Hight, D. W., Gasparre, A., Nishimura, S., Minh, N. A., Jardine, R. J. & Coop, M. R. (2007). Géotechnique 57, No.
1, 3–18
Characteristics of the London Clay from the Terminal 5 site at
Heathrow Airport
D. W. H I G H T * , A . G A S PA R R E † , S . N I S H I M U R A ‡ , N. A . M I N H § , R . J. JA R D I N E ‡ a n d M . R . C O O P ‡
The innovative engineering approach adopted for the new
Terminal 5 at Heathrow Airport called for an advanced
investigation of the London Clay strata, including de-
tailed in situ profiling and stress path laboratory testing
on high-quality rotary-cored samples. Although the scope
of the investigations exceeded that normally specified for
conventional design, questions relating to the structure
and anisotropy of stiffness and strength of the clay
remained that could not be answered. Further research
was required, and the deep excavations at the site pro-
vided the opportunity for a team from Imperial College
to take multiple block samples from three depths, supple-
mented by two additional dedicated rotary-cored bore-
holes. Intensive research was performed at Imperial
College on these samples, as described in three comp-
anion papers by Gasparre et al. and Nishimura et al.
This overview paper integrates the findings from the
recent research with those from the commercial investiga-
tion and with earlier studies to extend our understanding
of the geology and key characteristics of this stiff clay,
and their variation with depth. The influence of lithology,
structure and destructuring is examined, and the practi-
cal implications of the work are discussed.
KEYWORDS: anisotropy; clays; compressibility; permeability;
shear strength; stiffness
INTRODUCTION
Ground investigations at the site of London’s Heathrow Air-
port’s newest terminal, Terminal 5 (T5), were carried out in
various phases and included contamination studies, the site
being previously occupied by the Perry Oaks Sewage Works,
and archaeological studies. Phase 4 of the ground investiga-
tions was aimed at providing the geotechnical parameters
required to make predictions of ground movements that would
accompany the various supported excavations and predictions
of the stand-up time of the temporary slopes to deep open-cut
excavations (Kovacevic et al., 2007). The Phase 4 investigation
comprised a cluster of three boreholes at the location of the
main terminal building and a rotary-cored borehole at the site
of each other main excavation. The cluster of three boreholes
(406, 407 and 408 in Fig. 1) comprised
(a) a continuously sampled rotary-cored borehole, which
was used for a detailed examination of the lithology
Manuscript received 16 May 2005; revised manuscript accepted 14
November 2006.
Discussion on this paper closes on 1 July 2007, for further details
see p. ii.
* Geotechnical Consulting Group, London, UK.
† Geotechnical Consulting Group; formerly Imperial College,
London, UK.
‡ Imperial College, London, UK.
§ Atkins Ltd; formerly Imperial College, London, UK.
3
L’approche technique innovatrice adoptée pour le nouveau
Terminal 5 de l’aéroport d’Heathrow demandait la réa-
lisation d’une étude approfondie de la strate de London
Clay (argile de Londres), comprenant un profil in situ
détaillé et des essais de cheminement de contrainte effec-
tués en laboratoire sur des échantillons de carottes de
haute qualité extraites parla méthode de forage rotary.
Bien que la portée des ces travaux dépassaient celle
normalement spécifiée dans le cadre de la conception
géotechnique conventionnelle, des questions relatives à la
structure, l’anisotropie de la rigidité et la résistance de
l’argile restaient sans réponse. Il s’avérait donc nécessaire
de poursuivre la recherche dans ce domaine. Les excava-
tions profondes sur le site ont donné à une équipe de
l’Imperial College l’opportunité de prélever des échantil-
lons de blocs multiples, issus de trois profondeurs, com-
plétés par deux trous de forage dédiés creusés au moyen
de la technique rotary. L’Imperial College a réalisé des
travaux d’étude intensifs sur ces échantillons, comme
décrit dans trois articles associés de Gasparre et al. et
Nishimura et al. Cet article de revue intègre les observa-
tions de travaux de recherche récents avec celles de l’étude
commerciale, ainsi que les études précédentes, pour ap-
profondir notre compréhension de la géologie, des carac-
téristiques clés de cette argile raide et de leur variation en
fonction de la profondeur. L’influence de la lithologie, de
la structure et de la déstructuration y est examinée et les
conséquences pratiques de ce travail sont discutées.
and fabric of the London Clay
(b) a second rotary-cored borehole from which high-quality
samples were taken for laboratory testing, from depths
selected on the basis of the first rotary-cored hole
(c) a borehole from which pushed thin-walled tube samples
were taken and on which suction measurements were
made on-site to assist in the estimate of in situ stresses.
Crosshole and downhole seismic wave measurements were
made using the three co-linear boreholes. Laboratory testing
was carried out in commercial laboratories and included the
measurement of small-strain stiffness on locally instrumented
100 mm diameter rotary-cored samples.
Results from the commercial investigation have been
published by Hight et al. (2002) and set in the context of
the data obtained from other sites involving state-of-the-art
commercial investigations of the London Clay. Attempts
were made in the interpretation of the data to assess the
significance of variations between the mechanical properties
of the lithological units identified in the London Clay by
King (1981). Restrictions on the availability of the necessary
testing equipment in commercial laboratories meant that the
investigations into the anisotropy of strength and stiffness of
the clay were incomplete, as was the link between these
properties and the lithological units. British Airports Author-
ity generously provided access to the T5 site to allow a team
of researchers from Imperial College (IC) to take block
samples from one of the deep excavations, and provided
samples of London Clay over its full thickness from two
4 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
N
Slough M25

Prospect Park
M4
Mo tor w ay
M4

Datchet
Windsor Reservoir
Heathrow
Wraysbury Airport
Reservoir

King George VI
Reservoir
Staines
Reservoir
Scale Perry Oaks
M25
0 1 2 3 4 km sewage works
Staines

