NEW ERA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

EE472 Tuesday 4-7pm

TERM PAPER THE ELECTRICAL MACHINES AS ENERGY CONVERTERS

Submitted by: SALINAS, Alvin Jan G. 4th year BSECE-0810352

Submitted to: Engr. Tim Limsiaco Instructor-Engineer

Date: September 10, 2011

ABSTRACT
This term paper will discuss about Machines like DC generators and motors that we have studied this semester. The paper starts in familiarization about DC generators main parts how they work or and a brief discussions about the topic. The types of generators are also included and will discuss the difference of each. How a simple generator works, armature windings Field excitation and will give some figures of each generators and motors. Of course the papers also discuss about its equation, general voltage equations and the voltage regulations, and also include how to compute losses and how determine the efficiency of the machine. This will discuss also the speed of motor and some motor types and some starting requirements for motors and finally the assessment of machines.

CONTENTS
I. Introduction
Components: Their 4 main parts

II. DC Motors
SPEED OF A MOTOR MOTOR TYPES BACK ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE STARTING REQUIREMENTS FOR MOTORS

III. DC GENERATORS
ARMATURE WINDINGS TYPES OF GENERATORS and their FIELD EXCITATION GENERATOR VOLTAGE EQUATIONS and VOLTAGE REGULATION

IV. AC motors
THREE PHASE AC INDUCTION MOTORS SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS Commutator motor Induction motor Synchronous motor

V.

ALTERNATORS
PARALLELING AC GENERATORS RATINGS

VI.

LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

INTRODUCTION
MOTORS and GENERATORS What is the difference between a motor and a generator? A motor is a machine that converts electric energy into mechanical energy usually a rotary one or is turning. Examples of motors could be found in appliances like on motors that turns washing machine, dryers, fans, furnace blowers, and much of the machinery found in industry like a conveyer. A generator, on the other hand, is a machine that converts the rotary mechanical energy into electric energy. We could have such mechanical energy by a waterfall, steam, wind, gasoline or diesel engine or an electrical motor. This machines are very useful to our lives, converting energy coming from different natural resources by the use of generator turning it to electrical energy that could be distribute easily to power on or supply such motors in our appliances, gadgets, lights, and many more that could help us to do things faster, more efficient and more convenient. But of course, such machines always have a backside or other side which is bad side. What I am saying is machines definitely help us but using such could create greenhouse effect because of the heat produces in their losses. Well find out through the paper how could losses possibly mean and how it affects us.

Components: Their 4 main parts Armature In motor, the armature receives current from an external electrical source that causes it to turn. In generator it is rotated, of course, by mechanical force. Briefly, the motor armature receives current from power supply, and generator armature delivers current to an external circuit or load. Armature also called rotor because of its rotating characteristic. Commutator this only include in DC machine, it is to convert the AC flowing in armature into the DC. A commutator consists of copper segments with one pair of segments for each armature coil. Each commutator segment is insulated from the others by mica. The segments are mounted around the armature shaft and are insulated from the shaft and armature iron. Brushes These graphite connectors are stationary and spring-mounted to slide or brush against the commutator on the armature shaft. Thus, brushes provide a connection between the armature coils and the external load. Field Winding The electromagnet produces the flux cut by the armature. In a motor, current for the field is provided by the same source that supplies the armature. In generator, the field-current source may come from the separate source called an exciter or from its own armature output.

DC MOTORS
SIMPLE MOTOR The construction of motors is very similar, but their functions are different. The function of a generator is to generate a voltage when conductors are moved through a field, while that of a motor is to develop a turning effort, or torque, to produce such mechanical rotation. Torque The torque T developed by motor is proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and to the armature current.

Where T= torque, ft-lb kt= constant depending on physical dimensions of motor = total number of lines of flux entering the armature from one N pole Ia = armature current, A

Such Motor has an equivalent circuit. Lets take a look on a DC motor equivalent circuit.

SPEED OF A MOTOR Speed is designated by the number of revolutions of the shaft with respect to time and is expressed in units of revolution per minute (rpm). Reduction of the field of a motor causes the motor speed to increase. Conversely, an increase in the field flux causes the motor speed to decrease. Because the speed of a motor varies with field excitation, a convenient means for controlling the speed is to vary the field flux by adjusting the resistance in the field circuit. So if a motor is able to maintain a nearly constant speed for varying loads, the motor is said to have a good speed regulation. Speed regulation is usually expressed as a percentage as follows:

MOTOR TYPES Shunt Motor This is the most common type of dc motor. It is connected in parallel. Its characteristic speed-load and torque-load curves show that the torque increases linearly with an increase in armature current, while the speed drops slightly as the armature current is increased. The basic speed is the full-load speed. Speed adjustment is made by inserting resistance in the field circuit with a field rheostat. At one setting of the rheostat, that motor speed remains practically constant for all loads. Shunt motor is stated that has the best speed regulation, because its speed remains practically constant for all loads. Series Motor The field of this type of motor is connected in series with the armature. The speed varies from a very high speed at light load to a lower speed at full load. The series motor is suitable for starting with heavy, connected loads because at high armature currents, it develops a high torque and operates at low speed. Large series motors are therefore generally connected directly to their load rather than by belts and pulleys. Compound Motor It combines the operating characteristic of the shunt and series motors. The compound motor may be operated safely at no load. As load is added, its speed decreases, and torque is greater compared with that of a shunt motor.

