*The Iliad By Homer (Condensed Version) The Iliad is an epic poem that was once told orally in song

by traveling poets, or minstrels and was later written down by Homer. Epics are distinct from other poetry for a number of reasons: they focus on a hero who is larger than life, u sually stronger, braver, or more intelligent than other men; the hero performs s ome dangerous feat that saves his nation or his tribe; the setting is vast and g rand and often extends into the supernatural; the action encompasses deeds of va lor; the hero must overcome tremendous odds and obstacles; and the language and style of the poem is grand and elaborate to match the story. This language rema ined intact even when poets like Homer transferred the poems from an oral to a w ritten format. Scholars were able to determine the date of Homer's writing by tracing the histo ry of oral epics and of written language. They knew that epic poems were origin ally recited from memory. And they also knew that the ability to compose and re cite poems of such length was one that existed only in preliterate society. So they concluded that The Iliad was recorded soon after writing was introduced int o Greece. From studies of the earliest examples of Greek writing, found inscrib ed on bronze and stone, they could set this date at about 750 B.C. Either Homer himself put the story down on paper or, more likely, he dictated it to a scribe. If this happened in 750 B.C., then he was writing of events that took place 500 years earlier, for the date of the Trojan War is generally believ ed to be around 1250 B.C. This means that The Iliad provides us with informatio n on two important ages of history - the Trojan War itself and the period of Hom eric Greece, 500 years later. To historians and archaeologists, Homer's work of fers priceless information about life in the Bronze Age, including burial custom s, tribal organization, class distinctions and warfare. Homer provides us with our first real glimpse into early Greek philosophy, religious life, and social s tructure, which were already in an advanced stage of development when he wrote. The time he is writing of, during the Trojan War, is referred to as the Mycenae an Age and it was the first truly Greek world. He is the only connecting link b etween that age and the dark centuries from 1100 to 800 B.C., of which we have l ittle information. During those times, the Greeks were overrun by the Dotfans, a rather barbaric society that managed to decimate Greek culture and destroy all efforts at early writing. Homer appeared at the end of that dark time, when th e culture was re-emerging, along with written language. His destiny was to writ e of the early Greek ancestors, that preceded the dark times, and as such he bec ame an interpreter of the Greeks for the Greeks, and for modern historians as we ll. The Iliad and The Odyssey are each about 350 pages long and it's remarkable to t hink that at one time, poets were able to memorize this much material and relate it to their audiences. Yet, that's exactly what they did. For one thing, in s ocieties where there is no writing, people's memories are superior to those of p eople living in literate societies. Even today, in some parts of eastern Europe , there are poets who can recite from memory poems of equal length to The Iliad. But the Greek poets also had certain techniques for jogging their memories. F or one thing, an epic poem consists of lines which are the same in meter, and th ere is a certain rhythm to each line that helps the poet remember his words. Th e poet would also create certain phrases and lines to express a thought that was repeated often, and these phrases were worked into a formula. The phrases and formulas were passed down from poet to poet until, over the years, it was possib le to compose an epic of great length and complexity. In the case of The Iliad, it's believed that some of the phrases date all the way back to the Trojan War itself and were passed down from generation to generation. That means parts of this remarkable poem are over 3000 years old! As the years passed, more and more

of these phrases were retained in the collective memory of the minstrels, thus increasing the store of formulas. By the time the epic reached Homer, it was fu lly developed and ready to be recorded. This opportunity was one that no person before Homer could have possibly had. H e lived at a time when the Phoenician traders brought with them an alphabet that was being adapted into the Greek language, and made writing possible. As the u se of writing spread throughout Greece, so did homer's poem. Every child who wa s taught to read, was taught Homer, including Alexander the Great, who memorized all the passages of The Iliad that referred to his favorite hero, Achilles. Gr eeks prided themselves on being able to recite long passages of The Iliad and Th e Odyssey. Greek authors quoted Homer the way scholars today quote the Bible or