bandgap output, on a different chip was made. However, one problem
did arise. The expected initial output, with no trimming, was designed to be less than 1
volt but in this circuit the initial output with no trimming, was measured at ~1.2 volts.
This caused a problem in the trim procedure because the trim procedure calls for the
largest resistor in the 'coarse trim' to be blown first. This is necessary to determine the
characteristics of the line being produced and perform the necessary calculations. With
an initial output of 1.2 volts, it was clear to see that if this procedure were followed, then
the output would certainly be over trimmed. This was evident because a voltage of
~0.3426 volts could be expected when adding a 1000 ohm resistor to Rt.
In order to trim and still ensure the circuit would not be over trimmed, trimming
was done on the first link, 33.6 ohm, in the 'fine trim' and the trim procedure was
followed from that point to the end. This was a safe operation to execute because when
trimming the sacrificed chip, it was recorded that after the first trim in the 'fine trim' was
cut, a voltage of 0.0022 was added to the bandgap voltage. Therefore, it could be
assumed that the trim in this circuit would yield approximately the same addition of
0.0022 volts added to the output. Hence, over trimming would not be a problem.
Circuit #3 was successful trimmed to 1.253 volts. Once this was accomplished
testing could be continued and the test procedure was used to examine the circuit over
101
high temperatures. Temperature testing was also performed on the circuit that was
previously mentioned and trimmed completely to 1.814 volts, as well as performed on an
untrimmed circuit with an initial output voltage of 1.2 volts. Capturing the data points
with the HP VEE program, graphs were produced to examine temperature coefficient
curves at three of the circuit's states, untrimmed, trimmed to 1.253, and over trimmed.
These graphs are shown below in Figures 7.6.1.1 – 7.6.1.3.
Vuntrimmed
0.9355
0.9335
Vbandgap (V)
0.9315
Vinitial
0.9295
0.9275
0.9255
32 52 72 92 112
Temperature (C)
102
Vaccurate
1.2679
1.2674
Vbandgap (V)
1.2669
Vaccurate
1.2664
1.2659
1.2654
1.2649
32 52 72 92 112
Temperature (C)
Vove r-trimmed
1.805
1.8
Vbandgap (V)
1.795
Vove r
1.79
1.785
1.78
32 52 72 92 112
Temperature (C)
103
These curves show that for different Rt values, there will be a family of curves
that represent different operating points at different temperatures.
1.2000
1.0500
Output Voltage (V)
0.9000
0.7500
0.6000
0.4500
0.3000
0.1500
0.0000
0 1 2 3 4 5
Supply Voltage (V)
From this graph it can be seen that the bandgap voltage drops off rapidly around
3.9 volts. This is important because the voltage reference falls out of specifications,
which is supposed to be 3.0-volt minimum. After analyzing the problem, it was
determined there was a design flaw in the startup circuit. In the startup there is a 3.5-volt
bias being input to the gate of the startup PMOS transistor. It is also know that this
transistor also has a threshold voltage of -1.04 volts. Therefore, the transistor will dip
into the triode region and out of saturation once VDD drops lower than 3.96 volts.
Equations 7.6.2.1 and 7.6.2.2 must be satisfied for a PMOS transistor to be in saturation,
104
and when VDD falls below 3.96 in this circuit the first equation is no longer satisfied and
therefore the transistor is in the active region.
VGS ≤ Vt (7.6.2.1)
A temperature sweep of this trimmed circuit was done using the HP-VEE. Following the
test procedure, the chip was heated to 125 degrees Celsius and left to cool down to room
temperature. The curve produced is shown in Figure 7.7.1.
105
Figure 7.7.1: Measured Temperature Sweep of VBANDGAP vs. Temperature
This curve shows that VBANDGAP has a flat response over temperature and remains
equal to 1.250 with much less than 1-percent variation. This can be seen in above in
Figure 7.7.1, which shows the y axis boundaries to be plus one percent and minus one
percent of 1.250.