Back Electromagnetic Force Every motor is a generator. This is true, in a sense, even when it functions as a motor. The emf that a motor generates is called the back emf. The back emf increases with the speed, because of Faraday's law. So, if the motor has no load, it turns very quickly and speeds up until the back emf, plus the voltage drop due to losses, equal the supply voltage. The back emf can be thought of as a 'regulator': it stops the motor turning infinitely quickly. When the motor is loaded, then the phase of the voltage becomes closer to that of the current and this apparent resistance gives a voltage. So the back emf required is smaller, and the motor turns more slowly. To add the back emf, which is inductive, to the resistive component, you need to add voltages that are out of phase.

STARTING REQUIREMENTS FOR MOTORS There are two starting requirements for motors: 1. Both motors and supply lines are protected from flow of excessive current during the starting period by placing external resistance in series with the armature circuit. 2. Motor-starting torque should be made as large as possible to bring the motor up to full speed in minimum time. To determine the amount of starting resistance needed to limit the armature starting current to desired value is

Where

= starting resistance, = motor voltage, V = desired armature starting current, A = armature resistance,

DC GENERATORS
SIMPLE GENERATOR generator consists of an armature coil with a single turn of wire. This armature coil cuts across the magnetic field to produce voltage. If a complete path is present current will move through north to south direction. As the armature segment rotates a half-turn in a clockwise direction, the contacts between the commutator segments and the brushes are reversed. ARMATURE WINDINGS There are two ways the coils can be connected, lap winding and wave winding. Simplex lap winding the ends of each coil are connected to adjacent commutator segments. In this way all coils are connected in series. In a duplex lap winding there are in effect two separate sets brushes. In triplex lap winding are in effect three separate sets of series-connected coils. In a simplex lap winding, a single brush short-circuits the two-ends of a single coil. Wave Winding the end of each coil are connected to commutator segments two pole spans apart. Instead of short-circuiting a single coil, a brush will short-circuit a small group of coils in series. The area in generator where no voltage can be induced in an armature coil is called the neutral plane. The brushes are always set so that they short-circuit the armature coils passing through the neutral plane while, at the same time, the output is taken from the other coils.

TYPES OF GENERATORS and their FIELD EXCITATION

Separately Excited Generator When a generators field is supplied or excited from a

separate source such as battery then its a separately excited generator.

Self Excited Generator When a generator supplies its own excitation. Shunt Generator If its field is connected in parallel with the armature circuit, it is
called a shunt generator.

Series Generator When the field is in series with the armature. Compound Generator If both shunt and series fields are used, the generator is called
compound generator. Compound generators may be connected short-shunt, with the shunt field in parallel inly with the armature, or long-shunt, with the shunt field is parallel with both armature and series field.

Cumulative Compound Generator When the series field is so connected that its
ampere-turns act in the same direction as those of the shunt field. As we could notice, generators are taken their names from the type of field excitation used. Field rheostats are adjustable resistances placed in the field circuits to vary the field flux and therefore the electromagnetic force generated by the generator. The compound generator is used more extensively than other types of generators because it can be designed so that has a wide variety of characteristics.

GENERATOR VOLTAGE EQUATIONS and VOLTAGE REGULATION The average generated voltage Vg of a generator may be calculated from the formula

Where

= average generated voltage of a dc generator, V = number of poles = total number of conductors on armature (inductors) = flux per pole = speed of the armature, rpm = number of parallel paths through armature, depending on type of armature winding

For any generator, all factors are fixed values except

and . Hence could be simplified to

Voltage regulation the difference between the no-load (NL) and full-load (FL) terminal voltage of a generator and is expressed as percentage of the full-load value.

Voltage regulation =

Low-percentage regulation, characteristic of lighting circuits, means that the generators terminal voltage is nearly the same at full load as it is at no load.

AC motors
The first thing to do in an AC motor is to create a rotating field. 'Ordinary' AC from a 2 or 3 pin socket is single phase AC--it has a single sinusoidal potential difference generated between only two wires--the active and neutral. With single phase AC, one can produce a rotating field by generating two currents that are out of phase using for example a capacitor. In the example shown, the two currents are 90 out of phase, so the vertical component of the magnetic field is sinusoidal, while the horizontal is cosusoidal, as shown. This gives a field rotating counterclockwise.

If we put a permanent magnet in this area of rotating field, or if we put in a coil whose current always runs in the same direction, then this becomes a synchronous motor. Under a wide range of conditions, the motor will turn at the speed of the magnetic field. If we have a lot of stators, instead of just the two pairs shown here, then we could consider it as a stepper motor: each pulse moves the rotor on to the next pair of actuated poles.

Three phase AC induction motors Industrial applications use three phase extensively, and the three phase induction motor is a standard workhorse for high power applications. The three wires carry three possible potential differences which are out of phase with each other by 120. Thus three stators give a smoothly rotating field.