N
Duke of Northumberland
and Longford Rivers

Sludge lagoon Sludge lagoon R

Block sampling BH 404

Sludge lagoon

CPT Drying beds

Dedicated rotary-cored
boreholes
BHs 406, 407, 408

Drying beds
Drying beds
⫽20 m

Fig. 1. Layout of sampling locations in Perry Oaks sewage works

adjacent rotary-cored boreholes, both advanced using a
triple-tube core barrel with a plastic liner and a natural
polymer mud flush technique. The samples were retrieved
from their liners as soon as they were recovered from the
borehole, and an outer annulus of around 5 mm thickness
was trimmed off before preserving the samples in layers of
clingfilm (plastic wrap) and wax. Block samples of 300 mm
cube were taken from the benches of an excavation about
140 m away; the blocks were cut at depths below the top of
the clay of 1.2, 5.2 and 10.5 m. The locations of the
additional boreholes and of the block sampling are shown in
Fig. 1 in relation to the commercial boreholes from which
data will be drawn. The rotary cores were retrieved from a
location where the London Clay was overlain by a 6 m thick
Quaternary gravel layer; this layer had been removed ap-
proximately 25 years earlier at the block sampling location
to create one of the lagoons in the sewage works.
The research carried out at IC, which was also supported
by London Underground Limited and the EPSRC, involved
testing of the block samples in two types of hollow cylinder
apparatus, advanced triaxial stress path testing on the block
and rotary-cored samples, and the use of dynamic testing
techniques. The results of the research are described by
Gasparre et al. (2007a, 2007b) and by Nishimura et al.
(2007), where details of the tests, apparatus and techniques
can be found. The aim of this paper is to integrate the
results of the research with the results of the earlier investi-
gations, to explore in more detail the differences in mech-
anical behaviour between the lithological units, and to
highlight the practical significance of the findings.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW
BACKGROUND TO THE LITHOLOGY OF LONDON
CLAY
The following summary is based on King (1981) and
King (pers. comm.).
London Clay was deposited in marine conditions in the
Eocene (30 million years BP) in a basin that was subsiding,
and in which sea levels were rising. Bioturbation is common,
taking the form of Chondrities burrows of 1–3 mm in
diameter, infilled with grey silt (Fig. 2). Pyrite occurs as
small aggregates, often infilling burrows and fossils. Phos-
phatic and claystone nodules are common. Very fine sand
and silt dustings, partings and lenses are frequent in the
siltier clays, and thicker sand layers occur in the sandy
clayey silts.
Central London was near enough to the basin margin for
the sedimentation to be affected by sea level changes. Thus
a fall in sea level was associated with a coarsening of the
material being deposited. The inferred cycles of sea level
change and accompanying changes in sedimentation provide
the basis for King’s division of the London Clay into
lithological units, based on the content of fossil fauna and
partly on the contents of sand and silt (King, 1981). Five
major transgressive-regressive cycles are recognised within
the London Clay. The cycles are used to define five divisions
in the clay (divisions A to E). Each cycle ideally marks the
base of a coarsening-upward facies sequence.
The lowest unit, A2, which is approximately 12 m thick,
is poorly sorted with a high percentage of silt, and occa-
sional wood fragments and pyrite nodules. Within A2 there
are several alternations of sandy clays and silty clays with
diffuse boundaries, reflecting minor sea level changes (King,
1981). Partings and lenses of silt and fine sand are numer-
ous. Unit A2 is generally non-calcareous and contains few
claystones. It is often referred to as the basal beds.
Unit A3 has an overall thickness of 12 m. At its base is
the first silty clay layer, which is homogeneous and slightly
calcareous. The first main claystone layer is also encountered
near the base of A3 and is more or less continuous. There
are a further three or four claystone layers in close succes-
sion. Silt and sand partings become more common in the
silty clay towards the top of the unit, and impersistent thin
claystone layers occur.
The boundary between units A and B is marked by a 1 m
thick sandy clay (Unit B1), which is glauconitic. Unit B2
comprises silty clays with weak silt and sand partings and
numerous claystones, the lowest of which is the most
Fig. 2. Bioturbation by Chrondrities (photo courtesy of Dr F. C.
Chow)
5
prominent and continuous. Sedimentary cycles (up to six)
are weakly discernible within Unit B2. The total thickness of
unit B is 25 m.
Units C1, C2, C3, D1, D2 and E are recognised in the
full sequence of London Clay, which is up to 150 m in
South Essex (King, 1981). At T5 only the lower part of the
sequence is present, comprising units A2, A3, B1, B2 and
the lower part of C; unit B1 was not recovered successfully
in the recent sampling operation.
The increasing depth of deposition in moving from west
to east across the London Basin, which was responsible for
the increasing plasticity from west to east identified by
Burnett & Fookes (1974), means that the lithological units
are likely to become less distinct moving in this direction.
Dr King inspected the continuous core from borehole 404
at the T5 site and identified the units, based largely on the
texture of the clay. Dr King’s log of borehole 404 is
presented in Fig. 3. Standing (pers. comm.) had found that
the units that Dr King identified for him at St James’s Park
in Central London could also be identified on the basis of
water content profiles. Water content profiles have been used
successfully at T5 and other sites in Central London to
identify the units (Hight et al., 2002), and have confirmed
the consistent thicknesses of the main units. The water
content profiles at T5 (Fig. 4) suggested that further subdivi-
sions of engineering importance might be possible within
the main sub-units (Hight et al., 2002). Fig. 4 shows on the
left the unit boundaries identified by Dr King on the basis of
his inspection of the cores and on the right the subdivisions
of unit B(2) proposed by Hight et al. (2002) on the basis of
water content. Unit B(2) has now been separated into three
sub-units on the basis of their biostratigraphy by de Freitas
& Mannion (2007). In the following presentations the
boundaries proposed by King and de Freitas & Mannion
have been adopted.
STRESS HISTORY
The soils that constitute the London Clay Formation in
Central London were deeply buried as a result of continuing
deposition. They were later subjected to mild tectonic load-
ing during the Alpine orogeny forming the syncline of the
London Basin. Erosion in late Tertiary and Pleistocene times
has removed all the overlying deposits, and, especially in the
Thames Valley, much of the London Clay itself. The amount
of erosion has been estimated to range from about 150 m in
Essex (Skempton, 1961) to 300 m in the Wraysbury district
(Bishop et al., 1965); these estimates were based on an
interpretation of the vertical yield stress in oedometer tests
on high-quality samples but ignored the effects of structure.
Nevertheless, Chandler (2000) has shown from geological
evidence that the amount of overburden removed is likely to
have been of the order of 200 m. The clay at T5 is therefore
heavily overconsolidated. The deposition of the late Quatern-
ary gravel sheets along the Thames Valley followed the last
part of this erosional process. At T5 the remaining thickness
of the London Clay is 52 m and the gravels are up to 6 m
thick. The gravels have protected the underlying clay from
the effects of weathering, and alteration of the clay is
restricted to approximately the top 1 m.
FABRIC OF THE LONDON CLAY
Various studies of the micro- and macro-fabric of the
London Clay have been carried out. Micro-fabric studies,
including those by Gasparre et al. (2007a), have confirmed
the expected increasingly compact structure and increasing
level of preferred orientation of the clay and clay aggregates
with depth and maximum past pressure. This is likely to lead
6 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
Ground level ⫽18·01 mOD

Homogeneous silty clay

2·40 C(?)
Very silty and sandy clay
5 4·90

6·80

10
Mainly homogeneous silty clay

Some thin and very silty

14·10 and sandy beds
15 B(2)
Several layers of
calcareous concretions
(claystones)
18·95
19·05
20

22·40

25
25·50 (Thick tabular claystone)

c 27·10 B(1)
Sandy glauconitic clay
28·25
Depth: m

30
Silty clay with many thin
sand / silt partings
and many very thin red-brown
calcareous concretions
A3(2)
35

Thicker light grey

calcareous concretion layers

39·60
40
c 40·50

Homogeneous silty clay A3(1)

42·35
c 43·50
45
Very silty clay with beds of
sandy clay and silt
(wood fragments common)
A2(2)

50
50·65
Sandy glauconitic clay A2(1)
52·77

Calcareous claystone
55

Harwich Formation

Fig. 3. Borehole log for BH 404 prepared by Dr King, identifying lithological units

to differences in behaviour between the units, with unit C
having the most open and least anisotropic fabric and units
A2 and A3 having the most compact and anisotropic fabrics.
Dewhurst et al. (1998) illustrated the importance of the silt
content in disrupting the orientation of the clay particles and
aggregates in the deeply buried clay. On this basis, and the
increasing fineness with depth in a unit, one would expect
increasing levels of anisotropy with depth within a unit.
London Clay is heavily fissured and jointed, with joints
often infilled with silts: examples from the T5 excavations
are presented in Figs 5 and 6. The fissuring and jointing in
London Clay was painstakingly investigated at the nearby
site of the Wraysbury reservoir (Skempton et al., 1969). The
fissures are not polished but, as suggested by Hight (1998),
appear to represent surfaces of separation between com-
pressed and aligned clay aggregates: an example of a fissure
observed by SEM is presented in Fig. 7 and shows a gently
undulating surface with some pyrite infill.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW 7
Water content: %
10 15 20 25 30 35
20
Commercial investigations
IC investigation