Similar results were obtained when trimming another circuit #2 on a different
chip. This circuit was also powered to 4.80V at 25ºC and trimmed using Allegro's laser
station. VBANDGAP in this circuit was trimmed to precisely 1.2500 volts and like the other
NPN circuit, remained constant, or flat, over a temperature sweep.
106
7.8 Measure Trim Resistor
To determine the tolerance of the resistors in this CMOS process, each link of the
trim resistor was measured and compared against the designed value. These
measurements were made after all attempts had been made to sever the link shorting them
and while the circuit was not powered. The results are shown in Table 7.8.1
107
8 Conclusions and Recommendations
Overall the design of the bandgap voltage reference was a success. While not all of
the individual circuits worked as expected, it was possible to develop a voltage reference
accurate to ±1% using components that had a 20% tolerance and meet specifications.
Table 8.1 shows the revised specifications. This final specification sheet is representative
of the NPN bandgap circuit number two.
As stated in the chapter on results, the final results show the bandgap to operate at
a constant value over a temperature. Initial accuracy meets and exceeds the initial design
spec. The only spec not met completely is the minimum supply voltage that allows this
circuit to operate. This however was not a fatal error and recommendations are discussed
later in this chapter on ways to improve this result.
108
8.2 Transistors in a CMOS Process
It was unclear as to what should be expected from the bipolar transistors made in a
CMOS process. Fortunately, they performed well, exhibiting characteristics normal to
true bipolar transistors.
However, the PNP transistors did not operate in the bandgap circuit as expected.
Upon initial powering and without any trims, the bandgap output voltage was designed to
produce approximately 900mV. Yet, the circuits with the PNP devices had an initial
voltage of approximately 1.23V.
This may be due to the improper sizing of the device. While the NPN transistor was
designed according to recommendations from MOSIS, there were no recommendations
for a PNP transistor. While it was intended to be a device with vertical current flow, due
to the small size of the base-emitter junction, there was also some lateral current flow.
This affected the overall β of the transistor and had the dimensions of the transistor been
increased, this effect may have disappeared and may have behaved properly.
These undesirable effects might also have been avoided through better simulations.
Because an accurate model for either bipolar transistor was non-existent, it was
impossible to fully predict how the device would operate. Otherwise, creating a PNP
transistor in a CMOS process is possible and should yield favorable results in the future.
8.3 Amplifier
The design of the operational transconductance amplifier was also a moderate
success. While the offset voltage and gain were not commendable, they were adequate
for this design. The output swing on the single supply amplifier was not rail to rail but
approximately from 0.7 to 3.5V. This should not affect correct circuit operation and a
stable reference is still achievable.
More space could have been devoted to the optimization of the amplifier because
there was extra area on the chip available. However, due to time constraints, this was not
done.
109
8.4 Trimming
While laser trimming appeared to be more destructive (see Figures A6, A7, & A8),
it could also save time and money as previously discussed. The laser output was not
adjusted in lab, but could have been modified to control the damage the laser induced.
Trimming of an individual circuit is definitely easier using a laser than a probe
station. With the probes, two pins must be aligned whereas with the laser, it is quite
simple to aim the crosshairs over the link and pulse the laser.
110
References
111
Widlar, R. J. New Developments in IC Voltage Regulators, IEEE Journal of Solid-State
Circuits, Vol. SC-6, p 2-7, February 1971.
Wong, James, Voltage References for High Accuracy Systems, Analog Devices
Databook, Section 5.
112
Appendix A: Die Photos
These images are die photos of the bandgap voltage reference IC.
113
Figure A3: Thermal Image of an Amplifier at 281X
114
Figure A5: Intact link fuses at 200X
115
Figure A7: Links cut with a laser at 200X
116
Figure A9: NPN Transistor Array at 400X
117
Appendix B: Glossary and Acronyms
Acronyms:
Glossary:
Beam speed: A measure of the speed at which resistive material is removed, inches
per second. Similar to Cut Speed and Table Speed.
Bite size: The amount of additional material attacked with each laser pulse.
Cut Speed: A measure of the speed at which resistive material is removed, inches
per second. Similar to Beam Speed and Table Speed.
