Introduction lntroduction

JONAH AND GENRE JONAHAND GENRE

a sort of wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's face Satire is a sort of glass wherein beholders do generally discover everybody's face their own, -Jonathan Swift, to The Battle Battle Books but their own. Jonathan Swift, Preface Preface to The of the of the Books
-Stephen King, On of What writing is. Telepathy, of course. Stephen King, On Writing Writing writing is. Telepathy, course.

thesis of simple. manyI would even venture to say The thesis of this book is simple. It is that many-I would even venture to say trinoEt"-people who read the Bible misunderstand it. This is not exactly aanovel oat" people who read the Bible misunderstand it. This is not exacdy novel than that had teacher once who was fond of dftm, I had a teacher once who was fond of saying that the Bible is bigger than Bible readers the Bible completely, but most readers of the Bible understands us, of us. No one understands the Bible completely, but appreciate the true to appreciate the true nature of its literature. I would add that the conseof its literature. I would add that the conseces of their misunderstanding can be devastating. I don't mean that they of their misunderstanding can be devastating. don't mean that they be spiritually devastating-as in the idea that misunderstanding the Bible can tsa be spiritually devastating as in the idea that misunderstanding the Bible can tu eternal damnation-but that they can be psychologically devastating-as kd d to eternal damnationbut that they can be psychologically devastatingas n individual feelstorn between abandoning faith becausethe Bible seems l&ea en individual feels torn between abandoning faith because the Bible seems asonableand untrue, or committing to a belief system that afrms the cornand untrue, or committing to a belief systemthat affirms the comaecuracy of the Bible in all matters despite reasonable indications to the accuracy the Bible in all matters despite reasonableindications to the trent. These reactions, but they illustrate the point that the quesgitrery, These are extreme reactions,but they illustrate the point that the clueswhqt to do with the Bible a real one for those people who want to hold &an of what to do with the Bible isis a real onefor those people who want to hold of the world. allows a realistic Eea F to a faith that allows for a realisticview of the world.

A Ftrhy Tele alt :A Fishy Tale

!fte:to.y of Jonah furnilihem a good case it'l point, It is one of the Bible's bestry t=rf Jonalr fttrniehess goocl cqse in point. ll is one o{'the llible's best' sglroolchild hsc hecrd about.frxrahand the whale. rtorles, Every Surrdey bgrn itorica. every Sunday school child hail heard about Jonah and the whale.
ili ! ! =**i I r . i ! i 1 . r,,i ,

2 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE I _IONAH AND GENRE 3

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Butyinah is also one of the undersrood stories in the Bible lts rcal message ButJonah is also one of the least understoodstories in the Bible. Its real message often gets lost amid the debateover whether the slory actually happened. How, gets lost amid the debate over whether the story a'tually happened Hovi often fairy tale? exactly, is the story to be understood? it history or some kind exactly, is the story to be uderstood? h Is ithistory or some kind of fairy tale? Could a person really sutrive fot three days and nights inside whale? some could a person really survive for three days and nights inside aa whalel Some staunchly dcfend the possibility, while others ridi'ule it and dismiss the booksraunchly defend rhe possibility, while others ridicule it and dismiss the book and in some cases the entire Bibleas diculous fable or myth. But ifJonah n and in some casesthe entire Bible-as aa ridiculousfable or myth But if Jonah is not history, what is irs Poinrr not history,what is its point? misuderstanding A caretul reading of the book of lonah suggests A careful reading of the book of Jonah suggests that the misunderstanding ariseslrom attempts to male itit something that itit is not The story is full of from attempts to make something that is not. The story is full aiiscs that the book humor, exaggeration, irony, and ridicule. These features indicate that the book humor exaggeration, irony, dd ridicule These features as a kind of satire No was never intended to be read as history but was written as a kind of satire. No was never intended to be read as history but was written can orilv as wonder it has been disunderstood! Trying to read the story as history can only wonder ir has been misunderstood! Trying to read lead to a failure to appreciate its uue nature and to misconstrue its primary to a failure to appreciate its true nature and to misconstrue its primary lead message.The tr$tment ofJonah that follows points out the many instances of mesage. The treatment of Jonah that follows Points out the many iNtances ot exaggeration and &e like and dis.usses how they work to make a satirical point. discusses how they work to make a satirical point exaggeration md the like The translations of Bible passages in this book are mostly my own and are usubook are mostly my own and are usu The traNlations of Bible passages "author: tlaNlation otherwisc, they are taken from the ally marked AT for "author's translation."" Otherwise, they are taken from the alty marked AT for New Revised Standard Version of the Bible and marked NRSV. New Rsised Standard Version of the Bible md marked NRSV Outline oudide
introduced by the statement Jonah is comprised of two distinct halves, each introduced by the statement, Jonah is comprised of two distinct halves each "the word of Yahweh' came to Jonah" Gr; 3:r) with the additional Hebrew word Jonah" (Ex; 3:1) with the additional Hebrew word ''thc word of Y:hweh'came .again" "a seconal "again" or "a second time" occurring inin 3r' Jonah's prayers further divide each o.curring 3:.1. Jonah's prayers further divide ea'h or half in two! Thus, the book falls into four principal scenes mostly correspondhalf in two.' Thus, the book falls into four principal scenes mostly corresPonding to the four chapter divisions. ing io fie four chapter divisions