Shakespeare. There were of course no printing machines in Homer's days so every copy of his p oems had to be written separately by scribes, on papyrus. Papyrus decomposed af ter a period of time, so new copies were constantly being made. Since scribes w ere inevitably bound to make mistakes in their lengthy copies, so there were man y different versions of Homer's works being circulated. Finally, in the third c entury B.C., a group of scholars gathered in Alexandria and examined copies of H omer's works - from these copies they produced a standard text. Then, when parc hment was developed, his works were transferred to this more durable substance. They were copied and recapped throughout the Middle Ages. Homer's influence th en reached through the Classical Age, into the Roman Empire, into the Renaissanc e, and on into the modern era. He was a particular favorite of the English roma ntics who saw in Homer a type of noble savage they had idealized. He was also p opular on the continent. Goethe taught himself to read Homer in Greek when he w as only 21. Throughout all these ages and lands, Homer's critical reputation rem ained strong and he was always admired and emulated. Some scholars believe that Homer didn't really write his epics, or at least that he didn't write them alone. They believe that the poems were written jointly b y a group of writers, who used the name "Homer" as their collective pseudonym. Or they believe Homer was a person, but that he had help in writing his poems. Some believe he wrote The Iliad but not The Odyssey, and others believe the oppo site. Still others believe he collected a lot of sagas but did no writing of hi s own. These issues of authorship have become known in literature as "The Homer ic Question." The great majority of scholars agree however that Homer was real; he was a poet who knew The Iliad and The Odyssey by heart and told it orally; an d at one point he wrote it or had it written down by a scribe. In addition, mos t scholars believe that Homer wrote The Iliad when he was a young man and wrote The Odyssey when he was in middle age. The poem recounts only one short period of the Trojan War. The war lasted ten y ears and this is the story of the last of those years. There is a lot of legend or history that precedes the story and a lot that follows it, that also involve s the main characters. The ancient Greek audience would have been familiar with these events, but we, of course, need an update. The most important event that has happened before the poem begins is that Paris, a young Trojan, has run off with Helen, the wife of Menelaus, who is a Greek. Paris was a guest in Menelaus' house when he fell in love with Helen, who was sa id to be the most beautiful woman of her times, and so he simply whisked her awa y to his native city, Troy. The reason that fate led Paris to Helen is also imp ortant, as it affects later events in the poem. It seems that one day the godde sses Athena, Hera, and Aphrodite, asked Paris which of them he found most beauti ful. Athena said that if he found her beautiful, she would reward him with wisd om and military success; Hera said that if he found her most beautiful, she woul d reward him with wealth and power; and Aphrodite said that if she was the faire st of all, she would reward him with love and the most beautiful woman in the wo

rld. Paris chose Aphrodite. As a result he was awarded with Helen and her love . But unfortunately, as another result, he had forever made enemies of the slig hted Athena and Hera, who vowed to destroy both him and Troy. This is of critic al importance to the story of The Iliad because throughout the battles of the Tr ojan War, Athena and Hera will do all they can to thwart Paris' success while Ap hrodite will try to help him. Menelaus, Helen's husband, called all his generals to go with him to conquer Tro y and bring back Helen. They reached Troy and surrounded the city, placing Achi lles, their best warrior, at one end, and the famous Ajax at the other. For nin e years they tried to penetrate the Trojan wall, unsuccessfully. This is the ba ckground necessary to understand the story of The Iliad. The story itself revolves around the hero Achilles, the mightiest of the Greek w arriors. His wrath and his pride are central themes in the epic and lead to tra gic results. Achilles withdraws from the battle after he's insulted by Agamemno n, commander-in-chief of the Greek army, who takes his mistress away from him. In short, Achilles is sulking. While he sulks, his companions face disaster and his best friend since childhood is killed. This arouses his fury and he return s to battle on a violent rampage of revenge, slaughtering all in his path, inclu ding the noble Hector, who is the chief defender of Troy, and the other hero of the epic. Also playing a role in this drama is Odysseus, who will later be the hero in The Odyssey. Both Odysseus and Achilles had been told their fates befor ehand: Achilles knew he was to die in Troy and Odysseus knew he wouldn't be able to return home for twenty years. Achilles headed for Troy anyway, convinced a short honorable life was preferable to a long, mediocre life. Odysseus, on his part, tries to avoid going by feigning insanity, a ruse that is quickly discover ed. Achilles does die in Troy, when Paris shoots an arrow into his famous vulne rable heel, but this happens after the end of The Iliad. Odysseus, for his part , is doomed to twenty years of travel, and this of course is what makes up the s tory of The Odyssey. There are three basic plots or themes in The Iliad. First is the individual; a story of Achilles, of his uncontrolled anger, and his tragic destiny. Second, i s the story of the Trojan War, with a focus on this one year; and third is the r elationship between men and the gods, or the forces of fate. So we have a perso nal theme, a social theme, and a universal theme. All three are tragic, althoug h the universal theme, of men and Gods, has occasional touches of humor and iron y. The attitudes and ideals portrayed by Homer are uniquely Greek but they also hav e relevance for us today. That is why The Iliad remains a work of universal and seemingly eternal appeal. Plato called it "the Bible of all Hellas," (Hellas b eing the Greek world) and he said this four centuries after Homer had written hi s masterpiece. For the modern reader, it's sometimes difficult to see, at first glance, why suc h an epic is considered so profound. Because on the surface, The Iliad seems to be just a gruesome, bloody war story with lots of graphic death scenes, and a h ero who is sulky, proud, and stubborn. That, of course, is just the surface. I n reality, The Iliad, is an epic myth, a symbolic attempt to explore man's psych ological make-up and his predicament in the universe, through poetry. This part icular myth suggests, in the long run, the helplessness of men in relation to ex ternal powers, the power of destiny, and the discord and stress that results fro m man's weaknesses. The true origins of the Trojan War were as mysterious and s hadowy to Homer and his contemporaries as they are to us today. So Homer had th e freedom and opportunity to create a myth around that war that could then explo re themes relevant to all wars and to men in general. The days of the Trojan War and of Homer's Greece are far away from us now - yet

Homer's poems easily transport us to those ancient times. His characters are di stinct and lifelike; his scenes are richly described; and the timeless themes of the story settle into the deepest levels of our consciousness. We know very little about the man who wrote these two remarkable poems, and ther e are many more questions about him than answers. Some people believe that Home r was blind, based on certain references he made in some of his poetry. Even th ough the life of a bard might be an ideal profession for a blind man, there is n o indisputable evidence that Homer was indeed blind. There is really only one b iographical statement that can be made about Homer with confidence: He was an Io nian, probably from the island of Chios. Ionia was the name the Greeks applied to the islands off Asia Minor, and to Asia Minor itself. Homer was born sometim e between 850 and 750 B.C., at the end and the beginning of a long tradition of epic poetry and troubadours. He was at the end of the tradition of oral poetry which had flourished for many centuries before him in Greece, although his writt en epics of these are all that survive of them. He stands at the beginning of t he history of Greek literature, a very prominent history indeed. The Greeks are a nation of storytellers and Homer is the earliest example we have of that este emed tradition. We know more of Homer's time than we do of Homer, and more of the times he wrote about, which is valuable in contributing insight and understanding to his work. Perhaps the essential fact about ancient Greece that plays a part in The Iliad is that the greatest value men had was that of glory. Achieving glory was thei r primary goal and motivation. The purpose of achieving glory was to guarantee themselves immortality, for the Greeks believed that death was the ultimate fact of man's reality and that the only way to transcend it was in lasting fame and honor. Heroes were constantly in fear of disgrace and spent little time, if any , considering personal morals - the opinion of their community and comrades was all that mattered. If heroes failed to recognize how much their actions were ru led by the gods, they would fail and make tragic errors. They were expected to voice their own greatness but at the same time, to show modesty to the gods. Th ey also accepted the pattern of heroism, which included suffering and death. Th e only way for a man to prove his social status and his honor was on the battlef ield - there were few other arenas. These beliefs explain the actions of Homer' s heroes