Hole size: Diameter of the area of resistive material removed. The diameter of the
hole is related to the optical spot size, but is not necessarily the same.
It varies with the material being cut and the power level of the laser
pulse.
Kerf width: The outer width of the cut.
Q-Rate: The number of laser pulses issued per second.
Spot size: Diameter of the material removed. The diameter of the hole is related
to the optical spot size, but is not necessarily the same. It varies with
the material being cut and the power level of the laser pulse.
Table speed: The rate of resistive material removed in inches per second.
118
Appendix C: Fundamental Principles of Bipolar Junction
Transistors
Transistor Fundamentals
A bipolar junction transistor is created from a single crystal, most commonly
silicon or germanium, that contains both N-type and P-type diffused regions. The N-type
and P-type regions are doped segments of intrinsic silicon that have had specific
impurities injected in it depending on the desired polarity. The impurities are chosen
because after the injection there are free mobile electrons or holes in the lattice of the
crystal. In the N-type silicon, the number of mobile electrons (ND) vastly outnumbers the
number of mobile holes (NA). Conversely, the opposite is true for P-type silicon.
For a bipolar junction transistor, it is required that two P-type and N-type regions
are back-to-back in a single crystal because electrons and holes can freely propagate
throughout the crystal’s lattice. Thus there are only three regions in a single transistor;
either a P-type region is sandwiched between two N-type regions creating an NPN
transistor or, conversely, an N-type region is enclosed between two P-type regions
making a PNP transistor.
119
N P
P N
N P
Inherently, without any external voltage being applied, biases develop when the
two junctions are created beside one another. To counteract these biases to allow current
to flow, external voltages must be applied to the transistor. The emitter of the transistor
is defined as the PN junction that has a forward bias applied to it and the collector is
defined as the PN junction that has a reverse-bias applied to it. The base of the transistor
is the region in the middle of the transistor.
With the proper biases applied and connections made, the bipolar junction
transistor acts as a current amplifier with the base acting as the input. Very small
currents (on the order of nano-amperes) can control currents that are orders of
magnitudes larger, making the transistor an effective current-controlled device. The
transistor can also be connected in a diode configuration in which, for a NPN transistor,
the collector is connected to the base. This is useful in certain applications, which will be
detailed later.
Transistor Currents
The most important current in the transistor is in its base. For this analysis, NPN
type transistors will be used as the example. Because the emitter is forward biased, it
emits electrons into the base region. Once received in the base region, the electrons are
considered the minority carrier since, in P-type regions, the number of holes is much
greater then the number of electrons. Because of the polarities of having two PN
junctions back-to-back, there is no electric field in the base of the transistor leaving the
electrons free to move by the process of diffusion. Once the electrons scatter within a
120
close proximity of the collector, the reverse-bias of the base-collector junction creates an
electric field that sweeps in the electrons from the base.
For a reverse-biased junction, it is obvious that minority carriers carry the current
and it is already known that the base has an extremely small number of electrons to
supply the collector as carriers. Thus, the emitter acts as a constant source of minority
carriers to the collector and allows for reverse-bias current flow.
The other significant current is the collector current and is defined by a set of
equations known as the Ebers-Molls equations. If second order effects are ignored, the
equations can be simplified to the following:ii
VBE
−1
(7)
IC = I S e VT
where IC and IS are, respectively, the collector
and saturation currents of the transistor, and VBE and VT are the base-emitter voltage and
thermal voltage.
121
pn = ni2 (8)
Because intrinsic, or pure, silicon has no net charge, the number of electrons
equals the number of holes which, in turn, also equals the intrinsic carrier concentration
from Equation 7. For correct operation of the transistor, however, it is necessary for
there to be a significant difference between the quantity of majority and minority carriers
in the silicon.
After further manipulation of (7) and the application of selected principles of
quantum mechanics, it can be shown that v
n = N C e − ( EC − E F ) / kT (9)
p = N V e − ( EF − EV ) / kT (10)
where NC and NV are the number of electrons and holes in the conduction and valence
states, respectively. (EC-EF) and (EV-EF) represent the energy differences between the
conduction band and Fermi level and the valence band and Fermi level. k is Boltzmann’s
constant and T is temperature in degrees Kelvin.