If one puts a permanent magnet in such a set of stators, it becomes a synchronous three phase motor. With no mechanical load, it is turning virtually in phase with the rotating field. The rotor need not be a squirrel cage: in fact any conductor that will carry eddy currents will rotate, tending to follow the rotating field. This arrangement can give an induction motor capable of high efficiency, high power and high torques over a range of rotation rates.

SINGLE-PHASE MOTORS
Single-phase motors are so called because their field windings are connected directly to a singlephase source. Single-phase motors are classified as commutators, induction, or synchronous motors according to the method used to start them: 1. Commutator motor AC series motor When an ordinary dc series motor is connected to an ac supply, the current drawn by the motor is low due to the high series-field impedance. The result is low running torque Repulsion motor The repulsion motor has an armature and commutator similar to that of a dc motor. However brushes are not connected to the supply but are shortcircuited. 2. Induction motor Split-phase motor if two stator winding of unequal impedance are spaced 90 electrical degrees apart but connected in parallel to a single-phase source, the field produced will appear to rotate. This is the principle of phase spitting. In split-phase motor, the starting winding has a higher resistance and lower reactance than the main winding. Capacitor-start motor By placing capacitor in series with the starting winding of a split-phase motor, starting characteristics are improved. The current in the starting winding may be made to lead the voltage. Capacitor Motor the capacitor motor operates with an auxiliary winding and series capacitor permanently connected to the line. The capacitance in series may be of one value for starting and another value for running.

Repulsion-start induction motor the rotor of the repulsion-start induction motor has windings connected to a commutator. Starting brushes make contact with the commutator so the motor starts as a repulsion motor.

Shaded-pole motor this is produced by a short-circuited coil wound around a part of each pole of a motor. The coil is usually a single band or strap of copper. The effect of the coil is to produce a small sweeping motion of the field flux one side of the pole piece to the other as the field pulsates. Shaded-pole motors are self starting.

Synchronous Motor Several types exist to drive electric clocks, phonograph turntables, and other devices requiring precise rotation. One type is called the Warren synchronous motor. It starts by the use of shading coils in the pole piece. The motor is brought up to synchronous speed from the effects of eddy currents flowing in the rotor iron and of hysteresis. Its principal use is in clocks and other timing devices.

ALTERNATORS
AC generators are also called alternators. Almost all electric power for homes and industry is supplied by alternators in power plants. A simple alternator consists of 1. Strong, constant magnetic field 2. Conductors that rotate across the magnetic field 3. Some means of making a continuous connection to the conductors as they are rotating The amount of generated voltage of an AC generator depends on the field strength and speed of the rotor. Since most generators are operated at constant speed, the amount of emf depends on field excitation. The frequency of the generated emf depends on the number of field poles and on the speed at which the generator is operated, or

Where : = frequency of generated voltage, Hz = total numbers of poles = rotor speed, rpm

PARALLELING AC GENERATORS Most power plants have several ac generators operating in parallel in order to increase the power available. Before two generators may be paralleled, their terminal voltages must be equal, their voltages must be in phase, and their frequencies must be equal. Now, two generators are in synchronism. The operation of getting into synchronism is called synchronizing. RATINGS Nameplate data for typical ac generator include manufacturers name, serial, and type number; Speed, number of poles, frequency output, number of phases, and maximum supply voltage; capacity in KVA and KW at a specified power factor and maximum output voltage; armature and field current per phase; and maximum temperature rise.

Here is an example of a nameplate data for typical ac generator.

LOSSES and EFFCIENCY

The losses of generators and motors consist of copper losses in the electric circuits and mechanical losses due to the rotation of the machine. Losses include: 1. Copper losses Armature I2R losses Field losses Shunt field I2R Series field I2R 2. Mechanical or rotational losses Iron losses Eddy-current loss Hysteresis loss Friction losses Bearing friction Brush friction Windage or air friction loss

Copper losses are present because power is used when a current is made to flow through a resistance. As the armature rotates in a magnetic field, the electromagnetic force induced in iron parts causes eddy currents to flow which heat the iron and this represent wasted energy. Hysteresis loss also results when a magnetic material is first magnetized in one direction and then in an opposite direction. Other rotational losses are caused by bearing friction, the friction of the brushes, and air friction or windage. Efficiency is the ratio of the useful power output to total power input.

Also,

But usually efficiency is expressed as percentage.

CONCLUSION
There are so many kinds of motors. Different kinds of motors are use in production of human needs; help us in our daily living to work with ease and more efficient and faster. Imagine the old time like the time of Egyptians they built their pyramid only by man power and definitely that takes years to build such structures. But now, with motors running by generators, such as motors in cranes could do the job much faster more accurate and efficient. But then machines produce losses, meaning we could not convert energy to another in 100% conversion. Losses are made in frictions of electrons, thus turns to heat that contribute to the green house effect. For conclusion, of course, electric machines such as generator converts energy such as wind, mechanical, hydro and natural resource energy to electrical energy that could be transmitted easily and definitely easy to convert again to other kind of energy. Converting electrical energy needs another electric machine like motors, definitely could be found in appliances like washing machine, electric fans, engines, and many more. And help our living.