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THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

AGRARIAN STRUCTURE
The term AGRARIAN STRUCTUIRE denotes all of the existing and lasting production and living conditions found in a rural region. It comprises social, technological, and economic elements and determines the achievable productivity, income and its distribution, and the rural population's social situation. The agrarian structure includes the system of land tenure (social agrarian structure) and the system of land management (technical and economic agrarian structure).

AGRARIAN SYSTEM
The system of land tenure (that is, land ownership and labour organization) and the technological and economic conditions are not independent factors. Their concrete form is interlaced with the natural and social conditions found in each specific area. The natural conditions not only influence the production factors- generally good and poor soil, enough precipitation, and temperatures favorable for growth and working- but also influence what types of ownership are found in an area: large farms are seldom found, for example, in regions where the soil conditions are poor and the topography is mountainous. Even more important is the relation between the agrarian structure and the existing social conditions in the individual countries and regions. Feudal, capitalistic, and socialistic social orders result in very different conditions of land ownership, systems of labour organization, and forms of cultivation. The social system, in other words, makes up the framework within which agrarian structures can evolve. In this process the state as well as tribes, landlords, communes, and colonial powers can determine the conditions. Within the framework of social conditions, the agricultural sector's economic goals, the function land fulfils, and the political and social system play significant roles. The economic goal can vary from self sufficiency and satisfying one's needs, maintaining the farm, earning rent or interest on capital, production for the market, maximizing profits, or meeting economic plans. In doing so, land can function as a basis for earning one's livelihood, home, means of production, a commodity, an asset, annuity, power basis, or prestige object. Several functions can be combined. The above mentioned factors are not independent, but rather are embedded within a system; that is, a change in any factor results in a change in all of the other factors. The term"agrarian system" bas been coined in order to conceptualize this complex system. The "agrarian system" consists of the "institutional, economic, socio-organizational, and ethical patterns found in the agricultural sector and rural areas that are oriented towards the superordinate economic and social system" (RHM) The following brief summary of the most important agrarian systems is by no means exhaustive and stresses in particular the most significant agrarian systems found in the developing countries.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Systems of Land Tenure
The system of land tenure governs the traditional or legal rights individuals or groups have to land and the resulting social relationships among the rural population. Its components are the system of land ownership and system of labour organization. In accordance with the existing conditions, many different land tenure systems have developed throughout the world, whereby both natural conditions (climate, soil conditions, topography) as well as social factors (sociocultural values, political ideology, level of technological development, population trend, changes in the cost price relationships, etc.) played a role. Systems of land tenure are not immutable. On the contrary, they are subjected to a continual process of change. Changes in the natural growing conditions and economic factors, technological innovations, changes in the size of the population, and influences emanating from the political power structures bring about changes in the land tenure system. As in recent times these factors have been changing more and more rapidly, the system of land tenure frequently lags behind the new situation and does not adjust to it on time. Land tenure systems are institutionally established and are, therefore, difficult to alter. Political power structures; cooperative ties and class, cultural, and ethnic interests and motives all work towards maintaining the established forms. As a result of the continual changes in the factors that govern and form the land tenure system, an ideal land tenure system cannot exist. The momentary, specific land tenure system is the institutional framework within which the agrarian production and way of life are carried out under the existing circumstances and conditions. It is interrelated with the natural, economic, social, and political conditions. As these change, the land tenure system has to continually adapt itself to the changing situation

Systems of Land Ownership


The system of land ownership regulates the relationship of the people to the land, specifically the power of disposition over land and the right to use the land. As it is practically impossible, on the one hand, to increase the amount of land while, on the other hand, it is the basis of agrarian production, living, and recreation, in other words, the basis of existence for a rural society, the amount of land controlled and the type of distribution determine the social conditions. Rights in land bring with them work and income, prestige, and influence. Anyone without rights in land is dependent in an agrarian society. He is forced to work on someone else's land in order to earn his livelihood. There are two forms of rights to the land-the right of disposition over the land and the right to use the land. The owner has the right of disposition. He has the right to decide whether to sell, lease, bequeath, give away, or lend, etc. a piece of land. The occupier has the right to use the land.This right legulates the cultivation of the land. In the case of an owner-cultivated family farm, the family has both the right of disposition as well as of use. A tenant, in contrast, has no right of disposition over his land but can only use it.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Private ownership of land is a Western concept that was first introduced into many developing countries by Europeans. It arose under a specific legal order by original acquisitioning of land (occupying and making the land arable) or changes in ownership (conquest, contract, inheritance). Until today, some societies have still not developed any forms of personal, private rights to land that would grant a right of disposition. Instead, the individual is allotted land for his own usage that reverts to the hands of the group (tribe) as soon as it is no longer used. It is not unusual that laws governing the land exist at several levels, e. g., government laws and traditional tribal laws. If a conflict arises between these two levels, it leads to considerable breakdowns and obstructions in the legal guarantees and, thus, the usage of the land. The question of the private ownership of land is strongly affected by the ideological point of view. On the one land, it is argued that the owner's interest in his land turns 'sand into gold." In contrast to this argument is the experience that especially increasing population pressure has fairly often resulted in the economically weak losing their land and that the land has become concentrated in the hands of a few people. According to the socialistic viewpoint, private ownership of the production factor land has led to exploitation and should, therefore, be abolished. Land becomes property by the state (tribe, clan, etc,) guaranteeing an. individual this right to a scarce factor and, thus, warranting him the possibility of harvesting the fruits of his labour in the production process. Property rights, in other words, are granted to the individual by the society and always include certain limitations. Such restrictions and/or obligations are imposed upon the owner by custom, private rights, or public law. Among these are, e.g. , the obligation to maintain and expand the farm, creditors' claims, rights of access and transit, services, taxes, market regulations, etc. In developing countries, landed property is usually bequeathed by parcelling it among the children. If the farm is passed on to one heir, a practice in parts of Europe, it guarantees the existence and survival of the farm; however, it also presupposes alternative possibilities for the remaining heirs to earn a livelihood , a precondition that is frequently not present in such countries. A son sometimes receives a larger share under the condition that he has to take care of his parents, or sons receive larger shares than daughters. When the farms become so small that they are no longer profitable, the children sometimes operate the farm together and only split the yield. Usually, the traditional form of passing on the farm results in it becoming smaller with each generation, even if this is sometimes balanced out by the women's dowries. If job opportunities are not created outside the agricultural sector, it cannot fail to result in a drop in the standard of living among the rural population as soon as all of the land is taken under cultivation.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

TYPES OF LAND OWNERSHIP


Various systems of land ownership have developed throughout the world under the influence of historical, cultural, and economic factors. These systems are exposed to a continual process of change.