B2(c)
10

Biii
B2(b)

B(2)

0
Bii
Elevation: mOD

B2(a)

Bi
Fig. 6. Silt infill to discontinuities
⫺10 B(1)

A3(2)
⫺20

A3(1)

A2
⫺30

Fig. 4. Water content profile with lithological unit and sub-unit

boundaries

Fig. 7. SEM of fissure in London Clay (photo courtesy of

Professor J. Locat)

Fig. 5. Fissure pattern at shallow depth at T5

Observations from block sampling and sample preparation

in the laboratory revealed that the fissures tend to have a
variable spacing from a few centimetres to a few tens of
centimetres, tend to be discontinuous, and extend up to
approximately 15 cm, with orientations that are horizontal to
sub-horizontal, and vertical to sub-vertical. The blocks from Fig. 8. Shallow slope failures in T5 excavations
the 5.2 m depth below the top of the clay were more heavily
fissured than those from 10.5 m depth, which is consistent
with the observations reported by Skempton et al. (1969) clay separating on the fissures and joints into gravel and
that fissure intensity reduces with increasing depth. cobble-size blocks.
The fissures are known to have an important effect on the A key observation in relation to fissures and lithological
mass behaviour of the clay, particularly at shallow depths. units is that unit A2 is not fissured, presumably because of
An illustration of this is provided in Fig. 8, which shows a its larger sand content. In addition, in tests on samples on
typical shallow slope failure in the T5 excavations, with the unit A3, Gasparre (2005) reports that the failure of only one
8 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
of the eight samples was influenced by a pre-existing fissure,
a much lower proportion than in the overlying units,
TECTONIC SHEARS
The tectonic forces associated with the Alpine orogeny
produced discontinuities of the form described by Chandler
et al. (1998) and observed at the nearby Prospect Park (see
Fig. 1 for location). A major effort was made in the ground
investigations at T5 to identify the locations at which these
discontinuities might exist because of their potential influ-
ence on the stability of the temporary slopes. Surfaces were
identified in core on which there was evidence of movement,
and these were assumed to be tectonic shears. At the depths
where these surfaces were found, ‘disturbed zones’ had been
recorded in several boreholes, with occasional driller’s de-
scriptions of ‘broken core and smeared clay’.
INDEX PROPERTIES
Profiles of Atterberg limits, combining the data from the
commercial and research investigations, are presented in Fig.
9, with the lithological unit boundaries superimposed. Com-
paring Figs 4 and 9 it is apparent that the lithological
boundaries coincide more clearly with breaks in the trends
in the water content data than in the plasticity data. How-
ever, the coarsening upwards is reflected by the trend for a
reducing liquid limit in moving up through units A3 and
B2(b). Unit B2 and its sub-units are generally more plastic
than units A3 and A2.
wl, wp and Ip: %
20 40 60
20
STRUCTURE
Gasparre et al. (2007a) discuss the structure of London
Clay in detail by comparing the behaviour of the intact
samples from the different lithological units with that of
reconstituted samples formed by mixing the trimmings from
intact samples at water contents about 1.25 times the liquid
limit. A key comparison between the one-dimensional com-
pression of the intact and reconstituted clay from the differ-
ent units is presented in Fig. 10, in terms of void ratio (Fig.
10(a)) and void index (Fig. 10(b)), where the values of void
index for the natural samples were determined directly by
comparison with the reconstituted data for the same unit.
The locations of the intrinsic compression and swelling lines
(ICLs and ISLs) in e–
v9 space vary with unit, the more
plastic units from B2 lying above those from the slightly
less plastic A3 and A2 units. The slopes of the ICLs and
ISLs scatter around similar means for all units, with average
values of 0.386 and 0.184 for C
c and C s
respectively.
Gasparre et al. (2007a) report that, for the reconstituted soil,
the separation of the ICL and critical state line is similar for
each unit, with the triaxial compression critical state q/p9
(¼ M) values all falling around 0.85 (9cs of 21.38).
Superimposing the data from the intact samples on Fig.
10(b) it is evident that the yield of the natural London Clay
is poorly defined, with compression paths that continue to
diverge from the ICL even at high stresses. The lack of
convergence of the intact and reconstituted samples at high
2·0 Reconstituted
C7m
B2(c) 12 m
B2(b) 17 m
B2(a) 25 m
80 1·6 A3(2) 35 m
A2 51 m
Void ratio

1·2
C

B2(c)
0·8
10

0·4
B2(b)
1 10 100 1000 10 000
Vertical effective stress: kPa
0
(a)
Elevation: mOD

Reconstituted Intact
C7m C7m
B2(c) 12 m B2(c) 10 m
1 B2(b) 17 m B2(b) 17 m
B2(a) B2(a) 25 m B2(a) 25 m
A3(2) 35 m B2(a) 28 m
⫺10 B(1) A2 51 m A3(2) 34 m
A3(1) 48 m
A2 51 m
Void index, Iv

Ip
wl
⫺20 wp ⫺1
A3(2)

A3(1)

A2 ⫺2
1 10 100 1000 10 000
Vertical effective stress: kPa
⫺30 (b)

Fig. 9. Profile of index properties with lithological unit and sub- Fig. 10. One-dimensional compression of reconstituted and
unit boundaries intact London Clay: (a) void ratio; (b) void index
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW 9
K0
stresses may be a reflection of the strength of the clay
0 1 2 3 4
aggregates in the natural clay, which are more easily broken 0
down by the reconstitution process than by one-dimensional
compression to high stresses.
Gasparre et al. (2007a) found that there were clear
differences in structure between the lithological units, with
the compression paths for intact samples from the shallower
units reaching states further outside the ICL than the deeper 10
units. However, tests on samples from different depths within
the same unit showed less variation, both in the location of
the ICL and in the compression paths of the intact samples,