Jonah's Call and Flight Jonah s cal and Flight

'l hc book of Jonah of Yahweh came tine book of Jonah begins, "The word of Yahweh came to Jonah, the son of "The the son of the Hebrew Bible Amittai." Jon3h is one of the writings within lhe division 'Amine," Jonah is one of the writings within the division of the Hebrew Bible krown asthe Prophets (Hebrew Neu Im). More specifically ir is one of rhe works own as the Prophets (Hebrew Nevi'lm). More specically, it is one of the works ni the Book of the Tvelve, also known as the Minor Prophets. Its beginning is the Book of the Twelve, also known as the Minor Pfophets. Its beginning is rth similar to and different from other prophetic books. The opening sentence h Oth similar to and different from other prophetic books. The opening sentence h not like those fourd at the begimings of most prophetic writings. It doesnot not like those found at the beginnings of most prophetic writings. It does not of Yahweh riratcame to Jonah" Rather, launches right into the r{y the Oy "the word of Yahweh that came toJonah." Rathea itit launches right into the "The word of Yahweh came to Jonah, saying..." rtoryr "The word of Yahweh came tojonah, saj,mg. . . " ry: l his beginning already signals something unusual about the book of Jonah: it This beginning already signals something unusual about tle book ofJonah: it h r narratjve, story about the prophet rather than a collection of his sayings. It iii narrative, a a srory abour theprophet rather than a collection of his sayings. It h rrot unusual for prophetic books to contain some biographical narrative. The not unusual for prophetic books to contain some biographical narrative. The I lftt three chapters of Hosea, for erample, relare intimare details of the prophet's it I bree chapters of Hosea, for example, relate intimate details of the prophet's nrNringe and family life. But prophetic books are generally collectionsof the rnage and family life. But prophetic books are generally collections of the 0r'rflrs or speechesof&e prophets.Jonahis the opposire, beingnearly all narra des or speechesof the prophets. Jonah is the opposite,being nearly all narrahere is only one orade in llvr'l There is only one orade in Jonah (3:a),and ir is very brief: (3:4), and it is very brief. s(nlc other prophetic books, such as Haggai and zechariah, begin kind of Some other prophetic books, such as Haggai and Zechariah, begin kind of llhr..lrnah by lauchiag directly into a narrative. Haggai and Zechariah both Jonah by launching directly into a narrative. Haggai and zechariah borh llr,Iln their narratives with a dating formula: "In the X year of such-and-such rheir narrativeswith a dating formula: ln the X year of such and such rrlfr, but Jonah does not begin wifi such a formula. The author does not exler," butJonah does not begin with such a formula. Ih au&ordoesnot ex n whcnJonah lived or worked or gire any additional details about his life. l'l,rl,, when Jonahlived or worked or give any additional details about his life. 'l hr' l', ,l( never even calh him aa prophet. The onlyadditional inftrmation about 0 book never even calls him prophet. The only additional information about 2 lrnrih frnncs from,a Kings 14:25. In a Kings we learnthatJonah,the son of Amittai, eh comes from Kings14:25.In Kingswe ledn that Jonah, the son of Amittai, r prophet who lived during the time of King Jeroboam II of Israel (approx. during the time of Kingjeiobom II of lsraet (appmx. t!,ri tnl'Phct who lived /nh /,10r{:). IHe was ftom a town called Gath-Hepher in Israel, and he proph6 ace). Ie was from a town called Gath Hepher in Israel, and he prophfilrll rhf .nl|tgcmcnt of a portion of Israel's northern border under Jeroboam. (Id the enlargement of a portion of lsrael'snorrhern border underjeroboam. llrr, absenceof such details,.spccially the lack of chronoiogical information, ,rhrrrc of such details, especially the lack of chronological information, h || | | | hc h(x )k ol Jonah suggests rhat the author deemed the specifics about the the book of suggests that the author deemed the specics about rhe ' of the story as unimpoltanl rhc srory as unimportant. hllrr.ili.unrg torleal setting of (,rr, One ,,rlr.r si8rill(.nr feature of the story of Jonah related to its rst verse has other signicant fi.rure of dre story ofJonah rclated to its first versehas ro(l | w rIrl! meanings of his name and that of his father. "Jonah" means "dove" do with the r r r , . 'nir 8solhislam candr hat of hisf at her 'lonah'm eans dove" I lfl,l1 w l'(i l|]|l'srIis suA]tcsrsomething aboutionah's character in the story s lI Hebrew. Perhaps this suggests somcrhingaboutjonah's.hdactd in the story used in l l r' t he was ightyy xr r l unstable like a dove. The dove is also som et im es rrl rf wr ! ilr |lr r and u|lsr ibh likf a dovc.The doveis alsosometimes used in dove, is l l rflBible ir r syr r h, llir lr r i( l( ll, ,(Hos,7:11). Soiybet har Jonah, t he the "dove," 'is l rl ,l i as a symbol for Israel s7: , ) . Soir m it may be that Jonah, lr 11t,,{t| 11, , r y 'lizf l\ r if l, , ror ir ! ( attitude {n fcharacteristic Pr evalenr I sr ael. AM to symbolize Israel an r ilr ( k or huf u. t ( lisr i. prevalent in Israel. His in His l dtl trio name, Antittal,. derives iior r r t l! Hebrew r nr r meaning "t r ur h or rf' ! r, , r ! , Anr ir r i, Llf f iv, \ from the llclt r r w root n) . if lnr g "truth" or hl thfultum." Here (in the rstir ir , 'r y ir r |,book. Jonah,lrr.h "son of truth," is rl rl Il r r d I l, r r 1lI l irony in the lr r ) l( l, nr . r the si! ] ( 'l r nr r h, is l k' ,11,.,modal of faithfulness .inrthe story.r'The meanings', 1 his .and his'1. 't lr r . y s r , ''l, l"r t . r , r lr t . . l, . , r 'l' . , , r lix r 'r , . , r , I r \ of lr . . r r 'llr r father's

I. Jonah's call and flight r. Jonah's call and ight 2. Jonah's psalm 2. Jonah'spsalm 3. Jonah's mission to Nineveh 3. Jonah s missio. to Nineveh 4. Yahweh's lesson to Jonah 4. Yahweh's lesson toJomh The symmetry between the two halves of the book shows Jonah to be a wellThe slanmetry between the two halves of rhe book shows Jonah to be a well organized work of narrative literature. The symmetry is even clearer inin the lle organized work of narrarive literature. The symmetry is even clearer the Heceniral charactcr ol brew numbering' The outline also shows that Jonah is the central character of brew numbering' The outline also shows thatjonah is the book and suggeststhat irs contents revolve around the interactions between the bookmd suggeststhat its contenls revolve around rhc nlteracli()nsbctw'(n trs l(n'f him and the other characters. An examination of the book's content by its four him an{:lthe other characters. examitration lhc b(r)k s rrrn'nl i rs rrri i lpoint and scenes willhelppto answer thecquestionsNftri s\l earlier about its main | ' rIr i rxl will hc l ro a n s w (t th q u fs rn n raised frrl nr ' rh' rr( s c c nes how the details s(' lther story relate toothat point. h( , w lhc ( lc t r i l of l h s l ,,ry rc h tr' l l l rrl l x ri rx

L.I"