and give perspective to the war itself. War was an opportunity to gain this all-important glory. Troy is not just a city to be defeated and looted; i t's a city that may grant the victor immortality. To the Homeric Greeks the most important quality a man could have was what they called "arete" which means excellence, or a power of excellence, or the ability to excel. This is what every hero strove to achieve; it is the quality that bro ught him honor among his fellowmen. It was the means to his glory and therefore to his immortality. The society and life Homer portrays is a composite of Mycenaean civilization and successive eras of Greek history, up until Homer's time. During the passing of those ages, the poems were being passed along orally through the generations, a nd each generation was adding and modifying them, from their own current point o f view. For instance, Homer was from Ionia, a section of Greece noted at the ti me for its sense of individuality. In Ionia, poems were recited by one person, in contrast other areas of Greece, where poetry was sung by many people. And in stead of songs about communal spirit, as was also common in other areas, the Ion ian poems exalted the spirit of the individual. Both The Iliad and The Odyssey distinguish individual characters and praise their accomplishments. Through excavations at the ruins of Troy, archaeologists now believe that the Tr ojan War occurred about the year 1250. At this time, society was similar to tha t of the Middle Ages - it was basically feudal. Greece was broken up into many small kingdoms, each ruled by a king, and these kingdoms were made up of houses

or estates that were called "oikos." Life revolved around the household, which h ad a master, his family, and servants and slaves. The slaves were females who h ad been captured in conquered cities - the men in such cities were always slaugh tered. Each house had its own land and was self- sufficient. The householder w as the nobleman of his day. The only person superior to him was the king of his land, who would sometimes call the nobles into assembly to discuss important ma tters. This same hierarchy was maintained on the battlefield. The warriors, like Achil les and Odysseus, were all noblemen or householders, and the generals, like Agam emnon, were all kings. Agamemnon, who was the leader of the Greek forces at Tro y, was king of the largest, most powerful Greek city of that time - Mycenae. Th at is why this period of time is referred to as the Mycenaean Age. Their goal o n the battlefield was of course glory, immortality, and the demonstration of the ir "arete" or excellence. Singing minstrels developed partly so that this lasti ng glory and immortality could be guaranteed. Their task was to make sure that future generations would know of the marvelous deeds of the heroes in past gener ations. That task was clearly successful - for today, 3000 years after the Trojan War wa s fought, readers still find themselves mesmerized by Homer's arresting story of it. The hero of the story is Achilles, a man who is half mortal and half immortal. His mother was the goddess Thetis and his father was a man. Thetis dipped Achil les in the River Styx when he was born, rendering him immortal everywhere except his heel. Now he is the greatest warrior in the Greek army and a consummate Gr eek hero. But he has flaws too - his pride is excessive; he's headstrong; and h is wrath is the dominant theme of the poem. Achilles' death is frequently predi cted in The Iliad and he will be slain by Paris with an arrow shortly after the end of the poem. AGAMEMNON is the king of Mycenae, Greece's largest city, and commands the Greek forces at Troy, He is also brother of Menelaus, the husband of Helen. Agamemnon is irresolute and often makes foolish decisions - he is challenged by the indep endent Achilles, who is younger and far braver than the king. ODYSSEUS is another Greek warrior, brave and strong, but known more for his shre wdness and guile. He seems less influenced by the code of honor than his fellow nobles and more interested in survival. HELEN is the only mortal woman who plays a major role in the story. She was mar ried to Menelaus but ran off to Troy with Paris. Helen is supposedly the most b eautiful woman in the world and she's also very passionate. Nevertheless, she h as some deeper qualities and seems to wish she could rise above her own nature. She admires the manliness of her husband in battle, deciding he's superior to P aris, her lover, who's rather an irresponsible playboy type. She also admires H ector, the noble Trojan who is the main defender of his city. HECTOR is commander of all the Trojan forces, the greatest of the Trojan warrior s, and a man of great virtues. He's conscious of his duty and his responsibilit ies to his people; he's a devoted family man; and he's willing to sacrifice hims elf for his people. Hector's only flaw is a tendency to over-confidence and a c oncern or his reputation, but generally he merges as the complete antithesis of the other hero, Achilles. PARIS is the other important g off with Helen. He has no hat matter. Paris is smooth the warriors of either side, Trojan, the man who started the whole war by runnin concern or guilt about this, or anything else for t and glib and pleasure-seeking; he's not admired by who think he's cowardly and lacks manliness. Paris