The Fermi level is a reference energy level from which all energies may be
conveniently measured, and furthermore, it “can be defined as that energy at which the
probability of finding an electron n energy units above the level is equal to the probability
of finding an “absence” of an electron [or hole] n energy units below the level.”vi The
Fermi level is, in intrinsic silicon, considered to halfway between the valence and
conduction energy bands of charged particles. When silicon is of N-type, the Fermi level
is shifted towards the conduction band due to the increase in the number of electrons and,
conversely, when the silicon is of P-type, the Fermi level shifts towards the valence band
due to the abundance of holes. It is also known that at high temperatures, the Fermi level
shifts towards the center between the valence and conduction bands, that is, it returns to a
state of equilibrium equidistant from each band.
122
It is now obvious that to calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration, it is possible
to substitute Equations (8) and (9) into (7) to determine the concentration in terms of the
relative position of the Fermi level, and thusvii
ni = K i T 3 e − EG / kT
2
(11)
3
n = p = ni = K i 2 T 2 ε − EG / 2kT
1
(12)
If the silicon is doped (for N-type) then the minority-carrier (hole) concentration
can be found be again manipulating Equation (7) to result inx
2
ni Ki − E / kT
p= = T 3e G (13)
ND − NA ND − NA
while the majority carrier concentration is still the difference between the number of
donors and acceptors (for N-type).
As the temperature increases, it is easy to see the minority carrier-concentration is
directly proportional to the cube of temperature, which will dominate and drive the
number of minority carriers to infinity. Of course, as with all exponential functions, there
are limits to the system and this behavior cannot continue forever. There are a finite
number of holes that can be generated from the impurities injected into the silicon before
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the impurities are stripped of all valence electrons and the doped silicon appears intrinsic
again.
These effects are due to recombination of the carriers from heat and/or light. At
0° Kelvin (-273° Celsius), there are no electrons available for conduction as the atoms are
at their lowest energy state. At room temperature (~25° Celsius), there are enough
carriers (holes and electrons) to sustain adequate currents and this is where the current
gain is most stable. At higher temperatures, there is enough energy in the crystal to break
covalent bonds, freeing the electrons from the impurities. This creates the same effect as
having no impurities in the crystal at all.
{
n = N D 1 + e − ( EC − E I − E F ) / kT }
−1
(14)
Equating Equation (14) to Equation (8) yields a very large quadratic equation which ,
when values are substituted in for appropriate variables, proves that the electron
concentration becomes appreciably less than the donor concentration as the temperature
decreases.
This property of silicon is not pertinent to our study, as our design will not be
expected to fall below 213° Kelvin (-60° Celsius).
Mobility
The mobility in a semiconductor is a combination of two separate mobilities:
lattice-scattering mobility, µL, and impurity-scattering mobility, µI. The lattice scattering
is, as suggested by the name, independent of the impurities in the silicon, but rather,
124
dependent on the crystal lattice structure of the silicon. The impurity-scattering mobility
is dependent on the concentration of impurities injected and decreases inversely as
impurity density increases. Thus, the total mobility of the carriers in a transistor is the
sum of both mobilities. At room temperatures, the lattice scattering mobility is much less
than the impurity scattering mobility, thus the overall mobility is determined by the
impurity scattering mobility. With increasing impurity concentration however, the roles
have switched. Because of the difference in temperature dependence in both mobilities,
the overall mobility tends to stay the same over a wide range of temperatures.
It is also seen that as the temperature increases, the base of the transistor widens.
As the base widens, the electrons must travel a greater distance from the emitter to the
collector.xiii This increases the likelihood that not all electrons will get swept into the
collector after first being discharged from the emitter. Depending upon the lattice-
scattering, this delay may be significant enough to slow the response of the transistor.
Conductivity
The concepts of conductivity have already been briefly touched upon and only in
extreme cases when the transistor is heated to excessive temperatures do the electrons
break free of the impurity atoms causing the silicon to essentially become intrinsic. This
of course, increases the resistivity, the inverse of conductivity, of the transistor's
junctions.