4 HOW TO READ THE BIBLEH o I 4 , JONAH AND GENRE 5

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names may be at least part of rhe reasonthat Jonah chosen as the "hero" namesmaybe atleastpaftof the reason that Jonah was .hosen asthe "hero" of this satirical tale. Continuing the story, Yahweh commands Jonah to go to the great city" of conrinDing the sroilr Y:hweh commands Jonah to go to "the great city" of Nineveh and to "cry out" against it because of its wickedness. If readingionah as Nheveh and to cry out" agarl$t it because of its wickedness. If readingjonah as history, the reference to Nineveh raises a chronological problem. Nineveh came a chronological Problem. Nineveh came histor). the reference ro to prominence as the capital of the Assyrian empire in the seventh century (the Assytian empire the seltnth century (the ro prominence as the capital of 600s) DcE,long after the Jonah of 2 Kings r4i2t lrInfact. by the time Nineveh 6oot ace, long after the Jonah of Kings 14:25. fact, by the time to became the capital,the nation of Israel had ceased to exist. The Assyrians thembecamethe capital, the nation of Israelhad ceased exist The Assyrims them' destroying its capital, Smaria, selvesbrought an end to the kingdom of Israel by destroying its capital, Samaria, brought end to the kingdom of in 721Bcl and taking mary of of its citizens into captivityfiom which they would in 72r ace and taking many its citizens into caPtivity from which they would of Nineveh in the book ofJonah never return (see a Kings r7). Thus, the role of Nineveh in the book of Jonah never return Gee 2 Kings r7). Thus, the appears to be an anachronism. to The occurence of an ana.hronism injonah is a problem only ifif the story of occurrence of an anachronism inionah is a problem only the story of The problem' though, ifjonah Jonah is history or if one assumes tbat it is. It is not a problem, though, if Jonah Jonah is history or if one assumes that is lt is not a is some kind of story, such as a satirical parable, in which the characters repreis some kind of story such as a sadical Pdable, in which the characters fePre sent an attitude or even a larger class of people. Nineveh might have been chosent an attitude or even a larger class of People Nineveh might have been cho sen by the author ofjonah as the embodiment of the evil foreign citv precisely by the author of Jonah as the embodiment of the evil foreign city precisely becauseit once served as the Assyrian caPiral Assyria, in turn had likelv come because it once served as the Assylian capital. Assyria, in turn, had likely come to symbolize the foreign "evil empire" ever since it destroyed Israel in 72a BCE. symbolize the foreign evil empte" ever sin e it desnoved Israel in 722 BcE' the story of Jonah This is the role that Nineveh and the Ninevites play in the story of Jonah, in This is the role that Nineveh and the Ninevites plsy order to make the point that ififGod cares for them, God cares for everyone. make the point that God cares for rhem, God carcs for evervone order to in respecrile The Ninevites and Jonah comPlement each othcr in their respective roles in The Ninevites and Jonah complement each other in at the cenrury at the the book of Jonah. Jonah the prophet lived in Israel rn the eighth century the book ofjonah. Jonah the prophet lived in Israel in time the Assyrian empire was on the ascent and before its destruction of Israel. before its destruction of Israel timc the Assyrian empite was on the asccni the Assyrian capital at the timc Jonah lived and would Nineveh was not yet the Assyrian capital at the time Jonah lived and \tould Nincveh become so only in the follovhg century. The author of Jonah, witing several become so only in the following cenrury The author ofJonah, writing several have known that it vas not actually rhe capital during centuries later, may not have kflown that it was not actually the capital during may centudes Jonah's lifetime. But this did not matter, since the author was not trying to lifetime. not tryjng ro did not matter, sirce Jonahs write history. He boards Jonah's response to God's.ornmand is suryrising on several levels. He boards Jonah s response to God's command is surprising on soeral levels Isracl in the a ship in order to ee toward Tarshish. Nineveh lay northeast of Israel in the order ro flee toward Tarshish Nine\h lay northeast of a modern country of Iraq. Tarshish, on the southern coast of Spain (modern modern country of lraq. Tarshish, on rhe southen coast of Spain (modern for the Tartessos), representedthe westernmost exrreme of the known world for the Tartessog, represented the westernmost extreme of the known the oppo headsinthe opporherefore, ln essence, writer ofofjonah and his audience essence, therefore, Jonah heads in writer Jonah and his audience. In Jonah site direction from where God tells him to go. site direction fiom wtlere God tells him to go some historical problems thar indi(ar( This part of the story again Presents This part of the story again presents some historical problems that indicate that the author lived long after Jonah's time. The reference toto l(4rpa's Jonah's author lived tong afterJonah'stime. The rcfcrencc Joppa as l('rrh s that the w por of em ba rk s ti isi s o d , s i n c eJ o p p was rr P hi l i sl i R hrnds not l t' rrrl i rc i D port tof embarkationo nodd,dsince Joppa a .rsiin Philistine hands, nrn Israelite, in t hec ighr century. .Al v the Phoenician ),n 1 ,,1 l tr( w rs.I' nj to ' rrrrl r' s1rrl l t the eighth hc c n l !fyAlso,),l h fItl l r' n n i .n l port of Tyre was closer1r' lJonah's north l l ri sfl xr' hl l rrrsr' l rL cm Israelite h. rrrfr.w rrr)lGath-hepherrrl ' rrrwi slJoppa, These problems of dec f l) lei' lir c hometown of (;rrl rl i rl ' h than was ' l l l ' 1

the story and are not of much consequence rril do not impede the point of the story and are not of much consequence do not impede the point 0Dlcss one insists on trying to re:d it as historyessone insistson trying to read it history. ,Mole surpdsing for the reader isionah's response in the ffrst place. Prophets More surprising for the readerisjonaht responsein the rst place.Prophets rrf messengersFom cod, and crying out is what prophets do. They are privy messengers from God, and "Crying out" is what prophets do. They are privy sends them. Then they r0 sfccial divine rmlation and go where dre divhe word sends them. Then they apecial divine revelation and go where the divine urt(I r God's judgmots against people in hopes of bdnging them to repentance. God's judgments against people in hopes of bringing them to repenence. Nol Jonan. He does ju$ the opposite, blatandy disobeying aa directorder from at Jonah. He does just the opposite, blatantly disobeying dirtct order from ( i|(1. To dricipate the story, Jonah, the prophet, whom the reader expects to be od. To anticipate the story Jonah, the prophet, whom the reader erpects Ydhwch'sclosest setrmq is the only one of a11thecharactcrs in the story humm weh's closest servant, is the only one of all the characters in the storyhuman rr ril nonhuman who fails to obey God. Jonah is a very unusual prophet indeedl nonhumanwho fails obey Gott a very unusual prophet indeed! I hc twice uses rhe expression from the presence of Yalweh," mak The narrative twice uses the expression "from the presence of Yahweh," makru, airal from God. The statement he hr$ it clear that Jonahis trylng to run away from God. The statement that he il clear lhatjonah is trying fare, may eren mean that he was in Id the ship's hire, rather than his ll'rl(i rlrc i,r'rp'i hire, ralhef than ,'rir hire or fare, may even mem that he was in his ir r, h ,r h(rry that he chartered the ship. (This also makes his choice of Joppa all the ship Ghis also mal<es choice ofjoppa aI $e Ch a hurry that he chartered I ro| re srrrnge since it was not the closest port.) Why exactly does Jonah flee?what r strange since it was not the closest port.) W}ry exacdy doesJonah ee? What lx. u uriine away fiom? what does he fear? The writer will havejonan erdain his h be running away from? What does he feart The writer will have Jonah explain his ' {r rii,Dslrrcr on in the story when he sees the people of Ninevehrepent. ns later on in the story when he seesthe people of Nineveh repent. w h lr dcr the motive forJonah's response, his attempted flight makes no sense VVIlateverfie motive forionah's response, his attempted ight makes no sense lfl lrl' r,wn bcliefsystem. On board, he boaststo the sailorsthat he worships (lit. his own belief system. onboard, he boasts to the sailors that he worships (lit. 'i,'r! )Yahweh "who made the sea and the dry lmd G:e).rhe really believes nil) Yrhweh who made the sea and the dry land" (Eo), If he really belives th,n Yillwch is the Lord of land and sea, how can he hope to ruD away? His 1 Yahweh is the Lord of lmd and sea, how can he hope to run awayl His bedrrl,rN irc nonsensical. deedsdo not correspondeither to his expressed beOM are nonsensical. His deeds do not correspond either to his er?ressed His , r, r h c cxpectationsfor his vocation 6 a prophet. Jonah is conhadictory ll|.lN I to, the expectations for his vocation as a prophet.Jonah is aa contradictory or 'Mar, whr) does with what he claims to believe.The rl|'ir,ir l (.l.who does not act in accordance s.ith What he claims to believe. The ad in acordance c||r|,,r lrinrs hinr as foolish, even deludeda ridiculous character. The story Or paints him as foolish, even deluded-a ridiculous character The story A r" .luAlly reveals whatit istthat m akesJonaharridiculous gure and that blinds ' ri l l y r r vf llswhat it is hat makes Jonah a idiculousf igur eandt har blinds to | l i f iix) lishncss his decds. of hl rr l , | the foolishness of his deeds. rci.rs to Jonah'sflighr by hurling a "great wind" and a "greatstorm" ft)JoDahk ight by hurling a greatwind" and a great storm" Y,rlrw(.h ihweh reacts .Sdr||lt the slrl, where Jonahis a passengerThis isis part ofa rather unusuaiview t rl i ship whf.c lonah is a passenger. This part of a rather unusual view nl !irrllr !Nona h Yahwehis depicredasaa real rnicrornanager,personaly involved Od l,rrih. YNhwchis depicted as real micrommaget personally involved ( r of r l) s( , r 'y.lhcsc ar c t he secondand third uses in addition t o the i l ttl fryl ,facet ( ) l the(story. These are the secondandt hir duses (inaddit ionto t he ry INineveh as r gf(r( cuy) of rhe word "great" in Jonah.There wi be great" inlonah. There will be ||r. r, rrllrf no to Nrirf v, l) rs a great city) of the word rdh.r "grants" in Jonah, notably the famous "great sh." The frequent use of r lr,,rrs irr lrrr.rh. rofibly thc l.rrnous great fish." The frequent use of The grl rt trr [ r r r h, rof the fbook'ss pf n. hdn!for hyperbole. e. stormm is so sever e it mark l r lr l] , n, [ penchant f of hyper bo] The sr or is so severe r l hrt tholship Is ,on the verge of breaking up. The Hebrew literally says that the l l r' l llt ' r r 'r r lx v, r A|, l l'( ikin8uf . l'hc I lebr ewlit er allysays hat t he rl !' I t ili1, r ll'u ln, r llnli'rup. The i( l( r issillyiinr nim at eobjectss t ) . l1r ( idea is silly; inanimate objecr dodt tthink.. rl ri t' *nOtIghl about" breaking don't hidr l l rt into like lr lf Ioner occur Irepeatedly in Jonahrand are ra rsure c signr hat r he l | | r,r) 1fthis lr r ! ! , , r , r r ] r , |l|f llly in l, r r h iDcl. r ( sur sign that the 1 hrrl , was r r r r writton.as history.t 1!!! not wr ir r r rn! hr 'r r r r .trLrl r lr r lil, , , l, r , i, ll, l, Wir lr r l! shit ' grave danger, Anotherrlatighablel'image follows immediately. With the ship inir rAr iv( r lingf r , 'll,'wi, lr ! r r t liit , 'ly