State Ownership of Land


As a consequence of conquest, purchasing, gifts, and seizure, land belongs to the state in many countries in the same way as other areas belong to private people. In the USSR, the majority of the land has been turned into state property.In other socialist countries, only a part until now. This was done to prevent exploitation resulting form private ownership of the land as well as unearned income derived from ground rent. Otherwise, state ownership plays a large role if public interests cannot be satisfied by private ownership, or if the land is not of interest to private people from an economic standpoint (catchment areas, waste land, forest, frontiers, experimental farms, etc,). The state partially cultivates its own land (government farms, government forests) and also partially leases it out. In some countries, the church likewise has a great deal of landed property. The process by which the church gained possession of the land and its function is similar to that in the case of state land.

Land Grants
In Islamic countries, land is granted to schools, ,mosques, orphanages, and similar institutions. This type of grant is often called a "waqf." The beneficiary receives an irrevocable right of use that is carried out by government organizations, generally in the form of being leased out. The institution that is granted the right of use receives the profit. The lands are frequently in very bad condition as hardly any investments are made. Land is sometimes established as a private waqf. The irrevocability of the grant, that is established in court, prevents eventual changes in ownership and protects the family against property losses. The family receives the income derived from the yield. This type of grant is also found in the south of Europe and existed in Eastern Germany until 1945 where it was called "Fideikommis."

Collective and Communal Ownership


In this type of ownership, the right of disposition is in the hands of kinship or political groups that are larger than a single family. In the forms of communal ownership found in Africa (a

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


widespread phenomenon south, of the Sahara), the land rights are generally controlled by the tribe, and the use of the land is regulated by the chieftain or priest serving the land and earth deities. Every member that is born into the group has a lifelong right to a piece of land for his own usage. The tribes regard themselves as custodians of the land for future generations rather than proprietors. In Mexico, former latifundia were transferred into a form of communal. land called "ejido." The members of the community are granted land on a heritable basis for their usage, while pasture land and waste land are used commonly. In various countries such as Taiwan, India, and Jamaica, land belongs to minorities in the form of common land. The purpose behind this is to give protection against loss of the land. In socialistic countries, land was collectivized in accordance with the political doctrine in order to prevent exploitation resulting from private ownership of land. At the same time, this measure simplifies controlling agricultural production and the process of adapting to the goals of rapid industrialization and overall development. Based on a different ideology, but with similar motives, various religious communities have also abolished private ownership of land and collectivized it. Physical and/or psychological coercion and pressure or a critical situation has always played a great role in collectivization.

Private Ownership of Land


In non-socialistic countries, the right of disposition is often in private hands regarding agricultural land, less so in the case of forests. In face of the positive experience in European history and its great ability to adapt to changing economic and technological systems, private ownership of land was introduced in many of the former colonies. In the process, however, it became obvious that the positive outgrowth of private ownership were dependent upon certain specific preconditions that were not always present. The decrease in the size of the farms resulting from population increase and the differences in the success achieved in the process of adaption to changing conditions especially of an economic nature led in part to property losses, whereas other people were able to gain control of large areas and, thus, economic and consequently political power. As a result of this process, today there are several widely differing forms of private ownership.

Small Scale Agricultural Property or Smallholdings


Is a widespread form throughout the world and is the target of most of the non socialistic agrarian reforms. Family farms have proved to be an expedient form of agricultural organization, both regarding agrarian production as well as the social conditions, as long as the farm size is large enough. The incentive ensuing from the farmers freedom to make his own decisions and the knowledge that he will receive the fruits of all his labour and investments have always been a tremendous inducement, especially if the attitude towards work and investments was positive and the concomitant institutions (extension services, credit system) were advantageous. In order for family farms to guarantee the continuation of yields from their land, it is necessary for them to observe the preservation of the ecological balance. As soon as the precondition of sufficient farm size no longer exists, the situation

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


becomes less favourable and the living standard of the farmers' families drops, the farms become indebted, property is lost, and the ecological balance is endangered.

Large Holdings
In many cases not farmed by the owner himself. If there is a large demand for land, the owner is in a position to let others work for him and still receive a sufficient income. He, therefore, leases the land out, and, although he exercises his influence regarding farm management, this is more to control the farm rent payments than to foster agricultural production. The rent is usually not reinvested, but rather used by the owner to cover his own living expenses as well as other purposes. Thus landed property becomes a source of rent while the agricultural economy remains static. As soon as the owner becomes more interested in the cultivation of his land, he generally switches to centrally controlled farming as this makes it possible to control the cropping vote closely and, thus, guarantee economic success. This form is not only found on plantations and commercial farms. In the course of the Green Revolution, many former lessors started cultivating the land themselves as this appeared to them to be more profitable under the new circumstances than the traditional forms of leasing the land to tenants.

Farm Tenancy
An increasing population, while at the same times the job opportunities outside the agriculture) sector develop only slowly, has barred a growing number of people to look for land that they can rent from someone for their usage for a period of time. In densely settled countries with private land ownership, in some cases more than half of the land is cropped today by tenants. One can differentiate between various forms of renting the land according to the type of payment that is demanded.

Occupational tenancy
In way of payment, the tenant works for a specific number of days on the landlord's farm in order to pay for the land he rents. In some cases, he uses his own draught animals and implements. This form is particularly found in Latin America where it is called a colonate. Until a few years ago, it also existed in Westphalia, Germany, under the name, Heuerling.

Cash Tenancy
The tenant pays a fixed rent for the land he rents and, thus, bears the full cropping and marketing risk himself; however, he also receives all the proceeds growing out of his labours. This form demands the ability to face a risk and is, thus, found in the case of tenants who are economically sound.

Rent in kind

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Is a form of tenancy in which the tenant pays a fixed quantity of produce and, therefore, does not have to take the marketing risk himself. This form is found especially among landowners who rent out small parcels of land and who consume the rent in their own household.

Share Tenancy
Is a specific form of rent in kind. It is widely spread, particularly in the developing countries. In this case, the gross output is divided between the landlord and tenant. While the original size of the share was determined by the reciprocal obligations and the productivity of the land, the great demand for land has led increasingly to shares equalling 50/50. Under these conditions, each side receives only half of any proceeds resulting from additional inputs. There is little incentive, therefore, to increase productivity by means of working harder or making larger investments. Moreover, the contract is often drawn up for only one year. Even though it is often prolonged by tacit agreement, it leads to insecurity and a state of dependence. This has, along with the normally extremely small size of the plots under tenancy, resulted in many farmers being indebted and living in very poor economic and social conditions. Although tenancy can fundamentally bring about flexibility in the structure of land ownership and allows making adoptions to changing economic and social (family) conditions, under the circumstances in the developing countries (with a one sided advantageous position on the market for land available for tenancy in favour of the landlords), tenancy leads to stagnating agricultural production, dependence, and an economically poor situation for the tenants and their families.