is Hector's brother. The gods also play an important part in the story of The Iliad, as they do in mo st ancient Greek stories. Here's a brief reminder of who they are: ZEUS is the supreme god and king of Olympus. His duty is to carry out the will of destiny so he's officially neutral in the war, although he actually has a sym pathy for the Trojans. APOLLO is a son of Zeus, fighting on the Trojan side. He's the god of prophecy, light, poetry, and music. ATHENA is a daughter of Zeus, goddess of wisdom and war. She plays a prominent role fighting on the side of the Greeks, in revenge against Paris for choosing h er sister Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess. HERA is the wife and sister of Zeus, the goddess of married love. She fights fo r the Greeks for the same reason Athena does - Paris offended her too in choosin g Aphrodite. APHRODITE is another daughter of Zeus, goddess of passionate love. She is the p atron of Paris, so she fights on the Trojan side. There are many other gods and many other mortals in The Iliad but these are the most prominent. Now let us begin the story. In a recent raid on a town near Troy, Achilles and Agamemnon have each been awar ded a slave girl. Agamemnon's girl is the daughter of a priest, who comes beggi ng for her return. Agamemnon refuses and in despair the priest prays to Apollo for revenge on the Greeks. A plague descends on the camp and many men die. On the tenth day of the plague Achilles goes over Agamemnon's head and assembles th e army. He calls for a soothsayer who says the plague is the result of Agamemno n's refusal to return the girl to her father. Agamemnon is furious and demands that if he must give up his girl then he must be repaid with Achilles' girl. Th is enrages Achilles who considers stabbing Agamemnon but is restrained by the go ddess Athena. Nestor, the oldest and wisest of the soldiers, pacifies the two m en. But Achilles feels disgraced and announces he's withdrawing his troops from the battle. He says he has no personal quarrel with the Trojans anyway, and wa s fighting only to help Agamemnon and Menelaus in retrieving Menelaus' wife, Hel en. It is unjust to take his war prize, the slave girl, from him. He resolves to fight no more. After Agamemnon sends a herald to collect Achilles' girl, Achilles wanders by th e seashore, weeping over his disgrace. He asks his mother, a goddess, to enlist Zeus' aid in helping the Trojans defeat his fellow Greeks so they will realize his true worth, for Achilles is their strongest warrior. Zeus agrees but he kno ws this will inspire the wrath of his wife Hera, who hates the Trojans. To fulfill his promise, Zeus sends a false dream of hope to Agamemnon who become s convinced he can defeat the Trojans in the next battle. When the Trojans hear about the planned assault, Hector orders his troops to meet the Greeks on the p lain in front of Troy. The two armies advance on one another. Paris steps forward and challenges any o f the Greeks to meet him in personal combat, but when Menelaus accepts the chall enge, Paris is overcome by fear and hides within the Trojan ranks. When he rece ives a scolding from his brother, Hector, he agrees to the duel. The terms are that the winner is awarded Melen and a treaty of peace will end the war. They f ight with javelin and sword and Menelaus wounds Paris and starts to drag him tow ards the Greek lines. But the goddess Aphrodite interferes and rescues Paris by

concealing him in a mist - she carries him to his bedroom and brings Helen to j oin him. Agamemnon declares Menelaus has won the battle and demands that Helen be returned to the Greeks. On Olympus, Zeus supports Agamemnon's claim and declares the war should be over. But his wife Hera convinces him to continue the war, since she wants to see Tr oy completely destroyed. He gives in and sends the goddess Athena down to arran ge a continuation of the fighting. Athena inspires a Trojan solider to shoot an arrow at Agamemnon, assuring him it will bring him lasting fame. The injury to Agamemnon isn't serious but the Gre eks are appalled by this violation of the truce. They arm themselves, fall into line, and prepare for another battle. The clash between the two armies is viol ent and large numbers of men on both sides are killed. The outstanding warrior this day is the Greek soldier Diomedes, whom Athena has inspired with exceptiona l courage and skill. She gives him sight so he can distinguish the men on the f ield from the gods. But when the goddess Aphrodite protects a Trojan