Depth below top of London Clay: m

than had been expected from the coarsening upward
sequences within each unit.
20

IN SITU STRESSES
As a result of its heavy overconsolidation it is known that
high horizontal effective stresses are likely to exist in the
London Clay at T5. It is also thought that values of K0 are 30
reduced near the surface of the clay, where it has been
reloaded in the past by the deposition of the Terrace Gravel
or by old construction (Burland et al., 1979). Estimates of
K0 at T5 were made on the basis of suction measurements,
made on-site with the Imperial College suction probe
(Ridley & Burland, 1993) on thin-wall tube samples, which 40
were extruded immediately after their retrieval and from
which the outer 10 mm was trimmed. (The outer 10 mm T5 no gravel (lagoon)
contains clay that has been sheared as a result of pushing in T5 gravel surcharge (drying bed)
the sampling tube and in which negative excess pore pres- Ashford Common
sures will have been generated in this heavily overconsoli- 50
dated clay. It is removed immediately to reduce the effect of
this zone increasing the effective stress in the remainder of Fig. 11. K0 profile estimated on basis of suction measurements
the sample.) It was assumed that the mean effective stress in
the sample was equal to the mean effective stress in the
ground. The K0 profiles estimated from the suction measure-
ments are shown in Fig. 11 for two locations, namely the Average Gmax: MPa
lagoon, where the gravel had previously been removed, and 0 100 200 300
the drying bed, where the gravel remains. The K0 profile for 20
the lagoon lies above that for the drying bed, as would be In situ
Ghh
expected because K0 has been increased by the effects of Ghv
unloading caused by removal of the gravel. Although K0 is C Gvh
higher below the lagoon, the in situ horizontal effective Samples reconsolidated
B2(c) to in situ stresses
stresses are lower than below the drying beds, where the IC Ghh
10
gravel is in place. Also shown in Fig. 11 are the values of IC Ghv
K0 estimated from the block samples taken at Ashford Gvh resonant column
Common and quoted by Webb (1964): these are in close Samples reconsolidated
agreement with the values estimated for T5. to in situ stresses
B2(b) commercial tests
SGC Gvh
0
SEISMIC WAVE MEASUREMENTS
Elevation: mOD

Measurements of shear and compression wave velocities

in both downhole and crosshole tests were made by the
Building Research Establishment (BRE), using the borehole
B2(a)
array 406, 407, and 408. Vhv and Vhh were each measured
with the seismic source in borehole 408, with receivers in ⫺10 B(1)
boreholes 407 and 406, and with the source in borehole 406
and the receivers in boreholes 407 and 408. Thus measure-
ments were made using the true interval method. Vvh was
measured in downhole tests in borehole 407 with the shear
waves polarised in a north–south direction and east–west
direction. Values of Gvh , Ghv and Ghh were derived from the ⫺20
A3(2)
two sets of shear wave velocities, and the averages of the
two are plotted against elevation in Fig. 12. A3(1)
Repeatability of the Vhv and Vvh measurements was reason-
able above an elevation of 10 mOD; repeatability of the A2
Vhh measurements was poorer, and below an elevation of
⫺30
0 mOD there was much scatter in the data. Almost certainly
the anomalously high values of Ghh in unit B2(a) were the Fig. 12. In situ and laboratory measurements of dynamic shear
result of the horizontal shear waves passing through the moduli
10 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
8
stiffer sub-layers provided by the claystones and other
nodules when these lay close to the level of the energy Lab Ghh/Ghv
source in the borehole. In situ Ghh/Ghv
Despite the scatter, the overall difference between the
derived values of Ghh and Gvh or Ghv is clear and consistent
6
with other published data (e.g. Hight et al., 2002), confirm-
ing the strong anisotropy of small-strain stiffness in situ. In
situ values of Ghv = p90 and Gvh = p90, where p90 is the mean

Number of results
effective stress in situ, have an average value of approxi-
mately 360 whereas in situ values of Ghh = p90 have an
4
average value of approximately 700. (Although these values
can serve as a useful first indicator of in situ values, it
should not be assumed that normalisation of these small-
strain stiffnesses by p90 is a rational choice.)
In the commercial laboratory tests, measurements were
2
made of Vvh, using bender elements, after reconsolidating the
triaxial samples to in situ stresses. In the IC study, measure-
ments were also made after reconsolidating samples to in
situ stresses of both Vhv and Vhh using bender elements and
measurements of Vvh using a resonant column apparatus. The
0
values of Gvh , Ghv and Ghh derived from these measurements 1·3 1·4 1·5 1·6 1·7 1·8 1·9 2·0 2·1 2·2 2·3 2·4
have been added to Fig. 12. It is apparent that in units C, Ghh/Ghv
B2(c) and B2(b) the agreement between measured field and
laboratory values is reasonable. In unit B2(a), where the Fig. 13. Comparison of in situ and laboratory measurements of
influence of the frequent claystone layers on the in situ dynamic stiffness anisotropy
measurements has already been noted, and in unit A3, the
laboratory values are lower than the in situ values. The
Ghh max, Ghv max, E⬘hmax, E⬘vmax : MPa
ground level at the location where the in situ measurements
0 100 200 300 400
were made was approximately 3 m lower than the level at 20
which the rotary-cored boreholes were put down and the
level on which the reconsolidation stresses were based.
Allowing for this difference in p90 values will increase any
divergence between the two sets of measurements, although, C
based on the finding of Gasparre et al. (2007a) that the
B2(c)
effect of stress level on dynamic G values in the intact clay
10
was limited, the increased divergence will be small. It can
be seen in Fig. 12 that Gvh values derived from the resonant
column apparatus are slightly higher than those derived from
bender elements.
B2(b)
Although there are differences between the measured in
situ and laboratory values of dynamic stiffness, because of
scale effects and differences in wavelength, the anisotropy in 0
situ and in the laboratory samples, expressed as the ratio of
Elevation: mOD

Ghh /Ghv , is similar (see Fig. 13), the ratio having an average
value of 2 based on the laboratory measurements, but a
much wider scatter based on the in situ measurements.
B2(a)