Systems of Land Management


Agriculture-cultivation and use of the land- is a form of production based on the process of growth of animals and plants. In its original form, man creates food and other articles of consumption by using his labour to cultivate a piece of land. At a very early stage, he attempted to make this work easier by making simple implements and, thus, form capital. Traditional cultivation of the land utilizes, in other words, the conventional production factors labour, land, and capital. In the modern world and in rudimentary forms even much earlier the farmer runs a type of enterprise. His goal is of an economic nature: he produces in order to cover his own needs, to barter, and in modern. times, to sell. The modern farmer is tied to the overall society by his enterprise. He is dependent upon suppliers and buyers and has to fulfil their wishes and conditions. Modern agriculture is not only an interplay between the soil, solar energy, and labour, but is rather determined by a number of modern factors that originate outside agriculture. In the endeavour to cope with these factors and achieve as productive cultivation as possible, requirements emerge that cannot be met by the individual farmer. The success of his farming depends, therefore, upon the extent to which his efforts are supported by social institutions that help him in the areas in which he reaches the limits of his own possibilities

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AGRARIAN REFORM
The specific agrarian structure and the existing agrarian system are the manifestation of the most appropriate combination of people, land, and technology with the framework of the existing economic and social conditions. Along with these, they are subject to continual change. In the course of history, the process of adaption to changed conditions and demands frequently did rot take place rapidly enough. In earlier times, these retardations in development were most frequently found in the fields of political and social order. The present worldwide striving for rapid economic development has shifted into the focal point of the discussion the hindering factors in the agrarian structure that affect agricultural production and rural development. This stressing of the economic components should not be deceptive and attract the attention away from the fact that inequality, dependency, and lack of equal chances for the majority of the population have their roots in the agrarian structure and the predominant systems. Changes in the agrarian structure are necessary in many parts of the world. In the type of shortcomings and the changes that are necessary, however, there are great regional differences. While leaving out many details, the attempt will be made in the following to make this clear, by sketching the most important problems in the Third World. In Latin America, the major problem is the contradiction between latifundia and minifundia. The large landowners represent not only the economic upper strata, but rather also have political power and dominate the social system. Their wealth makes it unnecessary for them to make complete utilization of their land. Their situation sharply contrasts with the situation of the dependent peasants who usually have only small plots at their disposition in their role as sharecroppers, colonates, or squatters (people who settle, or squat, on land to which they have no title). One of the major reasons for their poverty is their lack of access to land under the existing conditions. They have hardly any chance of improving their living conditions. The same is true of the workers who are employed on the plantations that are, in some cases, intensively cropped. In these circumstances, a change in the power structure is the necessary primary step towards an improvement. Since this is strongly based on the control of the land, a change in landownership gains most importance. In connection with this, one has to face the challenge of the special problems of the minifundia in order to improve the living conditions for the small farmers. In Asia, changes have taken place in the agrarian structure in the last 30 years as a result of agrarian reforms and, partly, the Green Revolution, but often only the extreme cases have been touched. A limited number of landowners still own large parts of the land that they allow small sharecroppers to farm. Many of the farmers have very small farms and are indebted. Large sections of the rural population are even landless and usually underemployed. Despite the great population pressure, cultivation is often of a poor quality because the farmers are not given the freedom to make their own decisions or they do rot have adequate access to the necessary services. These shortcomings require not only a change in the land tenure system, but rather in addition also measures for reorganizing land use and management

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In Africa, the- for the most par- lack of private landownership has allowed a relatively egalitarian agricultural society. Problems arise from traditional shifting cultivation functioning inefficiently under new conditions. The transition to market production and permanent crapping, family members changing occupations, increasing population pressure, and disintegration of the tribal system have created a new situation that can be better confronted by a reorganization of production and management than a change in land tenure. The necessary changes in the agrarian structure can take place various ways. Measures to adapt the agrarian structure take place in small steps over a long period of time. They work mainly be means of incentives such as taxes, subsidies, investments in agriculture, setting up extension services, etc. They are suited for supporting the continual adoption of the agrarian structure to changing conditions, but they are too mild to balance out serious shortcomings once they have arisen.

Agrarian Reforms Measurement


Agrarian reforms are measures designed to overcome obstacles hindering economic and social development that are the result of shortcomings in the agrarian structure. Changes in land tenure i.e.. ownership and tenancy and labour organization as well as changes in land use (reform of land management) belong to these measures. Agrarian reforms make use of legal force and intervene in the property and land use rights of the people, although with certain compensations. Formerly, the term 'land reform' was common. This term, however, only points out changes in the property rights without referring to changes in cultivation. Owing to the increasing importance within the scope of the struggle for economic development, it is used today less frequently.

Agrarian Revolution
Agrarian revolutions are spontaneous, radical changes in the traditional agrarian structure with uncompensated redistribution of all rights and usually a drastic regrouping of the society. The terms 'agrarian reform' and 'agrarian revolution' are frequently not clearly differentiated. They do not differ so much in their goals as in the speed they are forced through and how radical they are. For development planning, agrarian reforms have the most significance since they can be used as an instrument and shaped according to policy goals. Thus agrarian revolutions frequently turn into agrarian reforms following the upheaval. Agrarian revolutions and socialistic agrarian reforms are not identical. Agrarian reforms as well as agrarian revolutions can have redistribution as well as collectivisation as their goals.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE OF MOA

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AGRICULTURAL AGENCIES
The following agencies provide services to the country's agricultural sector:

Ministry of Agriculture (MOA)


At the apex, the Ministry of Agriculture is responsible for achieving agricultural production goals and targets adopted by the government, sponsoring projects and programmers towards that end, providing necessary funding support through programmers (ADP) and the Foreign Exchange Budget, and implementation of the same through different agencies under its umbrella. The Ministry provides support to all its agencies in their dealings with the Planning Commission and the Ministry of Finance, and coordinates their efforts to achieve common goals adopted by the government. It monitors the implementation of physical programmers under various projects and the expenditure thereof. The ministry appoints key personnel to manage various institutions and agencies working under it and looks after their human resource development (HRD).

Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE)


Motivates farmers to adopt measures to achieve higher production, trains them up in modern techniques at the field level, adopts production programmers for various crops, and implements through its field force spread out at the Union/Block levels. The Department works through the following directorates: (i) Directorate of Agriculture Extension and Management (DAEM) which is responsible for general extension of all agricultural motivational efforts and management of the same throughout the country; (ii) Agriculture

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Directorate (Jute Production); which is responsible for extension and related activities in jute growing areas; (iii) Agriculture Directorate (Plant Protection) which initiates activities for motivations and training of farmers in the use of appropriate plant protection measures, choice of chemicals, and their use, utilizing methods such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM); and (iv) Central Extension Resource Development Institute (CERDI) which is responsible for development of resources to be used in extension messages for farmers. It achieves this goal, by using recommendations and advice of researchers/breeders and preparing messages suited to skills of the farmers in general. Major functions of the Department of Agricultural Extension include popularization of and motivation to use improved seeds, irrigation water, and chemical fertilizers among farmers, and propagating their uses, methods and doses of application. It sets up demonstration plots, conducts farmers' rallies, and trains them up. It helps implementation of initiatives like the crop diversification programme (CDP) to promote nutritional balance in the diet of the people, and the horticulture development programme to encourage production of fruits, vegetables, etc.