, ' , \ , , , prays , r , , v , , rrr!rr y , { ! , r | , | t except Jonah, He i asleep , no on ,hoard1 t ' , i yfervently.rLiveryune,rthatris, , , , " 1 , r l , ' h n l r r .is r i i r l { ! 1 ,

6 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE

A GENRE N R E GE JJONAH AND N D ON A IT

77

the shiP in the hold, completely oblivious to the weather and the peril of the ship. The in the bold, completely oblivious to the wearher and the Peril Hebrew ve$ (E T'll, ]1 nlam) means to sleep soundlyor deeply; the Greek transverb (Till, nirdam) means to sleep soundly or deePlv; the Creek hans' Hebrcw lation even adds the detail that he is snoring! Though humorous' the scene arso latioD even adds the detail that he is snodngl Though humorous, the scene also suggests how far out of touch with Godk adivitv Joflah has becomesuggcsts how fat out of touch with God's activity Jonah has become. The sailors contrast with Jonahtheyare more in tune with God' mofe righ' are more in tune with God, more righihc sailoLscontrasr withJonah-they teous lhanJonah, and they iffnediately sensethe hand ofof the divine in the storm. than Jonah, and they immediately sense the hand the divine in the storm' tcous They are not monotheisrs or worshippers of Yahweh rhev ha! different gods Thev are nor monotheists or worshippers of Yahweh; they have different gods but are religious men, who turn immediaiely to prayei They throw the shipt but are religious men, who tun immediately to prayer. They thow the ship's have cargo overboard and thus do awav wirh any economic gain they might have carso overboard and thus do away with any economic gain they might respect for human life hoped for from the in doing so they exhibit their hoied for ft"- the voyage;ir .loing so thev exhibit their respect for human life over material gain. Even after the ship's captain awakens Jonah with a request material gain. ""yage: Even after the ship: captanr aBakens Jonah with a iequest over Jnv pt ayer msriol that he pray for deliverance from the storm, lhere i\ Lharhe DrJv ior deliwrance fium rhe rtorm. there is no mention of any prayer on Jonah'siips. tronicalln the man of God is the only person on board the ship lips. Ironically, the man God is the o'lv pelson on board on.lonal's

who does not pray. divine The sailors perceive that the sudden storm is no coincidence but is a divine The snon perceive that the sudden storm no coincidence but a response ro.oner hlng someone on rhe \hP hasdone The) castlor' s orderto rcsponr to something 'omeone on the ship hr\ done. They cast lots in order to discern who the responsible party is. Lot casting was something like drawing casting was something like drawing discem who the respomible party is straws and occurs elsewhere in the Bible as a way for Yahweh to designate a in the Bible as a way for Yahweh to designate a straws and occurs elsewhere an person who is guilty of breaking a a commandment(Achan inin Josh 7:rG2t or an persor who n guilty of breaking commandment (Achan Josh 7:to--21) or oath (Saul in iiSam 14:24--46). Thesailors betieve that the tot will be divinely oatl rSaul in Sam rr:r+ -16) The sailors believe that the lot will be divinelv \enr' guided to pick l.n u r th e c u l p n t q h o sdisobedience rcaused the storm to be sent. g uidedr o p, c out the culprit whose e d i :u b e d i Pn' ' au' cd the \rot m ro be The lot falls on Jonah, and it is understood that Yahweh has guided its outcome. has guided its outcome The lot falls on lonah, and it is understood that Yahweh his naIn response to the sailors' questioning, Jonah arrogantly boasts about his naln response to the sailors' questioning, Jonah arrogantlv boasts about the tional origin and his religion, "I"I am a Hebrew I Iworship (lit. "fear") Yahweh, the donal origin al1dhis religion, am a Hebrew. worshiP (lit feaf') Yahwel God of heaven, who made the sea and the dry land."" the dry land cod of heaven, who mde the sea and This response seems calculated to enhance tbe $ilori estimation of Jonah's This response seems cal.ulsted to enhmce the sailors' estimation oflonaht importance as well as their fears. They do lndeed become more afraid-literally' indeed become more afraidliterally importanci as well as their fears. Thev they "feared with great fear." Jonah's confession comes as a revelation to the confesion comes as a revelation to the they feared with great fear" Jonalis sailors; he has already told them that he is eeing from Yahweh, but apparently silors; he has already told them that he is fleeing from Yahweh but appaiendy is the they did not know who Yahweh was Now that Jonah reveals that Yahweh is the thev did not know who Yahweh was Now thatJonah reveals that Yahweh clcar supreme God, the sailors are terried. The confession, however, also makes clear supreme God, the saitos are terrified The confession, however' also makes just how ridiculous Jonah'ssattempt to run away from Yahweh is. How can he just how ndiculous Jonah anempt to run awav ftom Y$weh is How can hc Thc possibly hope to escape the presence of the Maker of both land and sea? The possiblyhope ro escapethe Presence the M3ker of both land and seal recoglition ol' 'Whatis this that you have done?" shows dleir recognition of sailors' question, "What is this that you havedone? their oilon"q.estio", the foolishness and irrationality ofjonahkactions. Jonah claims to fear Yahweh and irrationality of Jonah's actions Jonah clalms ro /c'rYtrhwch the footishess r'( but disobeys and tries to run away, and it is the non-Israelite mariners who are but disobeysand tries to run away and is rhe norl hfaelne nr' ncrs wh() the true fearers of God. rhe true Garersof God. r' r rl r r" ' r" ' l he \ lilor | ' IIII The sailors.ask what rtheyy .h " ' rl .l ,l to Jonah in order to" lquiet the 'increasshould do r' ' | ' ' I - ' q $ h J rh ' '| tl t" ' w t" " ' v' t ingly tempestuous sea. Jonah 1 r' l l sthem to pick him' up and lthrow him" overnr gly t c nr pc s rl o u sv n l ,n .rh tells rh f rl rr) I' i I I' i " rrl ' r ( ) r r r I i ,l rr (rl !!l l rrr(l frx !l men i h' Irrl " r: board. One( might expect hardened !rIrr llike NallOritl ltorIr l rl rl l that with r do just l rrr w i ri h, ' x r l