⫺10 B(1)
STRESS PROBES
Gasparre et al. (2007b) describe the results of small-strain
stress probes aimed at establishing the drained stiffness
anisotropy of the natural London Clay. The limits to the E⬘h max
kinematic Y1 surface that encompasses the elastic range E⬘vmax
were established. When normalised by p90 a common surface Ghh max
was found for all tested units; behaviour within the relatively ⫺20
A3(2) Ghv max
small Y1 regions was essentially cross-anisotropic elastic,
although the compliance matrix terms varied with depth and
A3(1)
effective stresses. Fig. 14 presents the profiles of E9hmax and
E9vmax applying at in situ stresses, together with the data on A2
Ghv and Ghh from the bender element tests. The correspond-
ing Poisson’s ratios (9vh , 9hh and 9hv ) also showed strong ⫺30
anisotropy, having values far from those routinely assumed
in foundation analyses. The Poisson’s ratios were subject to Fig. 14. Profiles of dynamic and static small-strain stiffnesses
scatter (up to 0.15), and differences existed between
statically and dynamically determined values. However, the
overall trends were: for 9vh to fall between 0 and 0.3; for The probing tests also identified the second Y2 kinematic
9hh to be small and negative (0 to 0.2); and for 9hv to be surface that surrounded Y1 and defined the point at which
positive, larger (around 0.4 to 0.8), and to increase with (a) strain increment directions would change from their
depth. initial elastic patterns and (b) the soil microstructure would
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW
be altered by continued straining. The sizes of the Y2
kinematic surfaces also grew in proportion to p90 .
MODULUS DECAY CURVES
The modulus decay curves for the London Clay were
measured in commercial tests in four pairs of CAU
tests. Each pair of tests comprised an undrained triaxial
compression test and an undrained triaxial extension test on
rotary-cored samples taken from similar depths. The recon-
solidation paths differed between pairs of tests, in terms of
whether or not there was a reversal in stress path direction
when starting the undrained shear stage. The results from
each pair of tests are presented in Fig. 15 in terms of the
undrained secant modulus, Eu , normalised by the value of
the mean effective stress prior to the start of undrained
shear, p90 , plotted against axial strain on a log scale. The
normalised data are compared in these figures with a
previously established database of normalised modulus de-
cay for London Clay that has been used successfully in
predictions of ground movements.
The normalised stiffness data obtained by Gasparre (2005)
and by Nishimura (2006) from CAU tests in the IC study
has been added to Fig. 15. These normalised stiffnesses are
significantly lower than some of the measurements made in
the commercial tests, and lower than the database values.
The differences between the new IC tests and the tests for
which the database has been established are as follows.
(a) The rates of stress change on the approach path to the
in situ stress are lower in the new tests.
(b) The pause periods between the end of reconsolidation
and the start of undrained shear were of the order of
7 days, considerably longer than in earlier tests.
(c) The rate of undrained shearing (0.02%/h) was 10 times
slower than in the previous tests.
(d ) The samples were stored for longer periods.
(e) The methods of local strain measurement differed.
The suction values in the rotary cores tested at IC were
similar to those measured on site, immediately after taking
the samples: this, combined with the reasonable agreement
between laboratory and in situ measurements of dynamic
moduli in units C, B2(c) and B2(a), gives confidence that
the samples were of a high quality, and that there was not
an effect of sample storage. The effect of the difference in
rate of undrained shearing will have been relatively minor at
the very small strains, so that the most likely causes of the
lower normalised stiffnesses are the extended drained pause
periods before the start of undrained shearing and the slower
rates of stress change along the approach path to the in situ
stresses. Gasparre et al. (2007b) have confirmed the findings
of Clayton and Heymann (2001) that there are no effects of
recent stress history in tests on London Clay that involve
comparably short approach paths and long creep periods:
provided identical samples are tested, degradation curves
from undrained triaxial compression and extension tests
should start at the same elastic stiffnesses, but diverge with
increasing strain.
With insufficient pause periods there is interaction be-
tween creep and renewed shearing, with the effect depending
on whether or not there is a reversal in stress direction. In
tests in which the direction of undrained shearing is a
continuation of the direction of the approach stress path, and
of the direction of ongoing creep, the true stiffness will be
underestimated as a result of the creep strains, whereas in
tests in which the undrained shearing involves a reversal of
the loading direction the true stiffness will be overestimated
as a result of the creep strains.
The effect is graphically illustrated by the results of the
11
commercial tests, which were meticulously carried out to a
specification that required the creep rate to be 100 times
slower than the subsequent undrained shearing rate. Those
tests that involved a reversal of stress direction between
undrained loading and the final reconsolidation approach
path (tests marked as ‘reversal’ in Fig. 15) resulted in much
higher stiffnesses, whereas the tests in which the direction of
undrained shearing was a continuation of the direction of the
final reconsolidation approach path (tests marked as ‘no
reversal’ in Fig. 15) resulted in lower stiffnesses. In addition,
each pair of modulus decay curves for compression and
extension were separated at small strains as a result of
ongoing creep. The problem arises from the fact that,
although the undrained stages of the triaxial tests were run
with a nominal external rate of strain of 0.004%/min, the
internal strain rate was significantly slower during the early
stage of the tests as a result of compliance and bedding,
allowing additional creep strains to develop.
The differences between the modulus decay curves from
the new tests and those from the earlier commercial tests
can be explained by the extended drained pause periods
before the start of undrained shearing and the slower rates
of stress change along the approach path to the in situ
stresses in the new tests, but it remains to explain why the
database of higher modulus decay curves has been success-
ful when used in finite element analyses to predict ground
movements in London Clay (e.g. Jardine et al., 1991; Hight
et al., 1993; St John et al., 1993; Jardine et al., 2005).
These earlier predictions modelled the stress–strain non-
linearity of the clay, but assumed it to be isotropic, so that
factors relating to anisotropy may help to explain the
apparent anomaly.
The cross-anisotropic effective stress stiffness parameters
assessed for London Clay in the present study can be
rearranged (following, for example, the approaches set out
by Lings, 2001, or Nishimura, 2006) to derive equivalent
undrained relationships. Application to the data presented in
Fig. 14 indicates some interesting results. For example,
uniaxial horizontal undrained loading (which cannot be
performed in a standard triaxial cell) can be shown to give
Euh values over the limited elastic range greater than the Euv
values applying to undrained vertical compression or exten-
sion tests, with the ratio Euh /Euv ranging between 1.5 and
2.0. In the same way, the octahedral elastic shear stiffnesses
developed in undrained plane strain (active or passive) load-
ing are found to be significantly (30% or more) greater than
those applying in undrained triaxial tests, while plane strain
pure shear (applied on horizontal planes) may invoke a
similar global stiffness to the latter. In many cases, there-
fore, the effects of anisotropy, which have not been taken
into account, may have compensated for the effects of on-
going creep during the early stages of undrained shear
discussed above, and therefore the effects of differences in
strain rate. The degree of compensation would have varied
according to the boundary conditions involved in each type
of problem.
On the basis of Fig. 15 there is no major difference
between the normalised decay curves for the different units,
except for the sandier unit A2, which, consistent with find-
ings from other sites, has a higher normalised stiffness.
BULK STIFFNESS
Data on the decay of bulk modulus with volumetric strain
has been obtained from the recompression stages of the
triaxial tests, during reconsolidation to in situ stresses. The
bulk moduli, normalised by the current value of the mean
effective stress during swelling, p9, are plotted against volu-
metric strain in Fig. 16.
12 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
1·6
Commercial
C 10·3 m (reversal)
B2(b) 16·29 m (no reversal)
A3 34·46 m (no reversal)
A2 47·05 m (no reversal)
1·2
IC study
C7m
Previously established B2(c) 11 m (block)
bounds for London Clay
B2(c) 12·5 m
B2(a) 22·6 m
Eusec/1000p⬘o

A3 38·71 m
0·8 A3 36·1 m (fissure)

0·4

0
0·001 0·01 0·1 1 10
Axial strain: %
(a)

1·6

Commercial
B2(c) 11·35 m (no reversal)
1·2 B2(b) 19·96 m (reversal)
A3 37·4 m (reversal)
Previously established A2 48·67 m (reversal)
bounds for London Clay
IC study
C 8·2 m
Eusec/1000p⬘o

B2(c) 10·6 m
0·8 B2(b) 13·6 m
B2(b) 16·1 m
B2(b) 20·9 m
B2(a) 23 m
B2(a) 27·9 m
B2(a) 29·1 m

0·4

0
0·001 0·01 0·1 1 10

Axial strain: %
(b)

Fig. 15. Normalised modulus decay curves for: (a) undrained triaxial compression; (b)
undrained triaxial extension