Agriculture Information Service (AIS)


An informative and educative agency dedicated to dissemination of information to farmers in general. It uses the materials developed by the Department of Agricultural Extension (DAE) and the Central Extension Resource Development Institute (CERDI). It publishes pictorial magazines, newsletters, books, leaflets, etc and distributes educative and training materials. Moreover, it produces documentaries and screens them in rural areas and also conducts radio and television programmes on agricultural matters.

Department of Agricultural Marketing (DAM)


It helps regulation of marketing of agricultural produces through dissemination of information on price, and quantity of various agricultural produces in important market centres, improvement of market conditions, and guaranteeing of fair prices to producers. It has its headquarters at Khamarbari (Farmgate), Dhaka. It publishes and broadcasts weekly bulletins on market prices in selected centres.

Cotton Development Board (CDB)


Set up to reduce the dependence of local spinning factories on imported raw cotton. The Board has already identified areas suitable for cotton cultivation. It distributes seed cotton and other inputs to growers in such areas and buys back the seed cotton at pre-declared prices. Its headquarters is located at Dhaka but it has zonal offices at cotton growing centres of the country.

Seed Certification Agency (SCA)


Responsible for quality control and certification of seeds produced in the agriculture sector for crops such as paddy, wheat, jute, seed, potato and sugarcane. To this end, it carries out tests on purity of the line, germination of the stock, and their moisture contents. For the same purpose, the SCA conducts field visits to the seed plots of the breeders and to multiplication agencies, including the contract growers, on a regular basis. It serves as the secretariat of the

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Natural Seed Board (NSB). The SCA is located at Joydebpur, Gazipur. It has set up a central testing laboratory at Gazipur and smaller ones in outlying field stations as well.

Bangladesh Agricultural Development Corporation (BADC)


It was set up in 1961 to make agricultural inputs like fertilisers, seeds, irrigation water, etc available to farmers on commercial basis. For doing so, it procures chemical fertilisers, irrigation equipment, plant protection chemicals and equipment, and arranges for production and distribution of seeds. However, distribution of chemical fertilisers and irrigation equipment has since been privatized. At present, the Corporation runs seed multiplication farms, organises production of seeds by contract growers, and organises agro-service centres (ASCs) for boosting production of fruits and vegetables. It also runs some irrigation-based area development projects.

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council (BARC)


It coordinates planning prioritization of fieldwork and approval of agricultural research programmes and their funding. It was set up in 1973 and has its headquarters at Dhaka. It helps integration of the activities of researchers in different fields and institutions of the Ministry of Agriculture and other agencies. It helps formulate national agricultural research plans and oversees their implementation, either by salaried scientists, or by those under contract research. It helps human resource development (HRD) through arranging higher studies of agricultural graduates. It maintains a computer centre, and the National Agricultural Library and Documentation Centre.

Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI)


Standing on the relics of a similar institution functioning in undivided India, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute is based in at Joydebpur, Gazipur. Headed by a Director General, the institute conducts research and imparts training on all food crops excepting rice. It has outreach stations at several agroecological zones of the country. It carries out research on wheat, potato, pulses, oilseeds, maize, cotton, fruit, root crops and vegetables. The institute experiments with various agricultural machines and implements to determine their appropriateness for field use.

Bangladesh Rice Research Institute (BRRI)


Established in 1970, BRRI carries out researches on all aspects of rice, including breeding of new varieties, improvement of yields, plant protection measures, fertiliser doses and cultivation practices. From its headquarters in Joydebpur, Bangladesh Rice Research Institute has set up outreach stations at different agroecological zones of the country. The institute has made a significant contribution towards the development and adoption of new high yielding varieties in of rice the country. It coordinates its efforts with the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) at Los Banos in the Philippines.

Bangladesh Jute Research Institute (BJRI)

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Established in 1951, the BJRI conducts research on variety improvement and cultural practices for increased yields of jute. It has been entrusted with the breeding of new varieties and effective yield increases. In doing so, it conducts experiments with cultural practices and application of fertilisers. The Jute seed programme is implemented by the BADC. Bangladesh Jute Research Institute carries out research on multifarious use of jute through its technical division.

Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture (BINA)


Located at the premises of the Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU) at Mymensingh and established in 1973, BINA breeds crop varieties through application of atomic radiation. It conducts research on rice, jute, mustard, groundnut, pulses, tomato, etc. The institute carries experiments on the use of appropriate doses of fertilisers on various crops and evaluates the outcome thereof. The Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture has already made a significant contribution to the development of new crop varieties.

Soil Resources Development Institute (SRDI)


Responsible for identification of soil characteristics, their classification, and property elements for suitability of crop production. It carries out soil surveys and tests throughout the country, publishes posters for agricultural scientists and farmers. It trains personnel engaged in the development of agriculture, including farmers. In addition to having soil testing laboratories in different places, it has mobile units to carry out soil to testing at the field level.

Agro-economic Research Unit (AERU)


Established in 1972, responsible for conducting macro and micro-economic research for national agricultural development planning and policies. In addition to carrying out regular mandated responsibilities, it is also utilized for quick surveys and monitoring of the outcome of a given agricultural policy of the government.

Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU)


Founded in 1961, BAU offers graduate, post graduate, and Ph.D. level courses under faculties of Veterinary Science, Agriculture, Animal Husbandry, Agricultural Economies, Rural Sociology, Agricultural Engineering and Technology, Fisheries, etc. It conducts fundamental and development research as well as offers refresher and short courses for agricultural scientists.

Bangladesh Fisheries Development Corporation (BFDC)


Established in 1964 to help the development of the fish industry (harvesting, processing and marketing) in the public and private sectors, covering with marine and fresh water species. Its headquarters is in Dhaka.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Bangladesh Krishi Bank (BKB)
Founded in 1973 on the relics of the Agriculture Bank and Agricultural Development Finance Corporation, the BKB extends long and short term credit for agriculture and allied operations. It also works as a commercial bank.

Bangladesh Sugar and Food Industries Corporation (BSFIC)


Established in 1976, it controls sugar mills, and develops sugar and food processing industries in the public sector.

Central Extension Resources Development Institute (CERDI)


Founded at Joydebpur, Gazipur to develop agricultural extension service messages through training and coordination of extension activities.

Directorate of Livestock Services (DLS)


Founded in 1947 to help augment the production of cattle and poultry resources of the country through research and extension activities as well as through improvement of breed, health and nutritional care. The directorate has since been bifurcated into BANGLADESH LIVESTOCK RESEARCH INSTITUTE located at Savar and the Directorate of Livestock Extension housed at Kazi Alauddin Road, Dhaka.

Forest Research Institute (FRI)


Founded in 1955, the FRI is located at Shola Shahar, Chittagong. It conducts researches on the development of forests and the forest wealth of the country.

Sugarcane Research Institute (SRI)


Founded at Ishurdi in the district of Pabna in 1973. It conducts researches on improvement of sugarcane varieties, the cultural practices involved in sugarcane production, and application of inputs and extension methodology to reach growers.

AGRICULTURAL LAND
The total land area of Bangladesh is about 14.4 million ha, of which about 66.6% is available for cultivation. Depending on the flooding depth, the land is categorized as highland (20%), medium highland (35%), medium lowland (20%), lowland (8%) and very lowland (1%). Based on physical environment which are relevant to land use, the land is divided into 30 agroecological zones and 88 sub-regions.

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All land areas are not suitable for all types of crops. Seasonally flooded land is suitable for rice cultivation but the use of HYVs is limited to areas with relatively shallow flood depth during the kharif season. Deep flooding for long periods limits land use to a single low yielding, deep-water rice crop. Most upland crops are grown in well-drained land. Boro is planted in poorly drained soils throughout the dry (rabi) season where irrigation can be provided and where no flooding will occur before the harvest of the crop. Agricultural land use in coastal areas is limited to wet season cropping because of high dry season soil salinity and lack of suitable quality irrigation water. Cropping intensities, therefore, are low in coastal areas. Intensive cropping with HYVs is commonly practiced under high to medium highland with assured good quality irrigation water. Total cropped area is about 13.4 million ha, with more than 170% cropping intensities. Areas under single, double, and triple cropping are 3.5, 3.7 and 0.99 million ha, respectively. Rice alone covers about 80% of the total cropped area, of which HYV's share is about 50%. Agricultural land is fragmented into small pieces because of the large number of farm holdings. Total number of farm holdings is about 19 million; the average size of a holding is about 0.5 ha. In form, each holding consists of a few pieces of land which generally range from 0.1-0.2 ha.

CROPPING PATTERN
A spatial and temporal arrangement of crops within a cropping year, largely determined by physical, biological, and socio-economic factors. There are three cropping seasons (Rabi, Kharif-I or Pre-Kharif, and Kharif-II) during a year in Bangladesh. Since rice is the major crop, it dominates the cropping patterns of Bangladesh. Depending on the land type, soil characteristics, and water availability, rice cropping may be single, double, or triple. In general, double or triple rice cropping is practised in high land areas. In medium lowlands, mixed cropping of Aus and broadcast Aman is a common practice, while in deeply flooded lands, single cropping of broadcast Aman (deepwater rice) in Kharif, or Boro in Rabi, is the common practice. Non-rice crops are generally grown as a sequential or intercrop with rice. Most non-rice crops are dryland crops, although some crops like jute (Deshi type), millets (Kaon), and sugarcane can tolerate some degree of submergence at later stages of growth. Jute is grown in the Kharif-I season, competes with Boro Aus for land, and is considered a substitute crop for Boro Aus in cropping patterns. The dry (Rabi) season crops included in cropping patterns may be early, middle, or late, depending upon land types, recessions of floods, and dates of harvests of the preceding crops. In rainfed-dryland areas, growing of drought-tolerant, short-duration crop species has been an important feature. Although high crop yields have been difficult to obtain, traditional cropping patterns usually exhibit a high degree of stability. Another important feature is the extensive use of mixed cropping and intercropping of annual crops. These practices provide farmers with opportunities for harvesting diverse crops from the same land, increasing total land productivity, and maintaining and improving soil fertility through the use of legumes. Boro, Aus, jute, maize, barley, and chickpea are the most important rainfed dryland crops. When more than two crops are included in the pattern, mixed cropping, intercropping, or relay cropping are practised.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


A large number of cropping patterns are generally practised in Bangladesh, depending on the crop production environment which is greatly influenced by land type, soil texture, flooding regimes, rainfall (amount and distribution) and resource base of the farmers. Some dominant cropping patterns under variable crop production environments are as follows: Rainfed condition Irrigated condition Rabi Wheat/Potato/Pulses/Oilseeds/Sugarcane Wheat/Boro/Wheat/Potato/ Tobacco/Vegetables Kharif-I Boro Aus/Jute Fallow T Aus Kharif-II Fallow T Aman Fallow

Farmers for better use of soil resources, although not always executed as planned, follow crop rotations, to some extent. Generally deep-rooted crops (jute) are grown after shallow rooted crops (rice). [Nurul Islam Bhuiyan]

INCOME FROM AGRICULTURE


Generally the term of agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants, animals and other life forms. It also refers to field cultivation or cultivation of the ground, which involves a combination of both basic and subsequent operation. Any receipts out of cultivation of land and the use of buildings, premises, and land appurtenant thereto shall be considered as the income from agriculture after some considerations. The allowable deductions under agriculture are given below.

Agricultural income shall be determined after allowing a deduction of 60% from

receipt from agriculture as agricultural expenses to avoid the no acceptable evidences of the production cost of cultivation.
If the agriculturist does not have any other income source other than the agriculture

then he or she will get exemption of more taka 50000 after the deduction of 60% of the receipts as the agricultural expense. There are some agricultural incomes which are also considered as the business income. As for example

Income from tea garden is bifurcated between agricultural income and business income at the ratio of 60% and 40% consecutively. Income from rubber cultivation is also bifurcated at the same ratio.

Scope of agricultural income


According to Section 2(1) of the income tax ordinance, 1984, agricultural income means
Any income derived from any land in Bangladesh and used for agricultural purposes-

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

By means of agriculture

By the performance of any processes ordinarily employed by a cultivator to render marketable the produce of such land By the sale of the produce of the land raised by the cultivator in respect of which no process, other than that to render the produce marketable, has been perform. By granting a right to any person to use the land for any period

Any income from any building which

Is occupied by the cultivator of any such land as is referred to in subclause. In which any process is carried on to render marketable any such produce aforesaid Is on, or in the immediate vicinity of such land

Is required by the cultivator as the dwelling house or store-house or other out-house by the reason of his connection with such land. From the above discussion it can be said that any income derived from any land or building in Bangladesh that is used for agricultural purposes will be considered under the head Agricultural Income. There are some other scopes of agricultural income under the considerations of income process. These are:
Gain from the sale of the machinery or plant exclusively used for agricultural

purposes (Capital Gain) Compensation money received against demolished machinery or plant exclusively used for agricultural purposes (Equipment insurance) Income from sale of partly agricultural goods ( Tea, Sugarcane, Jute) Other agricultural income by notifications