solider, D iomedes wounds her - she returns to Olympus crying and Zeus warns her to stay of f the battlefield in the future. Ares, who is Aphrodite's lover, now enters the battle, helping the Trojan leader, Hector. Ares has a strong and brutal influe nce and soon the Greeks withdraw to camp. Now Hera and Athena fly to the aid of the Greeks. They give fresh strength to t he wounded Diomedes and he storms back into battle, wounding the god Ares and se nding him flying back to Olympus. Then Athena and Hera return to Olympus too, l eaving only mortals on the battlefield at Troy. The Greeks charge on - there is much slaughter and the Trojans begin a full retr eat. In Troy, Hector agrees with the women that a sacrifice must be made in Ath ena's temple. Then he seeks his brother Paris, whom he finds lounging with Hele n. He rebukes him and Paris agrees he has disgraced himself and must join the f ight. Then Hector visits his wife and baby son. His wife begs him not to endan ger himself any longer but Hector speaks of his duty to Troy. He then admits th at in his heart he knows Troy will fall. He worries about what will happen to h is wife and child after he's dead but knows he cannot change the will of the god s. Hector and Paris rejoin the Trojan forces and the battle resumes. Athena and Ap ollo decide there must be a duel between two opposing warriors so they send this information to Hector. But Hector has a fierce reputation and no Greek offers to meet him. Nestor gives a stirring speech that finally inspires nine warriors to volunteer and after the drawing of lots, it is decided that Ajax shall meet Hector. Ajax and Hector engage in a ferocious duel in which neither can overcom e the other. A temporary truce is called. In Troy, some of the Trojans appeal to Paris to return Helen and end the war. P aris refuses. On Olympus, Zeus tells the gods he is about to end the Trojan War and any interference on their parts won't be tolerated. However, when Athena a sks to be allowed to advise the Greeks, he gives her permission. The armies clash again the next morning while Zeus watches from nearby Mt. Ida. The Trojans are victorious that day and the Greek commanders flee. The Trojans pursue them, with Rector at their lead, cheering and fighting bravely on. Hera and Athena prepare to intervene on behalf of the Greeks but Zeus notices their approach and sends them back to Olympus. The Trojans drive the Greeks back behi nd their fortifications and then camp in the open for the night, ready to take u p battle in the morning. The Greeks are completely demoralized. Even King Agam emnon bursts into tears, proclaiming the war lost and suggesting they return hom e. But Diomedes leaps to his feet and rallies the troops with a fiery speech ab out their heroic heritage and says it is fated that Troy will fall. Then Nestor

tells Agamemnon that it's the absence of Achilles that is causing their defeat and that he Agamemnon, is responsible for it. The King agrees to send gifts to Achilles too, but Achilles rejects them, saying he can't be bought and sold. N othing can erase the public insult Agamemnon has caused him. When this message is given to Agamemnon, he is filled with sorrow. Diomedes says it was a mistake to try to appeal to someone as conceited and stubborn as Achilles, and they all agree to do their best to protect their ships from the Trojans the next morning . Diomedes offers to slip into the Trojan camp and see if he can learn their pl ans. He selects Odysseus to accompany him. On their way they discover a Trojan spy and from him they gain information about Hector's location and plans. They also learn of a new contingent of troops that is unprotected. They kill the sp y, attack the new troops, and return to camp with chariots, horses, and other bo oty. There is rejoicing among the Greeks and Diomedes and Odysseus become the h eroes of the day. The next morning the Greeks drive the Trojans back at first, but then Agamemnon and most of the leaders are wounded and forced to withdraw from battle. The Tro jans regain the ground they lost and inflict many casualties on the Greeks. Ach illes watches these developments with alarm and begins to grow frustrated at his own self-imposed uselessness. He sends Patroclus, his squire and dear childhoo d friend to get details of the battles. Patroclus goes to Nestor who suggests h e try to convince Achilles to join the battle and, if that fails, that he don Ac hilles' armor and join the battle himself, since just the sight of the famous ar mor might frighten the Trojans into retreat. The Trojans continue their violent onslaught and Hector, ignoring the bad omen o f an eagle that flies overhead, manages to break through the Greek wall. He for ces the gates open with a large stone and the Greeks retreat in panic as the Tro jans charge in. Zeus, having brought the Trojans as far as the Greek ships, now relaxes and turns his attention to other matters. Agamemnon, convinced