pleasure {specially since their own lives are in peril. Besides,Jonah deatly rhi'l<s pleasureespecially since their own lives are in peril. Besides,Jonah clearly thinks that he is superior to them and no doubt has as litde tgard for their lives as he that he is superior to them and no doubt has as little regard for their lives as he does for all the other people in the book. Yet the sailors, as moral men, are reluc-Aloes for allthe other people in the book. Yet the sailors, as moral men, are reluc tant to harmjonah. Instead, they do everything possible to savehim. They have tant to harmionah. Instead, they do everything possible to sare him. They have lrady duoFn the cargo overboard, and now they try hard to row the ship back already thrown the cargo orerboud, urd now they try hard to row the shiP back Loshore. It is only as a last fesort and vith great fegiet that they toss Jonahinto shore. It is only as a last resort and with great regret that they tossJonah into the sea. Evo then, they first pray to Yahveh (nrstead of their gods) as|ing him e sea. Even then, they rst pray to Yahweh (instead of their gods) asking him not to hold thm accountable forJonaht life. to hold them accountablefor Jonah's life. cngulfs Jonah. The word here (lyl, The sea halts its fury at the moment ititengulfs Jonah. The word here (137t, The sea halts its fury at the moment zd'af) q?ically refers to raging anger or vexation, so that the story again as'af (ribes a human attribute to an inanimate object. Also, for a second time "great . es a human attribute to an inanimate object. Also, for a second time gr*t l!nr" is attributed to the sailors. This time the text explicitly states that they fear at' is attdbuted to the sailors. This rime the teat explicitly states that they fear ) Yrhweh. to whom they now sacrice and nake vows. In other wordq they are ty web, to whom they now sacrifice and make vows. In other words, they are Irstandy "converted" into worshippers of Yahweh. The "pagan" sailors, in short, pi tantly converted' into worshippers of Yahweh. The pagan" sailors, in short, hivc a greater regard for human life than does Jonah and are also more pious. caa greater regard for huan life than doesJonah and are slso more Pious

re nah's Psalm Jonah's Psalm fe

Nrxt comes the best known and most controversial part of the story Yahweh, rs comes the best known and most controversial part of the story. Yahweb. mi.rommager has appointed a "great ffsh" to swallow Jonah and keep him tllcto micromanager, h3s appointed a great sh" to swaltowJonah and keep him In ns bely for three days and nights. The text never actually identies the sh as ra belly for three days and nights. The text ne\r acrualty iderti{ies the fish as ts r whale, though most readers have assumed that aa whale is whatthe writer had gi hale, though most readers have assumed that whale is what the writer had Inind, since it would have been the oily "sh" large enough to swallow a l|r n mind, shce it would have been the only 'fish" large enough to sallow a hrrnnn. some have poifted our that a whale is not a Iish. but that in itself well g an. Some have pointed out that a whale is not a sh, but that in itself well r$r rates the point of this book-the lendency of modern readers to try to read llh a trates ihe poinr of this bookthe tendency of modern readers to try to read I lx, Bible on their terms instead of those of the Bible's authors and original audinllible on their terms istead of those of rhe Bible's authors and originai audif rx.. The latter were unaware of the scientic differences between mammals t. g The lalter \rere unawdc of the scienti{ic diferences between mamals dr(l sh, so those kinds of modern, technical issues are irrelevant as far as the of modern, teclnical issuesare irrelevant as far as the erlish, so lhose (rlJonah is concerned. n,'rt of Jonah is concerned. or 'llrcrc is anolher detail in thc text, howeve! rhat suggests the deliberately ve ere is another detail in the text, however, that suggests the deliberately fn il nrture of lhe story: It uses two slightly different words for 'fish "' Both f.r xaal nature of the story: It usestwo slighdy different words for "sh"' Both w!rrh sltn flom the sameHebiev root, but rhe word inlonah 2:ris masculine, tio stem from the same Hebrew root, but the word in Jonah is masculine, rds whll,.rh. rDc nr 2:2is fcminine.In 2:II it is again masculine. There is no explanan,e the one in 2:2 is feminine. In 2:r itis againmasculine.Ttere is no erylana rl, , for these changesfiotu a hisroricalor biological standpoint that makes any sol, , r l!,se ch. ngcs from a historical or biological standpoinrthat makes any n r.ri.e. The best rx|l.nrlbn lies in rhe naturc of the story as a satire with its th l l! h sr explanation lies in the nature of the story as a satire with its fcatures.Consideringthe nature rriry deliberately exaggerated and nonsensical features. Considering the nature at Any tlclil! rrr.1y cxiglt(rrkd.nd nonsensical r'.,lr sl',ry, the idea ,n someone being inside a large sh for three days is rh. i(l(r of s{nleonc being insidc a large fish for three daysis r'l the Jonah story, rlr' th l, l rr.ri r ridiculous tass r k idea that r r h( lish . h. ngcs gcndcrWhether such aathing eas rrl r r l, r r , r the ! l. i lhr the sh changes gender. Whet her such t hing t !rri r,r,,l l yl !, r 'il, l, is slr r '1, ! , I r tThe whole l( sr ( , r yis ir l( ndr d rbe preposterousous st Itetually possible r irrelevant. I l! wh, ) story is intended to ( )bc Pr cPost cr lir r ol ) , '|||I 1, I r ( |I isir llill( l trrrrttrrw ry t ,purpose is, r Lr k, or its very r r r t , 'r 'lst , to make funrof Jonah and rhis rattitude, 1( ' ittilt

lly

y a

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8 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE

AND C JONAH J ON A E AND GENRE E N R I

The entire scene now becomes even more comical. Trapped inside of th The entire scene now becomes even more comical. TraPPed inside of the sh, Jonah ffnally prays. Jonah's prayer is lctually a hymn of thanksgiving and as Jonah's prayer is actually a hymn thanksgivins ud as fth, Jonah nally such js not entirely appropriate to his situation.' Here is the wayward prophet, is not entirely apprcpriate to situation.5 Here is the wa''ward prophet, such who is not exacrly the gtaretul b?e, intoning a rousing hymn of thanks hside of who not exactly the grateful type, intoning rousing hymn of thanks inside of a large fish. The humorous image that this chapter conjures up may be precisely cbaPter conjures up may a large sh. The humorous the reason rhat thc psalm was included. was included. the reason that the The original setting of the psalm was apparently its author's survival of aa author's survjval of The original setting of the psalm vas apparenrly qpedcnce. The psalmist saysthat he cried out to Yahweh from the ''ne:r death" experience. The psalmist "near death" that he cried out to Yahweh from belly of Sheol. "Sheol" is the Hebrew nme for the undeNorld or place of the the Hebrew name for the underworld or place of rhe bclly of sheo]. Sheof dead,also called the Pit" later in the poem. The Hebrert rerm for "belly" here is dead, also called the "Pit" later in the poem. The Hebrew term for "bely" heie is different from the word used for the belly of the sh, though they are both of the fish, rhough they ale borh different from *1e vord used for the translated the same in the New Revised Standard Version (NRSV). Even so, the Even so, raNlated the same in the New Revised Standard Version reference toJonahbeingin in the "belly" of Sheol easily brings to mind his predicareference to Jonah being the belly" of Sheol easily brings to mhd his predica poem ment in the recesses of the f:ish. Another image for death used in the poem is sh. Another imagc for death used in the recesses of that of drowning, and it also reminds one of Jonah's situation. Still, even though situation. Srill, even though drowning, and ir also rcminds one ofJonal's that Jonah has not dro ned in rhe sea, he does not yet know that he will surive his lonah has not drowned in the sea, he does not yet know that he will survive ordeal in the sh, Thus, the psalm of thanksgiving is inappropriate because n is thanksgiving is inapproPriate be.ause it ordeal thc fish. Thus, premature. There are other differences between Jonah's situation md that rcllecred in There are other ditrerences between Jonah's situation and that reected throws the lr is Yahweh rhe psalm, rather than rhe sailors, the psalm. It is Yahweh in the psalm, rather than the sailors, who throws the the psalmist into the sea. There is no mentioD of the sh or any of the circumthe fish or any of the cirom psalmist inro rhe sca. There is no mention references to Yalweh's house" stances that landedjonah there in the psalm_ The references to Yahweh's "house" stmces that landedionah there in the psalm. "temple" are also inappropriate tokinah's s situationi the temple was inJerusa or "temple" are also inappropriate toJonah situation; the temple was in JerusaIsrael The lem, the capital of Judah, whne Jonah was from the kingdom of Israel. The kingdom 1em, the capital ofJudal, while Jonah was from condemnation of idol worshippers as forsaking rheir loyalty fits ill with the story worshippers as forsaking their loyalty ts vith the story condemation faitfful are in Jonah, shce the foreignus, who presumably wonhip idols, are more faithful in Jonah, since the foreigners, who presumably worship of sacrice at the temple also sacrifice at the temple also and obedient to Yahweh thdjonah. The mention of Yahweh than Jonah The mention and obedient presupposesa setthg on land ra$er than in the fish s interior. The vow menpresupposes a setting on land rather than in the sh's interior The vow menpay') is presumably tioned at the end of the poem ( 'and vhat I have vowed I twill pay") is presumably tioned at the efld of L\e poem ("and what have vowed $.i11 occasionedby the ps3lmist's restomnon . . of which there isis nomention yet in by the psalmist's restoration . of whjch there no mention yet in occasioned the story of Jonah. Despite the inappropriateness of the psalm to Jonah's situation, the scene in Despirethe inappropriateness tbe psalm tojonah: situation, the scene the belly of the sh furthers the story and the characterization of Jonah by what the bellv of the fish furrhe's the story and the characterization of]onah by wh:t it does notsay. There is no indication on Jonah's part of any regret for his disobeir does Dor say.There is no irdication onJonah's part of any regrer for his disobc in dience dience and failure to carry out God'ssorder. In spite of his experience in the sh, failure carry out Cod order. In spireof his eaperjence rhc fish. he remains obstinate and unrepentant. The humor of this scene continues. In he remains obstinale ar)durtpentant. The humor of this sceneconri'trcs lD what must be intended as a wry twist, after three days Yahweh speaks to the sh. what mustbe iDtendedasa wry t'ivist,aftcr three daysYahwchsPcrksro rh. llsh The idea of rhe Almighty personally .ddfcssnig lish is eorrrr rl errotr8h,rrt,l The idea of the Almighty personally addressing a. sh is comical enough, and adding to the comedyd ywhat Yahweh tellslthc sh to do. We.lhave a sryi rl gtl ri r ac lc inigt ot hc c (n n c is i s w h i rYi h w .h rc l s (hfl i shr,' (1,)w )i v{ i saying that ' ' I t ir and { r ! .s ts s ti n i l i .r rl rf.r ,l ,ry l l ,,ll r l ,,r1.rlrrrl rl ! l l rrrl l ,tl , rtt., "Fishh ir r l guests stinkkafter three days."sBoth Jonah and the great sh agree, 'r

though for different reasons. Following Yahweh's command, the sh spews (lit. though for differnt reasoN. Following Yahweh's colnmand, the ffsh spews (lit "vomits") up the distasteful prophet. distasteful vomits") Jonah's Mission to Nineveh Jonah's Mission to Nirevh
Y hweh tellsJonah a second lime ro go to Nineveh, and lhis time he goes. He has weh tells Jonah a second rime to go to Nineveh, and this time he goes. He has avay from the Mater sea and dry land nl least leamed that he camot run away from the Maker ofof sea and dry land least learned that he cannot rlat ws already quite obvious ro the non Israelite sailors. Nineveh is Nonrething that was already quite obvious to the non-Israelite sailors Nineveh is Omething city,lirerall. a great city to God." The further sPeci f'rllcd an exceedinglylarge city, literally; "agreat ciry to God " The further specied an exceedingly large l l( irion, "aftree days'valk across,"(NRSV)indi.ares an enormous city indeed. Cation, a three days' walk across," (NRSV) indicates an enormous city indeed. Alrhough the ex?rcssion aloneis:mbiguous, its referenceto diameteris evident though the expressionaloDe is ambiguous, its reference to diameter is evident lir,rn the statement thatJonal wafts aa day's journey intothe ciry Figuring twenty m the statement that Jonah walks day'sjourney into the city. Figuring twenty [rllrs as the approximate distance rhat one cm walk in a day this would mean es as the approximate distance that one can walk in a day, this would mean miles aaoss-huge wen by modern standards! lD fact, th"l Nineveh was sixty miles acrosshuge even by modern standards! In fact, at Nineveh was tlx ligure is exaggerated beyond any sembtame of re3lity and can only be congure exaggerated beyond any semblance of reality and can only be conrl(lffed h}?erbole. This is another problem for a historical reading of the book. red hyperbole. This another problem for a historical reading of the book a location of ancient Nineveh was identied and excavated well over aa ceD'l hc location ancient Nineveh was identified and excarated well over cenlur y ago.At its height, the city had a circumference of only about 7.75 miles; at y igo. At its height, the city had a circumference of only about 7 75 milesi at It I widest point ititwas about three miles acrossnowhere near the size that Jonah w t(lcsr point was about three miles across-no\theie near the sze tbatJonal l|ulcs ro it.6Again, the discrepdcy is only:problem if one attempts to read butes to it's Again, discrepancy is only a problem if one aBemPtsto read 'llr h as history. This kind of exaggeration is to be expected, however, in sanre f'r ah trshisrory This kild of exaggeration is to be expected, however, in satire. the hedt of Nineveh,Jonah utters 3 lerse oracle lhnrlirg Entering a day's walk into the heart of Nineveh, Jonah utters a terse otacle walk only five words in Hebrew: Forty daysfrom nov Ninevh will be |'Drii$rirlgof only ve words in Hebrew: "Forty days ftom now Nineveh will be listing of 7l!,3:a) There isnoindtcanorinthe text rrfl lfir'tlcd'(nl5;11 jllltllVn A"flN urned" (nDni 11' Dll Rather. he apparendy turns abruptly and leaves. |f rcpcats the message. lh(|t he repeats the message. Rather, he apparently turns abruPtly and leaves , Au,rl||,his behavior is out of character for a prophet (remember that prophets In, ynnt;bchavior is out character a prophet (remember that prophets 3:4). There is 't I y 0rrr"indication in the stubbornness. Other prophets deliver extended oracles out"))and reflects his stubbornness. other prophets deliver extended oracles no xnd reects ol colorful language and vivid metaphors. Jonah does the barc midmum, r oldirl laugu:ge and vivid metaphors.Jonah does the bare minimum, lrrll of text ||Ihlr+lrx,.. The reason for rhistersenessis simple.Unlike every other prophet g more. fhc fsson for this tersenessis simple. Unlike everyother ProPhet lri l lr' llihl.,.l(nrnhdoes not wanr his audience to listen He refuses to Prolonghis *Bible, Jonah does not want his audienceto listen. He retusesto prolong his nrrF!{I{r or his visit becausehe doesnot want them tobe effective;hedoesnor Sage or his visit bccausc he does not want them to be effective; he does not Iis,rtrlicr.c ro fcpcnt. As wr|rt his audience to repent. As he soon makes dear in the story, he hopes thar makes dear in the story he hopes that and that God will destroy them. l|f Ninevites will ignore his message and that God will desnoy them Nn, !ir(s will igDorc his mcssrge J',||ilrr,,,rriL is lfss straightforward than initially aPPearsbe. He appar lOttah's oracle is less srr.righrlinwdrdlhanititinitially appears torobeHe apparttrl l yrn,r 'r sr , , ir yr l! r l Nir f vf h s ", ) vcnur ning'iscoming soon. But "fortyydays" nleans to say that Nineveh's "overturning" is com ingsoon. But f or t days" r h lypicKity ai round-number metaphor for ai longgt im e in f ieBible. One expects a rrl rrri l l y r {r , , xl r t r 1r r l) . llr . r r r |l! ' li, r l( , r time in the Bible O ne dpect s a d rr , , r lr k( r I r ! r lit t lir sur r n r lr inr r t unr . As result, Jonah seems l | Frl ,rlmore. like three days for suchhan ultimatum. As a a r esuh,Jonahseem s r l\ 1i, il1r , |1 rr' l HA. Is he ,calling i l! . Ninevites to, immediate action or assuring them that the NI r vr t ( * t ( ir r r r c( liir . r . r nnr r n issuf ingr hem t hat 'l lr (ir ways? The point ,of r hr ( r 'i. lc is . lv) tl | rr have r , l, r r r r r r r r r r r r rto tchangertheir w, r yf ] ll! 1) , , inr, l the oracle is also | l ,rvr adequate time , , l[ $$