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT UNDER REVENUE BUDGET

Serial No 01 02 03 04 05 06

Name of the Program Agro Service Center Program. Production of Improved Cereal Seeds through S.M Farm Program. Production of Improved Seeds through Contract Growers Program. Procurement, Processing & Distribution of Improved Seed Program. Jute Seed Program National Vegetable Seed Program.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 Buffer Stock of Seed and its Management Program. Production Processing Preservation and distribution Program for Hybrid Vegetable Seeds. Production Processing and Preservation Program for Hybrid paddy Seeds. Program for removing waterlogged area and increasing agricultural production of Jessore district Program for removing waterlogged area and increasing agricultural production of Khulna-Bagerhat-Satkhira-Pirojpur district Program for removing waterlogged area and increasing agricultural production of Kushtia-Jhenaidah district Program for removing waterlogged area and increasing agricultural production of Pabna & Natore district Program for increasing agricultural production and dewatering of waterlogged area in Noakhali-Comilla-Sunamganj district Program for increasing agricultural production and dewatering of waterlogged area in Tangail district Program for forecasting of water quality, saline water intrusion and waterlogged area of southern part of Bangladesh Program of field survey, data collection and report writing for increasing agricultural production by removing waterlogged area of Bangladesh Barisal -Jhalokati District Minor Irrigation Development Program. Patuakhali-Borguna District Minor Irrigation Development Program Pirojpur District Minor Irrigation Development Program Bhola District Minor Irrigation Development Program Greater Khulna District Minor Irrigation Development Program Madaripur- Shariatpur District Minor Irrigation Development Program Gopalganj District Minor Irrigation Development Program Faridpur District Minor Irrigation Development Program Noakhali- Lakshmipur District Minor Irrigation Development Program Maulvibazar-Habiganj District Minor Irrigation Development Program Syhlet-Sunamganj District Minor Irrigation Development Program Kishoreganj District Minor Irrigation Development Program Kishoreganj District Itna, Mitamoin and Ostogram Upazila Minor Irrigation Netrokona District Minor Irrigation Development Program Greater Kustia Jessore District Minor Irrigation Development Program Narayanganj-Munsiganj District Minor Irrigation Development Program Dhaka District Minor Irrigation Development Program Tangail District Minor Irrigation Development Program Mymensingh District Minor Irrigation Development Program Brahmanbaria District Minor Irrigation Development Program

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 Jamalpur District Minor Irrigation Development Program Bogra District Minor Irrigation Development Program Sherpur District Minor Irrigation Development Program Comilla District Minor Irrigation Development Program Gaibandha District Minor Irrigation Development Program Rangpur, Nilphamari District Minor Irrigation Development Program Kurigram-Lalmonirhat District Minor Irrigation Development Program Gopalganj Sadar, Tungipara and Kotalipara Upazila Minor Irrigation Development Program

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT UNDER DEVELOPMENT BUDGET


Sl. No. 01 02 Name of Project Modernization and Strengthening of Facilities to Increase Supply of Quality Seed. Pulse and Oil Seed Project (2nd Phase). PD Name Md Aminul Islam A.K.M Abdul Maleque

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


03 Tuber Crops Development Project (BADC Part) Md Azizul Haque 04 05 Improved and Quality Seed Production of Rice, Wheat and Maize Project (BADC Part). Integrated Horticulture Development Project (BADC Part) Ashutosh Lahiri Abdur Razzak

06

Construction of Rubber Dams in Small and Medium Rivers for increasing food production project. (BADC Part).

Md. hafizullah Chowdhury

07 08

Development and Multiplication of Agricultural Seed (2nd Phase) Private Seed Sector Development Project (2nd Phase)

Dr. Rezaul Karim A H M Nurul Alam

09

Enhancing Quality Seed Supply Project

Md. Azharul Islam

Mujibnagar Integrated Agricultural Development Project Pilot Project for Agricultural Production in Monga Prone Area through Modern Minor Irrigation Practices. Mosaddek Saiyed Ashugonj Polash Agro Irrigation Project (4th Phase)

Expansion of Irrigation through utilization of Surface Water by Double Lifting (2nd Phase) Greater Bogra Rangpur Dinajpur Integrated Area Dev. Project (2nd Phase) Greater Mymensingh-Tangail Integrated Agricultural Dev. Project (2nd Phase)

Md. Hanif S A M Zahid Ahmed Md. Rafiqual Islam

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Greater Khulna-Jessore-Kushtia Integrated Agricultural Dev. Project (2nd Phase) Innovative Uses of Surface Water Project (2nd Phase) Md.Khalilur Rahman Md Jainul Abedin

Project for Enhancement of Agricultural Production and Poverty Alleviation by Introducing Force Mode Tube-well Irrigation Project for Activating of Inoperable DTW of BADC for Irrigation Greater Dhaka Zilla Irrigation Area Development Project (2nd Phase) Pabna Natore Sirajganj Minor Irrigation Development Project Greater Faridpur Minor Irrigation Development Project Survey and Monitoring Project for Development of minor irrigation (3rd Phase)

Babul Kanti Lodh

Md. Abdul Mannan Md. Samsuddin Md. Asraf Ali Khan Md. Salahuddin

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


ORGANOGRAM, MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


LAND AND AGRARIAN REFORM IN BANGLADESH
Introduction
Bangladesh is situated in the centre of the South Asian Region. She exists in the world map as an independent & sovereign nation since 26th March 1971. She came into being through peoples arms struggle & won her victory over the Pakistani occupation army on 16th of December 1971.

Population and land


Bangladesh has a population of about 132 million of whom about 87% are Muslims, 12% Hindus, the rest are Buddhists, Christians & Indigenous People. The total Geographical area of Bangladesh is about 56,000 square miles. (143,998 square kilometer) Out of which about 9 million hectares are cultivable land. But every year the cropland is shrinking for human settlement. It is estimated that the growing population pressure will use up 50 per cent of the countrys cultivable land by 2025. Urbanization, industrialization and acquisition of land by the government for different purposes have been causing negative impact on the life and conditions of the peasants as well as socio-economic scenario of the country. Vast areas of land also devoured by the mighty rivers of Bangladesh. Moreover, land is fragmented every year in rural and urban areas due to growing population and the law of inheritance. A studies conducted by UNDP & World Bank-WB calculated that due to fragmentation of 1.42 hectares into 10 holdings of 0.15 hectares each the effectiveness of net cropped are area by about 1.5 per cent to a land owner. Moreover, per capita land that would support the basic needs of the population is fast decreasing. Every person working in the agriculture sector now owns only an average of 0.12 hectares of cropland. According to the classification of land, out of the total area, 63 per cent are being used for cultivation while 4.38 per cent for rural and urban housing and the rest includes forest & cultivable waste land. Bangladesh is one of the most densely populated countries of the world where 798 persons live in one square kilometer.

Landless Poor in Rural Bangladesh


About 85% people, out of132 million live in the rural areas of Bangladesh. Agriculture is their main occupation & means of livelihood. According to government report 57% people of Bangladesh are landless poor & they live below poverty level. But Non- Government sources say that the number of landless people in Bangladesh is more than 68%. They live in perpetual poverty, hunger, disease and deprivation. The percentage of landless people over the last few decades is as follows: 1947 : 14.3% 1970 : 19.8% 1975 : 32% 1984 : 46% 2001 : 68.8% 10% absentee land owners own 50.6% of the total cultivable land of Bangladesh. According to Dr. Mahboob Hossain & Prof. Abdul Byes, 45% of the landless & poor marginalized

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


peasants in the rural areas own only 5% of the total cultivable land of Bangladesh and receives 10% needed credit from institutional sources. They further said that 22% of the rich & middle farmers of rural areas of Bangladesh own 71% of the total land & receive 31% institutional credit.