of defe at, wants to retreat by sea. But Odysseus says this plan is dishonorable and th e only choice is to go among the ranks and try to encourage the men. In Olympus Hera sees that the sea god Poseidon is trying to help the Greeks. To give him the opportunity to do this she seduces her husband, Zeus, and afterwar ds he falls into a deep sleep. Patroclus implores Achilles to let him wear his-armor and go into battle. When Achilles sees the flames of the Greek ships and knows the Trojans have another v ictory, he consents. He warns Patroclus to do no more than rescue the ships for if he attacks Troy, he may be killed. When the Trojans see Achilles' forces ap proaching, and see his armor at the front, they are panicked. Achilles' men des troy the Trojan advantage and Hector leads his men back to Troy. Patroclus pursues them to the walls of Troy, slaughtering nine Trojans in only o ne charge. Apollo decides to help the Trojans and strikes Patroclus from the ba ck, knocking off his armor. A Trojan soldier then pierces him with his javelin, and Hector finishes him with a spear in the belly. With his dying breath, Patr oclus says it was not Hector who destroyed him but the gods and "deadly destiny. " Hector then dons Achilles' armor and after a fierce battle, the Greeks rescue Patroclus' body and return it to camp. When Achilles hears of Patroclus' death, he's beside himself with grief. He let s out a war cry that terrorizes the Trojans and they retreat. The Trojans want to stay in the safety of the city but Hector insists they fight on the open grou nd. Thetis, Achilles' mother, has a glorious new suit of armor made for him by the god of blacksmiths. Achilles announces to the Greeks that his quarrel with Agamemnon is over and he is ready for battle. He knows his death at Troy has been foretold, but feels no

thing can prevent him from avenging the death of his friend Patroclus. The Gree ks gallop into battle. Meanwhile, Zeus gives the gods permission to assist on either side, for Achilles must be prevented from exceeding the bounds of victory set by fate. Immediatel y, Hera, Athena. Poseidon, Hermes, and Hephaestus fly to the side of the Greeks while Ares, Apollo, Artemis, and Aphrodite fly to the side of the Trojans. The battle opens with much fury. Achilles sweeps through the field in a rage, kill ing every Trojan he can. The Trojan troops flee in panic, some for the city, so me for the river. Achilles follows the troops to the river and so violent is hi s slaughter that the river overflows with dead bodies. The gods fighting for th e Greeks prevent the river god from attacking Achilles with waves and currents. Then the gods, excited by human warfare, take on their own battles. Athena def eats Ares and Aphrodite; Hera drives Artemis from the field. Achilles continues to drive Trojans from the field and most of them take refuge in the city. Hector stands outside, preparing to meet Achilles one-to-one. Yet when Achilles approaches, Hector is overcome with fear and tries to flee. Achi lles pursues him and they run around the city walls three times, while Hector tr ies to draw Achilles within range of the Trojan archers on the wall. Finally At hena tricks Hector - she tells him he will have help against Achilles. So he st ops running and faces Achilles. Achilles cats his spear and misses but Athena r eturns it to him. Hector throws his spear and hits his mark, but it can't penet rate the divine armor. Finally Achilles lunges his spear into Hector's throat. As the Trojan dies he begs that his body be returned to his family for a proper funeral. Achilles refuses. He fastens the corpse to his chariot and drags it along the ground in disgrace. Within the walls of Troy the citizens watch and m oan and lament their hero's piteous fate. Hector's wife collapses. Back at camp, Achilles leads the Greek warriors in a dirge for his dead friend P atroclus. They build a large funeral pyre, load it with valuables, sacrifice tw elve captive Trojans, and then light a flame. Afterwards, Achilles takes the as hes of Patroclus to be buried along side his own body. After the funeral, there are ceremonial games in honor of Patroclus. All during this time, Hector's bod y lies on the ground unattended but Apollo and Aphrodite protect it from decay a nd from the ravages of predators. Nine days pass and on each day Achilles ties Hector's body to his chariot and dr ags it around the funeral pyre of Patroclus. Zeus decides the body of Hector sh ould be returned to its people. Hector's father Priam, the king of Troy, comes to claim it, aided by the gods. He appeals soulfully to Achilles who, touched b y memories of his own home and parents, agrees to return the body. He invites P riam to stay for dinner and both men weep together, over their own sorrows. All the people of Troy come to mourn Hector. They build a magnificent funeral p yre and then they place his bones in a golden chest, which is buried in a shallo w