tguouo, The verb for overt tinted" (11:01 nehthicet) may mean "destroyed"

to HOW TO READ THE BIBLE JONAH AND GENRE

J ON A E

AND

CENRI

or "changed." Thus, Jonah's prediction will prol true regadless of how the or "changed." Thus, Jonalis prediction wil prove true regardless of hov the Ninevites react. If they fail to listen and respond,the citv wi! be destroyed. on Ninevit; react. If thev fail to listen and resPond' the city will be destroyed On the other hand, if they repent, the city will not be destoyed, but wil be changed' ft other hand, if they rpent, the ciiy wil not be destroyed, but it will be changed. This means that, counter to an interpretation that has sometimes been oFered' This means that, counter to an interpretation that has sometimes been offered, Jonah'ssubsequent anger isis notoccasioned by his concern over his "pmphetic subsequent anger not occasioned by his concern over his "prophetic Jonaht record" (i.e., the accuraa/ of hjs predictiont. His record remains intact however record' (i.e., the accuracy of his predictions). His record rcmains intact however the Ninevites iespond There is some other rcason that Jonah gets angrya th Ninevites respond. There is some other reason that Jonah gets angry a reason that gets at the heart of the booLs message reason that gts at the heart of the book's message. In spite of the curtness of Jomh's orade' is enormoudv successtul-to a In spite of the curtness of Jonah's oracle, it is enormously successfulto a ridiculous extreme. Alt the peoPle of Nineeh beliel in God, makingJonah $e ridiculous extreme. All the people of Nineveh believe in God, making Jonah the most efective piophet in the Bible by far. The Ninevites are amaangrv percep most effective prophet in the Bible by far. The Ninevites are amazingly perceptive. Not only do they discern the implicit threat inirJonah's oracle, they also Jonahi oracle' they also tive. Not only do they discern rhe implicit threat perceive that the threat comes fiom God, eventhough the oracle did not mention thnt the threat comes from God, though the orade did not mention perceive God. whx is more, they intuit how they should respond in order to avoid decod. What ls more, they irtttit how they should respond in order to ala)id de struction. The entire citizenry of Nineveh, from the greatest or most imPortant to struction. The entiie .itizenry of Nineveh. ftom the greatest or most important to the smallest or least important (4:6), fasts and dresses in sackclothconventional in rnd dresses q'Ldo$ rhe smalesr or leae imponanr ,a.or' Fa\rs 'on!'enbonal down Fom his $rone signs of mourning. The king of Nineveh himself comes down from his throne of mourning. The king of Ninelh himself signs 'omes to sit in the dust drcssed in sackdoth. Incidentallv, the title, "king of Nine!h" is to sit in the dust dressed in sackcloth. Incidentally, the title, "king of Nineveh," not attested in the voluminous literature recovered from ancient Nineveh and in the voluminous literature recol'ered ftom ancient Ninerh and not attested Assyria, and again suggests the unhistorical nature of the story. Assyna, and again suggests the unhistorical nature of the story peoPle and the animals in the city The king issues a decree requiring all the people ad the anirtals in the citv to The king issues a decree requiring fast, dress in sackdoth, pray, and repent of evil deeds and violence. Like his people, of oil deedsand violence' Like his People' fast, dress in sackctorh Pray,and the king is incredibly perceptive. He makes this decree wir hourany certainty of the k ing incredbly Per( ePtive He mdkesfiis deo ee without any cenainD of 's the abatement of divine punishment but only in the mere hope that Yahweh the abaiement of divine punishment bur onty in the mere hope tlat Yahweh may relent and decide not to destroy the city The decree appears at frst glance destroy rhe citla The decree aPpearsat rst glance may relent and decide not to be superuous, since it follows the notice that the people repented. However, follows the notice that the people repented Howevea to be superfluous, the royal decree highlights the ridiculousness of the extent of effectiveness of the rcil decree higt ights the ddiculousEess of the eftent of effectiveness of Jonah's oracle in the story. Imagine sheep, cattle, and other animals dressed in and other animsls dressed Jonah's oracle in the story lmagine sheep, catde, insteadto lament their evil deeds sackcloth refusing to eat or drink, preferring instead to lamenr then evil deeds drinL, Prefeffing sa.kcloth retusing to eat and pray for mercy!. The idea is ludicrous. No other scene in the book quite so mercyl The idea ludicrous. No other scene in the book quite so and pray dearly illustrates the satirical nature of the story with its ridiculous images and clearly illustrates the satirical natue of the storv with its ridicuious images and hyperbole. hwerbole. humans md animals alike is effective The repentance of the Nineviteshumans and animals alikeis effective. The repentance of the Ninsites Yahweh is moved by it to change his mind about the disaster he had intended for it to change his mind about the disaster he had iltended for Yahweh is moved the city Ironically, Nineveh is i5 nor desrro\ed be'Juseit ists ' hangedOne might rhe ciq. lronicauy.Nineleh not destroyed, because 'r changed. one mrghr efiectiveness of his proclamation. He is not expect Jonah to be gratilied at the effectivenessof his Proclamation- He is not. expectJonah to be gratied ar Instead, he is displeased. The Hebrewliterally says that he perceived it it asa Srcar Hebrew literallv saysthat he Perceived a "great as Instead,he is displeased. evil," and he became angryangry at God forbeing merciful. Yet, the very mercy evil, ddhe becameangry-angry atcod for being mcr'ifDl Yct,thc v'ry nle'fv rcly is trlsorhc rn'f'y of God that infuriates Jonah and upon which the Ninevites rely is also the mercy of cod that infudates.lonahand un(,n whi(h the Nitr0viLcs that has kept Jonah hinrs(ll alive. This is another of the book's great ironies, himself rrliv. l'hlt jt tttrorhc' ol rhc brrlk' gr''rtr lrorrlcr' thal hns kcDt l(nrnh