Urban Poor in Bangladesh


Roughly about 15% of the people live in the urban areas of Bangladesh. According to the UNDP report 56% people in the urban areas are poor and live below poverty level. Some people contradict with the above statement & say that 40% people in the urban areas are poor & poverty stricken and they live in slums and shanties without any basic amenities of life. The monthly family income of the urban poor is about TK. 3000/= ($60/=) and most of their income goes for paying house rent, food, medicine etc. and govt. does not shoulder responsibility for providing them with housing and other basic necessities. A study conducted jointly by the Asian Development Bank- ADB & the Govt. of Bangladesh shows that if the present trend of urban population growth continues, by 2020 the number of people living in the urban areas would be about 60 million.

Dhaka & its People


Dhaka is the capital of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh which was founded about 400 years ago. It began its Journey as a capital of free & independent Bangladesh since 16th of December 1971 with a population of about 1.6 million. Now more than 10 million people live in Dhaka metropolis and its periphery. Dhaka is one of the most densely populated metropolis in the world. Total geographical area of Dhaka is about 480 square kilometer. Out of 10 million people about 3.5 million people live in the slums and shanties. Slums and shanties are mostly built on the government lands. Many owners of land also build slums and shanties on their lands & rent out those slum houses to the urban poor. Slum dwellers are almost self-employed. A large number of them are rickshaw pullers, push cart-drivers, garments workers, domestic workers, vendors, construction workers & labourers, cleaners, sweepers, rug pickers, garbage collectors, helpers in the transport sectors and shop keepers etc.

Ownership of Land in The Dhaka Metropolis


About 15% of the land in Dhaka is owned by 2% of the upper class elite of this metropolis, 28% middle class families own 65% of the residential areas and 70% poor families own only 20% of the residential areas. Most of the lands owned by the poor families are of poor quality in the outskirts & depressed areas. The slum dwelling people have no land on their own. They live on the mercy of the government, landlords, slum lords, musclemen, extortionist and terrorists. The monthly house rent they pay is much higher than what is paid by the tenants of the 3 posh residential areas of Dhaka. They pay also much higher amount for water, electricity, gas etc. than the people living in the posh residential areas. But the money given for house rent, water, gas, electricity etc. does not go to the govt. exchequer. It is eaten up by the thugs, goons, slum lords & middle men. The living condition of the slum dwellers is very poor. Unfortunately they are conditioned to live & work in most hazardous & insecure situation. Sewerage system is absent and hygiene conditions are extremely poor in the slums. Schools, hospitals and other basic services are absent in the slums. Dhaka is stated to be one of the crowded & polluted city of the world and the most victims of this pollutions are the slum dwelling poor, men, women & children.

Cause of rural-urban migration

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Unfortunately rural development policies and services pursued, practiced & provided to the rural areas of Bangladesh over the last three decades both by the government & nongovernment organizations failed to a large extent to stop the rural-urban migration. Ruthless exploitation, deprivation, poverty & hunger, non-execution of land reform policy, centralized power & authority of the bureaucracy, corruption, nepotism & favoritism, misrule, maldevelopment, absence of rule of law, natural calamities, river erosion, absence of employment opportunities etc. forced the rural poor to migrate to the urban areas for food and shelter. Moreover, unplanned development policies, industrializations and urbanizations are also responsible for rural-urban migration. It is very unfortunate that although government spends 67% of the total government annual expenditure for the wellbeing of the people in and around Dhaka city, it does not help the slum dwellers for improvement of their living condition instead it widens the disparity between urban and rural people and between the urban rich and the urban poor. The uprooted, destitute, internally displaced and poverty ridden people live in the slums are like refugees without state & status.

Views About Development Efforts


Porf. Abul Barakat of Dhaka University says, Both the Government and the NGOs could not bring any significant change in the fate of the common people. About nine crore (90 million) people were deprived of sanitation facility, six crore (60 million) people had no access to primary health care services, five crore (50 million) adult were illiterate, about 2 crore (20 million) primary & secondary level students could not enrolled. Since 1971, Government and NGOs received TK. one lakh 80 thousand crore ($ 31,088/= million) as foreign aid but only TK. 40 thousand crore ($ 6,908 million) of the amount had been spent for the welfare of the poor people & the rest were drained out due to corrupt Government officials & NGO men. The Human Development Index-HDI of the UNDP (2001) says that Human Poverty IndexHPI of Bangladesh remained stagnant as the country continued to lag behind even the South Asian average interms of life expectancy, percentage of under nourished people, percentage of under height children, infant and under five mortality rates, literacy rates and percapita GDP. It said technological achievement was amongst the lowest in the world, interms of electricity consumption which is only 20 per cent of South Asian average and with only five telephones per 1000 people. According to World Health Organization-WHO report (2001) Bangladesh ranks 131st out of 191 member states interms of overall health system. Health indicators paint a grim picture of the situation due to high rates of infant & child mortality, at 79.6 and 4.3 per thousand respectively which are unexpectedly high. Almost two-thirds of the birth does not receive any antenatal care. Only six per cent of deliveries receive health care facilities and trained personnel assist only 22 per cent of the deliveries. Only 50 per cent of the children receive complete immunization. Malnutrition continues to be a severe health problem for both mother and children. There are only 18 doctors and five nurses for every 100,000 people. Mr. Richard Daley, (London) visited Bangladesh recently under Young Workers Exchange Project (UK). He says, The wealth gap in Bangladesh is very conspicuous, one moment you might see crowd of women and children breaking bricks into aggregate by hands, whilst in another youll see a Chauffeur driven, air-conditioned Mercedes speeding past. The local poverty gap has been difficult to swallow.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


Our Constitutional Commitment
It shall be a fundamental responsibility of the State to emancipate the toiling masses the peasants and workers - and backward sections of the people from all forms of exploitation. It shall be a fundamental responsibility of the State to attain, through planned economic growth, a constant increase of productive forces and a steady improvement in the material and cultural standard of living of the people, with a view to securing to its citizens The provision of the basic necessities of life, including food, clothing, shelter, education and medical care; the right to work, that is the right to guaranteed employment at a reasonable wage having regard to the quantity and quality of work; the right to reasonable rest, recreation and leisure; and The right to social security, that is to say, to public assistance in cases of undeserved wants arising from unemployment, illness or disablement, or suffered by widows or orphans or in old age, or in other such cases. (From the Constitution of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh).

Global Commitment
Within a decade, no man, woman or child will go to bed hungry Dr. Henry Kissinger, World Food Conference, 1974 in Rome. After two and half decades of kissingers pronouncement we see that more than 800 million unfortunate men, women & children of this earth are going to bed hungry, malnourished and starving. The declaration of kissingers remained unfulfilled. There was no change in the reality. Similarly at our national level the successive governments over the last 30 years, the professional bodies and the non-govt. organizations are collectively responsible for failing to translate the constitutional obligation into reality. As a result 69% of our people are landless, laborers, workers, slum dwellers and are forced to live in perpetual poverty, hunger, malnutrition & deprivation. We have over the past three decades, created two Bangladesh; one Bangladesh for the powerful minority and the other Bangladesh for the poor & powerless majority who owns nothing but create everything and keeps the wheel of the nations economy moving for the consumption & comfort of the minority.

What is to be Done About it?


Time has come for us to take all out initiatives to build & strengthen the organization of the poor & powerless people in the grassroots both at different levels in the rural urban areas with specific objectives of realizing their fundamental & basic rights including the right to have access to land. As it is well known to many that in the developing countries land represents wealth, power, prestige and security in society. It is the most scare of all resources and it forms the basis of our power structure. Therefore, the vested interest groups both within & outside of government machine keep land reform well off the development & political agenda. Some NGOs in the 70s & mid 80s fought for land reform along with the progressive forces of Bangladesh. But over the last fifteen years most of the NGOs are implementing micro-credit & other service giving projects for poverty alleviation & development in Bangladesh. Many researchers, academics, social scientists, politicians,

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


professionals & NGO persons prefer to call Bangladesh as one of the poorest country of the world. But in reality Bangladesh is not a resource poor country. Bangladesh is blessed with hard working adaptive, creative, innovative and resilient people. She is very rich in terms of her natural gifts of soil, product varieties, rivers, sea, forest, gas and mineral resources. A large number of hard working people of Bangladesh live & work in many of the countries in East Asia, Middle-East, Europe, North America, Australia, Newzeland & other countries. They also contribute enormously to our national exchequer. Moreover, per capita cultivable land is still higher than many of the Asian countries. But still without land & agraian reform eradication of hunger, poverty, disparities & development of the poor in Bangladesh is not possible. ARBAN also believe that pro-poor and progressive land & agrarian reform can contribute to a great extent eradication of hunger and poverty of the toiling masses of Bangladesh. According to the Political Economy of Khas Land in Bangladesh a book written by Prof. Dr. Abul Barakat and others, identification and management of khas land (state owned land) and water bodies, distribution of the same to the landless and poor people, retention of such land and water-bodies by the landless, and pertinent rules and practices within the prevailing social-political context of Bangladesh constitute prime issues of agrarian reform. It may be mentioned here that there are about 3.3 million acres of khas land in Bangladesh. Out of this 3.3 million acres 0.8, million acres are agricultural land, 1.7 million acres are non-agricultural land and 0.8 million acres are water-bodies. Moreover, there are state owned lands under Water Development Board, Railways, Roads & Highways, Fisheries, Forest etc. ministries of the Government of Bangladesh. There are also hundreds & thousands acres of new lands surface every year from the rivers and sea in the coastal areas because of massive siltation. There were no statistics of the ceiling (20 acres) surplus lands in Bangladesh. More or less all state owned lands including 3.3 million acres of khas lands & new lands surfaced from the rivers & sea are occupied by the land grabbers, land mafias & terrorists under the patronage of government in power living in both rural & urban areas of Bangladesh. A large amount of ceiling surplus lands was kept under the ownership and possession of the landlords/landowners against fake names. These lands, as per government rules, should be surrendered to the govt. & all types of state owned land should be distributed to the landless poor peasants. But unfortunately most of this land are illegally owned & occupied by those who are very rich & have more than enough lands, properties, industries, business establishments and secure high salaried jobs for their comfortable living. Prof. Abul Barakat & others say, out of the total amount of identified khas land of 3.3 million acres, only a tiny portion has so far been distributed to the poor who faced multifaceted difficulties in both obtaining and retaining land. Most khas lands identified or un-identified are illegally occupied by the rich segments of the society who are integral part of the power structure. In order to crawl out of the abject poverty and to ensure socio-economic development of the majority of the landless & powerless poor in Bangladesh, land and agrarian reform both in rural and urban areas is a must. In order to realize this goal, peoples ownership of and access to land and water bodies including those of the indigenous people & minority community should be broadened. To materialize this into reality needs strong political commitment which can be achieved through peoples involvement?

Collaborative Actions for Peoples Involvement in Struggle for Land

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH


The Popular Coalition to Eradicate Hunger & Poverty / IFAD and the Association for Realization of Basic Needs-ARBAN from the middle of 2000 went for collaborative actions to ensure peoples involvement in adopting & implementing land and agrarian reform in Bangladesh. ARBAN worked with the moral & material support from the Coalition to achieve two broad objectives. 1stly to bring back the land and agrarian reform issues in the actions agenda of the NGOs, peasant organizations, political parties & other progressive forces and secondly to organize & mobilize the rural-urban poor for strengthening their organizational capability to exert pressure on the government machinery for adopting & implementing pro-poor land reform both in rural and urban areas of Bangladesh. Accordingly, four regional workshops were held and more than two hundred participants representing NGOs, professional bodies, peasants organizations, political parties & indigenous people attended these workshops. There were unanimous decisions that organizations of peasants & landless, slum dwellers, indigenous people & minorities in the rural and urban areas should be built & strengthened to adopt & execute pro-poor land and agrarian reform & tendril security for eradicating hunger & poverty. It was felt that land and agrarian reform was urgently needed for balanced development, increased production, effective use of land, forest, fisheries & water bodies, peace, justice, equality and communal harmony. With this end in view, NGOs, peasants organizations progressive political forces and one networking organization called the Association For Land Reform and DevelopmentALRD including ARBAN are working effectively in this regard. Meanwhile, ARBAN already mobilized more than 60,000 slum dwellers of greater Dhaka to have access to land for housing and security. In the meantime about one thousand slum dwellers of Dhaka metropolis & its periphery have joined ARBANs housing project. They accumulated TK. 5.5 million from their income & saving. They already bought a piece of land from the open market. On the other hand they continue collective struggle for getting government land for housing although they live in utter fear of eviction, loot, fire, torture, rape & killing by the agents of the power structure. ARBAN, in collaboration with the slum dwellers association formulated a long term (July, 2002-June, 2017) housing project for slum dwellers of Dhaka & its peripheral areas. ARBAN hopes that about 17400 slum dwellers will join this project. The total savings of the housing group members will be TK. 756,100,000/= and ARBAN will build 5,214 flats (size 450 square feet) with an estimated cost of TK. 1,564,500,000/=. (Each flat will cost TK. 300,000/=). The members will pay back the cost in 15 years by paying a monthly installment of TK. 1,600/=. In order to materialize this project ARBANll need a revolving capital of TK. 240,000,000/=. Details of the plan are enclosed.

Conclusions
The struggle for land for livelihood & housing is a uphill struggle. Strong political commitment is a pre-condition to adopt & implement agrarian & land reform for those millions who are conditioned to live in slums, poverty, deprivation & destitutions. Lack and absence of commitment on the part of the people at the top, the politicians, the bureaucrats & the vested interest groups obstruct the adoption and implementation of land and agrarian reform in Bangladesh. They run the country according to their ideologies to serve their own clan interest. Therefore, if we are to progress and fulfill the constitutional obligation made to the people of the Republic of Bangladesh in 1972, fundamental changes have to be brought in the thinking process and mindset of the people in the top.

THE AGRARIAN STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH

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