grave. Afterward there is a great funeral banquet. And with this banquet, Th e Iliad comes to an end. As you know, there is legend that follows the end of The Iliad. Achilles is kil led by an arrow shot by Paris; Odysseus is granted Achilles' armor; Ajax is furi ous over this because he wanted it and threatens to kill the Greek leaders, then overcome with remorse, kills himself; Paris is later killed; the Greeks enter T roy in a massive wooden horse and destroy the city with fire, killing all the me n and taking the women as slaves. The goddesses Hera and Athena finally have th eir revenge. There are many themes and messages in The Iliad and hundreds of scholars have wr itten thousands of pages and spent innumerable hours discussing them. One of th ose themes is justice, which operates in a very brutal way in the story. More o

ften than not, men find themselves confused, deceived, and ultimately destroyed by powers beyond their control, represented of course by the gods. The basic be lief of the ancient Greeks was that man was in the grip of forces far stronger t han he, and was at the whim of those forces, or, more specifically, subservient to the will of Zeus. At the same time, there are also issues of personal respon sibility and men must make decisions in which they weigh their passions against their reason. Achilles' passion, which manifested mostly as wrath, was the sour ce of much suffering on the part of his fellow warriors. Because he refused to join their battle, out of pride, they endured many losses and fatalities. Paris and Helen's passion was the initial cause of the war. Agamemnon too allows his passion to get the better of him, since his rage against Achilles is what leads the warrior to his withdrawal from the battle. The failure of reason and the l ack of control over human passion is shown to be the chief cause of discord and tragedy. If man behaves irrationally, irrational things will happen to him. Na ture and the gods join in to enforce this irrationality and then tragedy results . This question of who and what was responsible for man's destiny - man himself or the gods and fate - was the most fundamental question to the Greeks. Fate, as portrayed through the gods, is indifferent to human tragedy, although the god s will show a passing interest if one of their favorites is in danger. One purpose of The Iliad is to show that the importance of man's life is in his very struggle itself. Achilles is a hero because he emerges from this struggle a better man. He first goes through stages of pride, fury, and revenge that are almost inhuman. But these emotions are all brought on from a state of anguish. He's been deprived of his honor, which in ancient Greece, was the only thing t hat mattered; and then he's lost his best friend because of his own irrational b ehavior. But when he finally charges into battle, knowing he is doomed to die; when he is moved by the poignant plea's of Hector's father to return his son's b ody; and when he does give up that body, he has undergone an important transform ation. Be has in effect become human again - he has demonstrated humility, comp assion, and a recognition of the forces greater than he is. He comments: "Men a re wretched things and the gods, who have no cares themselves, have woven sorrow into the very pattern of our lives." He has developed a genuinely tragic visio n of life and has grown into a full tragic hero. He knows that honor, as men se e it, is not as important as the real values of life, therefore he gives up Hect or's body, which is rightfully his, even though at the beginning of the story he was loathe to give up even a slave girl. Achilles has learned and grown throug h the testing ground that is war. War, in The Iliad, is a proving ground for th e soul, and although it is brutal and tragic, it gives men the opportunity to le arn from their suffering. Nowhere are men so confronted with the idea of death than they are on a battlefield. In this atmosphere of constant and inevitable d eath, men like Achilles learn to value life and to search for meaning. The men in The Iliad have far more dignity than the Gods, simply because as mortals, the y suffer and die, and must face that tragic fate with courage and honor. They m ust find a way to live life so that life is something more than a thing that end s in death. At the beginning of the story that way, for Achilles, was fame, glo ry, and pride. But by the end it is humility and understanding, compassion, and acceptance of his own preordained death. Although Achilles meets his noble demise shortly after the end of The Iliad, the re is another hero who has yet to play out his destiny with the gods, and that i s Ulysseus. The oracles have already told him that he will not return home for twenty years after the victory in Troy. In our next session we'll learn of the many adventures and lessons that await this brave warrior on his famous journey homeward, known as "The Odyssey."