Y.hwh'! Lsson to Jonah Yahweh's Lesson to Jonah In the ffnal scene of the storyJonah at last explains why he so foolis ydiedto to the nal scene of the story Jonah at last explains why he so foolishly tried run aFtsy when Yahweh first ordered him to go to Nineveh. The explanatio4 or away when Yahweh rst ordered him to go to Nineveh. The explanation, or Nhereasoning behind it. is even moie stading thanJonahi flight. a reasoning behind it, is even more startling than Jonah's ight. Oh Yahfth, is this no! what II saidwhen IIwrs still in my oM coutrtryr This is why Oh Yahweh, is this not what said when was still in my own country? This is why II preenptiltly ed towards Tarshish. For II knew that you are a gracious and merpreemptively fled towdd, Tarshish.For ldew that you are a graoous dd mer ciful God {low to become angry, great in kindness, and who changes his mind ciful Godslow to become mgr' geat in kinalne$, and who changeshis mind nbourbringingdisaster. (4;2, AT) about bringing dirastei (42, AT) llca ran awall he says,because hehe knew God to be mercifuland gracious, patient ran away, he says, because hew Cod to be merciful and gracious, patient Ind forgiving. Jonah, it seems, wanted Nineveh to be destroyed, and he was d forgiving. Jonah, it seemq wmted Nircveh to be destloyed, and he was r&cld that cod would relent if his preaching caused the city's residents to reaid that God would relent if his preachiry caused the city's residents to repoll, That is precisely what happened, md now Jonah is angry angry with nt. That is prcisely what happened, and now Jonah is angryangry with

Oud lbr beiry mercitul. od for being merciful. Jonah is so angry that he asks God take his life. "It is better for me to die Jonahis so angry that he 1sksGod toto take his life. It is better for me to die witi a question, "Do you do well to be lhtn to lii," he says. Yahwehresponds with a question,"Do you do wel to be live," he says.Yahweh responds (AT) But Jonah doesnot answer.Instead, he takesa position overlookButjonah does not answer. Instead,he takes a position overlook ttlltty?" (AT) ?" Ing Nheveh, appaiendy hopeful that God willchange his mind again and deNineveh, apparently hopeful that God will changehis mind apin and de tltoy thc city wirh its inhabitants. the city with its inhabitmts. Ilut Yahweh decides to try yet once more to teach Jonah a lesson. He appoints Big Yahwehdecides try yet oncemore to teachjonaha lesson.He apPoints to togrowup andgiveJonahshade. ahuh to grow up and give Jonah shade. Jonah nds greatjoy" in the bushin Jonahtuds "great joy" in the bush-in a6llllnrt to the "great evil" that he felt at Yahweh's decision not to destroy trait to the great eral" that he felt at Yshweh's decision not to destroy lllttwch, Then, the Almighty who previously spoke to aa fish, now appoints a Pet. Then, the Almighty, who Previouslyspoketo sh, now appoints a AtrDr, Following divine command, the worm attacks the bush so that it withM. lollowing divine command, the worm attacksthe bush so that it withFhrully,God appoints a dry eartern wind that, together with the hot sun, llt, !nally, God appoints a dry eastern wind that, together v'aththe hot sun, onJonah. The prophet is miserableand for the second be{rr down oppressively on Jonah. The ProPhetis miserable and for the second I down oppressiv-ely g$r uko God to take his life. He repeatshis erlier lamenr "It is better for me to $L{ (;od to take his life. Hrepeatshis earlier lament: "It is better for me to his th[n to livc. SoYahweh also repeats rejobder question: "Do you do well $i than tr) live." So Yahwehalsorepeats his rejoinderqu$tion: "Do you do wel answrs thistime adding aboutthebushl'Andthis timeJonah {ngryt" Fb$ angry?" this time adding "about the bushr And this time Jonah answers speechcondudesthe &flrntly: "I do well toto be angry enoughto die." Yahweh's tly; "l do wcll be angry enough to die." Yahweh's speech concludes the qucsrion: wlrhLr benl with a question: to iru rlifd about' the bush, which youdid not work or gro*,{hi.h came bein You eared drrr/rh. b!sh,which didnotworkorgrow, which came to be in you about Nineveh, gleatcity, the I i dry irn(l Irnrlfrl Lri niBhrAn.lshould notcare *do) ,,o,ooo thc|t ir. ,ir!. rhrnr In which there ere more than 120.000 pcoplc ,ltt which people whodo not know their right hand who do not knowtheiright hand lirur lh.lr'lcll, w.ll nriDyinitrrils? *OM their left, as well as many animals? (AT) (AT) ond 'r$ peri ir LlL! she lt| h!*hnrItx, thc ro(llnR,)l.lrnnrh uru$url ind poimsto the booKs Like its beginning, the ending of Jonah is unusual and points to the book's gikutno ODlyr'rtolh(rhtr)L(,1 lhbrcw llilrlc )trchdt$ with qucsdn. rhr .. d UMW Only one other book of the Hebrew Bible concludes with a question. in a nigh

12 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE JONAH AND GENRE

] ON A H

AND

CENPI

It is the book of Nahum, which, interestingty is also a proPheticbook dealing It is the book of Nahum, which, interestingly is also a prophetic book dealing with Nineveh.Both questioN rhetorical. The diffetenceis that the quesdon with Nineveh. Both questions are rhetorical The difference is that the question in Jonah is transparently didactic. That is, it is desigled to teach a theological injonah is transparentlydidactic.That is, it is designed to teach a theological question lessonthat God cares for all people and indeed all creation. lesson-that cod caresfor aI peoPleand indeed all creation The question is directed to Jonah,but the lessonis meant for the book-sreaders. to Jonah, but the lesson is meant for book's readers' directed

The Messageand Purpose Jonah The Messageand PurPoseof Jonah

It is obvious from the foregoing examination of its content that the book of its content that the book of It is obvious ftom tlle foregoing examimtior Jonah was not written as biography orhistory There is an almost total lack of history There almost total lack of Jonah was not witten as biography or the sort of specic information that one expects of such works. Thus, no date or sort of speafic information that one expects of such works Thus' no or the time frame is supplied for the story One assumes that Jonah is all eighd'century thatJonah is an eighth-century dme Fame is suPPlied for the stoqa one assumes But Jonah-s Israelite prophet becauseof the mention of him inin 2 Kings 4:25 But Jonah's lsraelite prcphet becauie of the mention of him a Kings Lezs. about location when he is called is not specied. Indeed, no biograPhical details about tocation wtre" le is .atted is not specified lndeed, no biographical the sh vomits Jonah are given. we de also not told ar what place on dry land the fish vomits are given. We are also not told at what place on dry Jonah provided There are historical Jonah up,no" is the .'arne of the Ling of Nineveh provided. There are historical nor is the name of the king of ronah -l"accu'.aes, such as the tide 'king of Nineveh" and the descriPtion of Nineveh's "o. inaccuracies, s"cfr as tne title "king of Nine\h" the description Ninereh s Even size, not to mention the prominence of Nineveh in the eighth century Even more Nineveh dt size, not to mention the prominence important for recognizing the story's s un] sroncalnrture is irs Penchanllor exaSsrory unhistorical nature is its penchant for exagimpoflrr for rccognizing$e gerationthe "great" wind, "great" storm, "great" " cir)and "great" sh, to name grfa( .torm. gr city, and great Fsh toname e",:tion .rhe q'ear ""nd. a few examples. