VFR, November 03

CY1B2: Analysis of Cybernetic Systems

Partial Fractions
Given a set of fractions, we can add them together to form a single fraction. For example,
2 4 2( x + 2) + 4( x + 1) + = x +1 x + 2 ( x + 1)( x + 2) 6x + 8 = 2 x + 3x + 2

Repeated linear factors are those of the form (ax + b) 2 , (ax + b)3 , and so on. Quadratic factors ax 2 + bx + c are those of the form

PARTIAL FRACTIONS OF PROPER FRACTIONS

We can calculate the partial fractions of a proper fraction using the following steps 1. 2. Factorise the denominator Each factor of the denominator produces a particular partial fraction expression: A linear factor ax + b in the denominator A , where A is produces a partial fraction ax + b an unknown constant. A repeated linear factor (ax + b) 2 leads to partial fractions
A B , where A + (ax + b) (ax + b) 2 and B are unknown constants.

Alternatively, if we are given a single fraction, we can break it down into the sum of easier fractions. These simple fractions, which when added together form the given fraction, are called partial fractions. The partial 2 4 6x + 8 are and . fractions of 2 x +1 x+2 x + 3x + 2 We can write an algebraic fraction in the form
algebraic fraction = Numerator polynomial expression = Denominator polynomial expression

When presented with a fraction, we can note the degree of the numerator, say n, and the degree of the denominator, say d. if d > n , the fraction is proper, i.e. the degree of the denominator is greater than the degree of the numerator. if d n , the fraction is improper. 3.

A quadratic factor ax 2 + bx + c produces a Ax + B , partial fraction of the form 2 ax + bx + c where A and B are unknown constants.

Evaluate the unknown constants of the partial fractions. To find the constant coefficients there are two techniques: Choose special values of x that make finding the values of the unknown easy: the values of x equal to the roots of D( x) = 0 in turn and use the cover up rule. Or, Compare the coefficients of the like powers of x on both sides of the equation. Starting with the highest and lowest power usually makes it easier.

WORK EXERCISE 1
Classify the following fraction as either proper of improper and give the degree of both numerator and denominator. 1)
x2 + 9 x 6 3 x3 + x 2 + 100

2)

t 3 + t 2 + 9t 6 t5 + 9

(v + 1)(v 6) 3) 2 v + 3x + 6

( z + 2)3 4) 5 z 2 + 10 z + 16

Note: the first strategy may leave some coefficients undetermined. In that case, you may complete the process by using the second one. .

When expressing a given fraction as a sum of partial fractions, it is important to classify the fraction as proper or improper. The denominator is then factorised into a product of factors that can be linear and/or quadratic. Each of these factors in the denominator produces a particular partial fraction. The possible factors are: Linear factors are those of the form ax + b , e.g. x 2 x 1, + 6 . 2

Example 1: Linear factors Express in partial fraction

3x ( x 1)( x + 2)

The denominator has two distinct linear factors ( x 1) and ( x + 2) , so the corresponding partial fractions are of the form

Course notes on Partial Fractions

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VFR, November 03

CY1B2: Analysis of Cybernetic Systems

A B 3x = + ( x 1)( x + 2) x 1 x + 2 A( x + 2) + B( x 1) = ( x 1)( x + 2)

3x + 1 ( x 1) ( x + 2)
2

= =

A B C + + 2 x 1 ( x 1) x+2 A( x 1)( x + 2) + B ( x + 2) + C ( x 1) 2 ( x 1) 2 ( x + 2)

Since both expressions are equal and their denominators are equal, we must make the numerators equal. Multiplying both sides by the denomination gives
3x = A( x + 2) + B( x 1)

which gives by multiplying both sides by the denominator,

3x + 1 = A( x 1)( x + 2) + B ( x + 2) + C ( x 1) 2

(1)

We can find A and B by setting x = 1 and then x = 2 : Set x = 1 , gives 3 = A(3) + B (0) , that is A = 1 . Set x = 2 gives 6 = A(0) + B(3) , that is B = 2 .

Setting x = 1 in (1), gives B =

4 . 3 5 9

Setting x = 2 in (1), gives C =

Thus,
3x 1 2 = + ( x 1)( x + 2) x 1 x + 2

Example 2: Using the cover up rule for the same example When the denominator is a product of linear factors the cover up rule is a quick way of expressing partial fractions. Considering again, if
3x A B = + ( x 1)( x + 2) x 1 x + 2

To obtain A we can give x any value, so taking x = 0 in (1) gives, 1 = (2) A + 2 B + C and 5 substituting the values of B and C gives, A = . 9 Hence
3x + 1 ( x 1) ( x + 2)
2

5/9 4/3 5/9 + 2 x 1 ( x 1) x+2

Example 4: Express in partial fraction the rational function,

5x ( x + x + 1)( x 2)
2

then to obtain A simply cover up the factor ( x 1) in

3x ( x 1)( x + 2)

The denominator consists of the linear factor ( x 2) and the irreducible quadratic factor ( x 2 + x + 1) . (1) Note: the quadratic factor is irreducible because the discriminant of the characteristic equation, x 2 + x + 1 = 0 , is negative, i.e. the characteristic equation has not real roots. The corresponding partial fractions are of the form,
5x ( x + x + 1)( x 2)
2

and evaluate what is left at x = 1 , giving

A= 3(1) =1 (1 + 2)

Likewise to obtain B cover up the factor ( x + 2) in (1) and evaluate what is left at x = 2 , giving
B= 3(2) =2 (2 1)

= =

Ax + B ( x + x + 1)
2

C ( x 2)

( Ax + B)( x 2) + C ( x 2 + x + 1) ( x 2 + x + 1)( x 2)

Thus, as before
3x 1 2 = + ( x 1)( x + 2) x 1 x + 2

giving
5 x = ( Ax + B)( x 2) + C ( x 2 + x + 1) 5 x = ( A + C ) x 2 + (2 A + B + C ) x + (2 B + C )

Example 3: Linear and repeated linear factors Express as partial fraction the following
3x + 1 ( x 1) ( x + 2)
2

Equating the coefficients of the powers of x gives

x2 : x : x0 :
1

The denominator consists of the linear factor ( x + 2) and the twice-repeated linear factor ( x 1) . Thus, the corresponding partial fractions are

0 = A+C 5 = 2 A + B + C 0 = 2 B + C

solving the simultaneous equations by elimination or substitution gives,

A = 5 / 7, B = 10 / 7, C = 10 / 7

Thus,
Course notes on Partial Fractions 2 of 3

VFR, November 03

CY1B2: Analysis of Cybernetic Systems

10 5 10 x 7 + 7 = 7 ( x 2 + x + 1)( x 2) ( x 2 + x + 1) ( x 2) 5x

The denominator factorises to x(2 x + 1) . These factors generates partial fractions of the form,
C D and . x 2x + 1

WORK EXERCISE 2:
Express as partial fractions the following
1 1) ( x + 1)( x 2) 2x 1 2) ( x + 1)( x 2)
3) 5)

Hence,
4 x 3 + 10 x + 4 2x + x
2

1 ( x + 1)( x 2 4) 1 x 2 5x + 4 x 1 ( x + 1) 2 ( x 2) 2

4 x 3 + 10 x + 4 C D = Ax + B + + x(2 x + 1) x 2x + 1

Multiplying by x and 2 x + 1 yields

4 x 3 + 10 x + 4 = ( Ax + B ) x(2 x + 1) + C (2 x + 1) + Dx

6)

x 1 ( x + 1)( x 2) 2 1 ( x + 1)( x 2 + 2 x + 2)

7)

The constants A, B, C and D can now be evaluated. We find

A = 2 ; B = 1 ; C = 4 and D = 3

4)

1 8) 2 ( x + 1)( x + 2 x + 2) 2

Finally,
4 x 3 + 10 x + 4 4 3 = 2x 1 + + x 2x + 1 2 x2 + x

PARTIAL FRACTIONS OF IMPROPER FRACTIONS

We look now at the calculation of partial fractions of improper fractions. The techniques described before are all applicable to improper fractions. However, when calculating the partial fractions of an improper fraction, an extra terms needs to be included. The extra term is a polynomial of degree n d , where n is the degree of the numerator and d the degree of the denominator:
n d = 0 , a polynomial of degree 0 is a constant. n d = 1 , a polynomial of degree 1. n d = 2 , a polynomial of degree 2, i.e. quadratic

WORK EXERCISE 3
Express the following as partial fractions. 1)
x2 2 ( x + 1)( x 2) 18 x 4 5 x 2 + 47 ( x 1)( x + 5) x3 1 x2 5x + 6

2)

3)

...

To summarise, improper fractions have partial fractions in addition to those generated by the factors of the denominator. These additional partial fractions take the form of a polynomial of degree n d . Example: Express as partial fractions
4 x 3 + 10 x + 4 2x2 + x

The degree of the numerator is n = 3 . The degree of the denominator is d = 2 . Thus, the fraction is improper Now, n d = 1 and this is a measure of the extent to which the fraction is improper. The partial fraction will include a polynomial of degree 1, that is,
Ax + B

in addition to the partial fractions produced by the factors of the denominator.

Course notes on Partial Fractions

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