Measurement of bulk stiffness is notoriously difficult, EFFECTIVE STRESS STRENGTH PARAMETERS

being affected by creep and inaccuracies in volume strain
measurements: external measurements of volume change are
unreliable, and internal assessments of volume change are
usually based on the measurement at only one diameter.
Although these problems contribute to the scatter shown in
Fig. 16, much of the scatter is between the different litholo-
gical units.
The results of the undrained triaxial compression and
extension tests on the rotary-cored and block samples are
shown in Fig. 17 for the different lithological units in terms
of their effective stress paths using coordinates of (
v 
h )/
2 and (
v9 þ
h9 )=2. In the tests carried out at IC it was
noted that in compression a shear zone formed immediately
pre-peak, confirming the findings of Sandroni (1975),
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW
600
7m
12·5 m
400 13 m
23 m
23·7 m
K⬘/p⬘
38·6 m
200
0
0·0001 0·001 0·01 0·1
Volumetric strain: %
Fig. 16. Normalised bulk modulus decay curves
whereas in extension the failure of all the samples tested by
Gasparre (2005) was influenced by a pre-existing fissure.
In units B2(c), B2(b), B2(a) and A3 there are sufficient
data to define two failure envelopes in triaxial compression
and extension, one representing a peak envelope to the stress
paths and one representing the post-rupture strength
(Burland, 1990). A linear approximation to a curved peak
envelope has been adopted. The definition of each envelope
is somewhat subjective, particularly when there is limited
data in triaxial extension and the identification of post-
rupture is not clear-cut. The failure envelopes are compared
in Fig. 18, which includes indicative envelopes for units C
and A2.
It can be seen from Fig. 18 that peak failure envelopes
for compression and extension loading rise with increasing
depth and therefore differ between lithological units. It
would appear that a significant cohesion intercept applies to
the deeper units, B2(a), A3 and A2, reflecting increasing
structure. The increasing lithification with depth is shown
clearly in Fig. 17(e) where the data for unit C, the upper-
most unit at T5, may be compared with those from unit A2,
the deepest.
In triaxial extension the post-rupture envelopes are similar
between all the units, with 9 lying between 168 and 188. In
triaxial compression the post-rupture envelopes for each sub-
unit from B2 are also effectively the same, when one allows
for the difficulty in defining that strength and for the
uncertainties in making area and membrane corrections. It
can also be seen that there is no difference in the post-
rupture strengths of the initially intact samples and those
with pre-existing fissures, indicating that the natural fissures
have not been subjected to large movements.
Nishimura et al. (2007) report the results of a series of
simple shear tests carried out in the hollow cylinder appara-
tus. The results are presented in Fig. 19 in terms of stress
paths given by (
1 
3 )/2 and (
19 þ
39 )=2. In the hollow
cylinder apparatus it is not possible to strain the samples
sufficiently to define a post-rupture strength. However, it is
apparent that the failure of several samples was influenced
by the presence of fissures, and a failure envelope to these
particular samples is given by 9 of 19.58. Although there is
evidence from the simple shear tests of a higher peak failure
envelope for unit B2(a) than for B2(b), both envelopes are
significantly lower than found for triaxial compression, sug-
gesting a more pervasive influence of the fissuring for this
shearing mode.
13
UNDRAINED STRENGTH
The undrained strength of the London Clay is determined
by the effective stress strength parameters applicable to the
particular volume of clay and direction of shearing, and by
the slope of the effective stress path, which is itself deter-
mined by the direction of shearing and the stiffness aniso-
tropy in the clay. The effect of shearing direction is
illustrated in Fig. 20 using the results of a set of undrained
hollow cylinder tests on block samples of the clay from an
elevation of 7 mOD reported by Nishimura et al. (2007). In
this test series b was fixed at 0.5, and the major principal
stress direction to the vertical during shear was 08, 238, 458,
678 and 908. As the major principal direction is rotated from
the vertical (Æ ¼ 08) both the relevant effective stress
strength failure envelope and the direction of the effective
stress path change. Superimposed on Fig. 20 are the peak
1 and post-rupture failure envelopes for unit B2(b) determined
from the triaxial compression tests. The peak in the hollow
cylinder apparatus (HCA) test with b ¼ 0.5 and Æ ¼ 0 is
close to the peak envelope found in triaxial compression (b
¼ 0, Æ ¼ 0), whereas the peak in the HCA test with b ¼
0.5 and Æ ¼ 67 is coincident with the post-rupture failure
envelope.
As a result of the anisotropy of the effective stress failure
envelopes and the anisotropy of stiffness, the undrained
strength of the London Clay is strongly anisotropic.
Nishimura et al. (2007) illustrate this by presenting both
undrained strength profiles for different shearing modes and
the variations in undrained strength with principal stress
direction at two levels.
BRITTLENESS
Both the drained and undrained brittleness, i.e. the drop from
peak to post-rupture strength, of the clay increases with depth,
and therefore varies with unit. Brittleness is reduced by fissures
that are aligned so that they are influential in the shearing
process. Unit A2, which appears not to be fissured and is the
deepest unit, shows extreme brittleness (see Fig. 17(e)).
DESTRUCTURING BY SWELLING
The swelling behaviour of the London Clay was of
particular importance for the T5 project, because it deter-
mined the behaviour of the piles supporting the main
terminal building, the construction of which resulted in a
significant net unloading of the ground, and it was influential
in determining the stand-up time of the temporary slopes.
Tests carried out on rotary-cored samples in the commercial
investigation revealed the major increase in expansibility of
the clay when swelled below effective stresses of approxi-
mately 75 kPa (Fig. 21). It was expected that swelling below
this threshold would lead to destructuring of the clay and to
a lowering of its failure envelope. Tests reported by
Gasparre et al. (2007a) confirmed that the swelling had a
significant effect on both initial stiffness and yield in com-
pression. However, as illustrated in Fig. 22, the swelling did
not appear to modify the peak failure envelope.
PERMEABILITY
Self-boring permeameter tests were carried out using a
technique recently introduced by Cambridge Insitu in which
a modified self-boring pressuremeter is advanced 1.2 m
beyond the base of a borehole and then withdrawn a
distance of 0.5 m to create a pocket in which the first
constant-flow permeability test is carried out. Subsequently
the pressuremeter is readvanced in stages, reducing the
length of the pocket in which the next constant-flow test is
 14 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP

17 m, 38 mm
12·5 m
11·4 m
ak ak
Pe 17·3 m Pe re
200 11 m, block 200 ptu
ure t-ru ure
t-ru
pt Pos t-rupt
Pos Pos

10·3 m 17·3 m

(σv ⫺ σh)/2: kPa

(σv ⫺ σh)/2: kPa

11·7 m 16·6 m
0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600
11·9 m (σ⬘v ⫹ σ⬘h )/2: kPa 20·9 m (σ⬘v ⫹ σ⬘h )/2: kPa
16·1 m
10·6 m 16·29 m
Post
-rup Post
ture -r uptu
13 m, 38 mm re
11·35 m 13·6 m Pe 19·96 m
Pe ⫺200 a k
⫺200 ak

(a) (b)

28 m 26·5 m 35·5 m
26 m, 38 mm 23·7 m
400 34·5 m 38 m, 38·7 m
28 m, 38 mm re
uptu 38 mm
200 st-r 38·5 m
Po 38·2 m
26·3 m 40 m
ak e
Pe 200 ptur
t-ru
Pos
36 m
(σv ⫺ σh)/2: kPa
(σv ⫺ σh)/2: kPa

37 m
27 m 24 m
0 0
0 200 400 600 0 200 400 600 800 1000
(σ⬘v ⫹ σ⬘h )/2: kPa (σ⬘v ⫹ σ⬘h )/2: kPa
31·4 m
29·1 m ⫺200 Post
37·4 m
Post-ru25·4 m Peak
-r uptu
re
pture
27·9 m
⫺200 Pea 28·2 m
k
⫺400

(c) (d)

47·05 m A2
t
Unit C A2
51 m, uni
it for
400 r un
38 mm
p t ure
Unit A2 k fo t-ru
Pea Pos
7 m, 38 mm
A2
r unit
200 e s id ual' fo
'R
C 7 m 10·3 m
nit
(σv ⫺ σh)/2: kPa

u
or
akf
Pe
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
11·35 m
10·6 m (σ⬘v ⫹ σ⬘h )/2: kPa
5·3 m
8·2 m Peak f
or u Post
⫺200 7m nit -r uptu
C re fo
r un
it C
Pea
k for
u nit 48·67 m
⫺400 A2

(e)

Fig. 17. Effective stress paths in undrained triaxial compression and extension (100 mm diameter rotary-cored samples except where
noted): (a) unit B2(c); (b) unit B2(b); (c) unit B2(a); (d) unit A3; (e) units C and A2
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW 15
ak
’ eak
p
‘pe A3 5°)
A2 ak ⫽2 3°)
400 e a k (φ⬘ 20·
φ⬘ ⫽
p e e
(b) p
) pea k r
tu °) ( Swelled samples ng
B2 ( a
B2 2(c) ost r 23 up
tu r e elli
B a) p (φ⬘ ⫽ ost rup B2(a) 21·45 m sw
B2p( ture
ut
A3
p B2(a) 22·45 m ho
r u 300 B2(a) 19·45 m wit
ost e ak g
200 c) p B2(a) 21·45 m )p llin
’ ⫹( (a swe
ak B2(b) B2 ut
(σv ⫺ σh)/2: kPa

pe
C‘ itho
re w

(σ1 ⫺ σ3)/2: kPa

200 -ru ptu
ost
0 a) p
0 200B2 400 600 800 1000 B2(
B2
(b)
(a) p
ost ru (σ⬘v ⫹ σ⬘h )/2: kPa
B2(b pture
⫹ )⫹( (φ⬘ ⫽
(c) c) po 16°) 100
pe A s t rup
ak 3 peak tur
⫺200 A
B2( e (φ⬘ ⫽ 3 post r
a) p 18°) uptu
eak re (φ
⬘ ⫽ 17
°)
A2 0
‘pe
ak’ 0 200 400 600
⫺400
(σ1⬘ ⫹ σ1⬘ ) / 2: kPa

Fig. 22. Effective stress paths of samples swelled to 10 kPa,

Fig. 18. Peak and post-rupture failure envelopes for different reconsolidated and sheared undrained in triaxial compression
lithological units

250 carried out. The permeability values determined from the

Unit
C 28·2 m first stage of each self-boring permeameter test are plotted
200 B2(b) 20·7 m
B2(a) against depth in Fig. 23 and compared with other reliable in
(σ1 ⫺ σ3)/2: kPa

16·3 m block
A3 situ measurements made at sites in London Clay. The T5
150 7 m block
data fit within the broad trends of the existing data; values
2 (a)
B in unit B2(a) are noticeably higher, presumably being influ-
ak’ )
100 ‘Pe ’ B2(b 34·2 m
e a k enced by the silt and sand seams.
‘P 9·5° 25·2 m
13·2 m 22·4 m
1
50 φ⬘ ⫽ 5·7 m 29·7 m 31·2 m
8·7 m 16·2 m 19·2 m
29·7 m
0 DISCUSSION
0 100 200 300 400 500 Lithological units
(σ1⬘ ⫹ σ1⬘ ) / 2: kPa
Taking into account the subtle changes in depositional
Fig. 19. Effective stress paths in simple shear tests environment and resulting variations in composition and
fabric, it is reasonable to expect vertical variations in the
mechanical properties of the London Clay, over and above
ak on those due to differences in stress state, and for these to
250 pe ssi
α: degrees (b) mpre ture correlate with the lithological units defined by King (1981).
2 rup
0
B co
l 9 0 ) post- ression In contrast, only a gradual variation in properties can be
200 xia α ⫽ B2(b comp
23 tria ial
(σ1 ⫺ σ3)/2: kPa

45 0 triax expected laterally, unless there has been faulting or other

α ⫽23 4 5 ⫽ 67 tectonic events.
150 67 α⫽ α
90 α⫽ Research and commercial testing described in this paper,
100 and in the companion papers of Gasparre et al. (2007a,
2007b) and Nishimura et al. (2007), has confirmed that there
50
are important differences in the behaviour between the
0
lithological units. Units B2(a), A3 and A2 are clearly more
0 100 200 300 400 500 structured than the overlying units, having significant cohe-
(σ1⬘ ⫹ σ1⬘ ) / 2: kPa sive components of strength. Unit A2 is the most brittle, but
is non-fissured. Anisotropy increases with the depth of unit
Fig. 20. Effect of principal stress direction on stress path
inclination and on failure envelope in HCA tests and varies within units. Except for unit A2, there are no
major differences between the modulus decay curves of the
different units.
6·00 Establishing the elevation of the boundaries between these
units is therefore a prerequisite in any advanced investigation
of London Clay sites. As the units appear to be of consistent
404 3·30 m
404 4·78 m thickness, it is sufficient to establish the base of the London
404 8·91 m
406 13·55 m Clay at a site in order to anticipate the position of the
4·00 406 18·96 m
Vertical strain: %

406 24·17 m lithological units within the profile.

406 30·91 m
406 35·23 m
406 38·54 m
406 41·59 m
406 47·46 m Assessment of strength
For clay that has not been subject to previous shearing
2·00
there are two bounds to the effective stress strength para-
meters of the London Clay: an upper bound given by the
parameters defining the peak failure envelope for the intact
clay, that is, without fissures; and a lower bound given by
0 the parameters defining the strength on a fissure. The fissure
0 100·00 200·00 300·00 400·00 500·00 strength was determined by Skempton et al. (1969) to
Vertical effective stress: kPa
correspond to c9 ¼ 0 and 9 ¼ 20o . It has been shown that
Fig. 21. One-dimensional swelling of intact London Clay these parameters also apply approximately to the post-
16 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
Horizontal permeability: m/s
1 ⫻ 10⫺12 1 ⫻ 10⫺11 1 ⫻ 10⫺10 1 ⫻ 10⫺9 1 ⫻ 10⫺8
0

ce
surfa
Near
B2(b)

B2(a)

10 B2(b) B2(b)
A3
A2 A3
B2(b)
A3
A2 A2
A3 B2(a) B2(a)
A3
A2 A2
Depth below ground level: m

A3
20
A2 A2
A3
A2

est
A2 A2

nd w
East of basin

a
A2

tral
A3

cen
A2 A2
A3
30
A2 A3 A2 central A2
A3
A2

A2
A2
40
A2
A3
Bradwell; Chandler et al. (1990)
Wraysbury; Garga (1970)
Warden Point; Dixon (1986)
Clacton
Kennington
50
T5
A2
Camden Town
Lithological units assigned Guildford; Hutchinson (1984)
retrospectively except T5, Westminster; Burland
Camden Town and Whitechapel & Hancock (1977)
Whitechapel