Other Factors
Other properties discussed include the diffusion constant and the lifetime of the
transistor. The diffusion constant relates the frequency response of the transistor to the
heat applied to the unit. However, the temperature effect is negligible. Also, the lifetime
of a transistor as it is effected by heat is a complex analysis and is not easily predicted.xiv
125
Thermal Effects in Bipolar Junction Transistors
Saturation Current
The saturation current, or reverse leakage current, of a transistor is the most heat-
sensitive parameter. The junction current is given asxv
[ ]
I = I S e qeV / kT − 1 (15)
and Dp, Dn are the diffusion rates for holes and electrons, lp, ln are the thicknesses of the
N and P regions, S is the sensitivity, and pn0 and np0 are the minority carrier
concentrations. It is shown that the transistor saturates at lower threshold voltages as the
temperature increases and that a smaller forward bias is required.xvii
After a lengthy derivation, it is proven that the saturation current (in a germanium
transistor) doubles for every 8° Celsius and increases an order of magnitude every 25°
Celsius increase. Data for silicon transistors was unavailable but the increase in
saturation current is more rapid due to the higher energy gap of silicon.
The temperature dramatically affects the forward gain of a transistor, βF, due to
the extremely high doping density of the emitter. At higher collector currents (larger than
1 mA), it is difficult to achieve a gain greater than 200. At 100µA, the temperature will
provide a relatively constant gain for a constant collector current over a range of 50uA to
126
500uA. At room temperature (~25° Celsius), there are enough carriers (holes and
electrons) to sustain adequate currents and this is where the current gain is the most
stable. As the temperature decreases from 125° Celsius to -55° Celsius, the maximum
gain of the transistor is decreased. This is most likely due to the higher number of
minority carriers available at higher temperatures and the intrinsic properties of silicon.
Collector Characteristics
The collector current itself also varies with temperature as seen from Equation 1,
the Ebers-Molls equation, since VT, the thermal voltage, is directly proportion to the
temperature. It would also appear that the VBE in the Ebers-Molls equation would have a
positive temperature coefficient. However, due to the temperature dependence of the
saturation current, IS, the base-emitter voltage actually decreases 2.1 mV per degree
Celsius, or is approximately equal to the inverse of the absolute temperature.xviii
Because of the temperature characteristics of the transistor, the operating point
and characteristics of the transistor deviate greatly. It is shown that when the temperature
varies slightly, a plot of VCE versus IC (describing the collector characteristics) shifts
upward yet the spacing between the curves, determined by the base current, remains the
same.xix Thus the bias current depends on the temperature whereas the collector-to-
emitter voltage does not.
Also, when a load line is placed across the plots, it can be seen that the operating point of
the transistor varies with the temperature. The allowable swing for the collector current
(for increasing base currents) has been greatly reduced. xx It can also be seen that as the
temperature increases indefinitely, the operating point will eventually lie on the y-axis, or
the operating point would be equal to the collector current, IC.
127
i
1998-1999 Undergraduate Catalog, WPI, page 36.
ii
The Art of Electronics, Cambridge University Press, Paul Horowitz, Winfield Hill, p. 80, c. 1989
iii
Electrical Characteristics of Transistors, McGraw-Hill, Inc., R.L. Pritchard, Toronto, p. 576, c1967
iv
Ibid., p 577.
v
Ibid., p 580.
vi
Transistor Physics and Circuits, page 36.
vii
Electrical Characteristics of Transistors, p 581.
viii
Ibid., p 581.
ix
Ibid., p 581.
x
Ibid., p 582.
xi
Ibid., p 582.
xii
Ibid., p 582.
xiii
Transistor Physics and Circuits, page 48.
xiv
Electrical Characteristics of Transistors, p 590.
xv
Ibid., p 593.
xvi
Ibid., p 594.
xvii
Ibid., p 594.
xviii
The Art of Electronics, page 81.
xix
Transistor Physics and Circuits, page 268.
xx
Ibid., page 270.
128