Fig. 23. Permeability measurements at T5 using self-boring pressuremeter compared with

database

rupture strength in triaxial extension and in simple shear,
and to the intrinsic strength of the clay.
The effective stress strength parameters that apply to a
particular volume of clay will lie between these two bounds
and will be determined by the spacing, extent and orienta-
tion of the fissures, by the direction of shearing, and by the
kinematic constraints—that is, whether potential shear sur-
faces can seek out the lower-strength fissures. It is not
necessarily the case that a small sample will provide the
intact strength, although this is more likely; nor is it likely
that any sample will fail wholly on a fissure and so define
the fissure strength. For a fixed sample size and for a fixed
direction of shearing, fissures, because of their varying
extent and location, introduce major natural variability.
The preferred orientation of the fissures in London Clay
means that fissures are more likely to be influential for
certain directions of loading. In its simplest form this is
demonstrated by a comparison in Fig. 24 between the effec-
tive stress strength values found in triaxial compression and
in triaxial extension. It is evident that extension strengths
are likely to be closer to the fissure strength than compres-
sion strengths. Adding the failure points from the simple
shear tests carried out in the hollow cylinder apparatus
reinforces the importance of shearing direction and the
preferred orientation of the fissures, with several of the
failure points falling on or close to the fissure strength
envelope. While fissures were influential in all the triaxial
extension tests reported by Gasparre et al. (2007), this is not
always the case, as shown in Figs 17 and 24. The similarity
between the fissure strength and post-rupture strengths in
triaxial extension and simple shear is another indicator of
the influence of the fissures on these modes of shearing.
For clays that have previously been sheared there is a
bound below the fissure strength that is determined by the
amount of displacement on the shear surface and by whether
that movement was on a pre-existing fissure or not. Chandler
et al. (1998) report the strength on a tectonic shear to be
13.5 degrees, which, because of the limited movement on
the shear surface, is slightly higher than the ultimate lower
bound, namely the residual strength, which lies between 10
and 12 degrees.
Clearly an assessment of strength requires knowledge of
the fissure spacing, extent and orientations, in relation to the
direction of shearing, as well as the parameters defining the
intact and fissure strengths. If the clay has been sheared
previously then knowledge is required of the location of the
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LONDON CLAY FROM TERMINAL 5 SITE, HEATHROW 17
IC study on rotary cores presence of the sand and silt seams, which allow water
Triaxial compression
Triaxial extension content redistribution, and which appear to be more perva-
Simple shear
sive towards the top of each lithological unit
Commercial investigations
Rotary cores compression
Rotary cores extension
Thin-wall tube samples compression
600
Thin-wall tube samples extension CONCLUSIONS
It has been known for many years that the shear strength
of natural London clay is profoundly affected by fissuring,
38 and that its shear stiffness is highly non-linear. The over-
riding influence of fissuring in natural London Clay has been
400
(σ1 ⫺ σ3)/2: kPa

38 reaffirmed in this study, and advanced HCA testing has

38 shown that it contributes to a marked anisotropy in shear
20°
38 φ⬘ ⫽ strength. The clay’s stiffness anisotropy has also been ex-
38
plored at all strain levels. Strong elastic anisotropy has been
38 38
200
38s
s
φ⬘ ⫽ 1
2° established within kinematic Y1 yield surfaces that have
been established over the depth profile, together with a
38s second set of Y2 kinematic yield surfaces. Stiffness anisotro-
38s py, which is related to preferred orientation of the clay
0 aggregates, determines the generation of pore pressures
0 200 400 600 800 during undrained shear and contributes, with the preferred
(σ1⬘ ⫹ σ1⬘ ) / 2: kPa orientation of the fissures, to the substantial undrained
Fig. 24 Effective stress failure points for different types of strength anisotropy of the clay.
sample in undrained triaxial compression, triaxial extension and The study has emphasised the correlation between engi-
simple shear. 100 mm samples except where noted; s swelled neering properties and the different lithological units of the
prior to undrained shear London Clay. Significantly different behaviours arise both
from changes in intrinsic behaviour and also from differ-
ences in structure. These latter are particularly evident in the
peak shear strength characteristics and compression behav-
existing shear surfaces and the amount of movement on
iour, while permeability is seen to reduce sharply with
them. If the brittleness of the clay is not modelled explicitly
depth, following a pattern that also correlates well with the
in analyses then allowance must be made for the effects of
lithological units.
progressive failure as the strength drops from peak to post-
The new findings regarding permeability, stiffness and
rupture to residual.
shear strength have many implications for geotechnical
engineering in deposits such as London Clay, affecting the
timing of works and the assessment of stability as well as
Assessment of stiffness
the magnitudes, patterns and rates of ground movements.
It is clear that reliable measurements of modulus decay in
the laboratory require longer drained pause periods than
have been applied in the past, and the requirement for a
100-fold difference between ongoing creep rate and subse- NOTATION
quent externally applied undrained shearing rate needs to be b intermediate principal stress ratio
increased to allow for compliance and bedding effects. c9 apparent cohesion
Preferably strain rates should be controlled on the basis of C c
intrinsic compression index
feedback from local measurements of axial strain. C
s intrinsic swelling index
e void ratio
Claystone layers and other nodule bands complicate the
E9hmax , E9vmax maximum drained Young’s moduli for horizontal
interpretation of in situ measurements of dynamic stiffness, and vertical loading
particularly in unit B2(a) and below. Eu undrained Young’s modulus
Euh , Euv undrained Young’s moduli for horizontal and
vertical loading
Sampling effects Ghh shear modulus in the horizontal plane
The new research, and earlier work, has shown that Ghv , Gvh shear modulus in the vertical plane
rotary-cored samples are generally of a similar quality to Ghhmax , Ghvmax maximum value of Ghh , Ghv
block samples, and has highlighted potential problems with Gmax maximum shear modulus
pushed thin-wall tube samples for the measurement of stiff- Ip plasticity index
Iv void index
ness and strength. Unless a residual surface is perfectly K9 drained bulk modulus
aligned in a triaxial sample it is unlikely that residual K0 coefficient of earth pressure at rest
strengths will be mobilised in triaxial tests. However, the M q/p9 at critical state in compression
data presented in Fig. 24 show that strengths close to the p9 mean effective stress during swelling
residual have been observed in triaxial extension tests on p90 mean effective stress prior to start of undrained
100 mm samples taken by pushed thin-wall tube sampling. shear
This can possibly be explained by movement on the fissures q deviatoric stress (
1 –
3 )
during the tube sampling process and by the need for only Vhh shear wave velocity of horizontally polarised shear
small movements on a fissure to drop towards residual wave travelling horizontally
Vhv shear wave velocity of vertically polarised shear
strength. It follows from this that the presence of fissures
wave travelling horizontally
during sampling can be influential in terms of sample Vvh shear wave velocity of horizontally polarised shear
disturbance. Mismatching of fissure surfaces, which would wave travelling vertically
affect small-strain stiffness, is possible if suctions are not wI, wp liquid and plastic limits
sustained across the surfaces. Æ angle of inclination of major principal stress to
All types of sample can be adversely affected by the vertical
18 HIGHT, GASPARRE, NISHIMURA, MINH, JARDINE AND COOP
9hh drained Poission’s ratio for horizontal strains due to
horizontal strain
9hv drained Poission’s ratio for horizontal strains due to
vertical strain
9vh drained Poission’s ratio for vertical strains due to
horizontal strain

h,
v horizontal and vertical total stresses

h9 ,
v9 horizontal and vertical effective stresses

1 ,
3 major and minor principal total stresses

19 ,
39 major and minor principal effective stresses
9 angle of shearing resistance
9cs critical state angle of shearing resistance
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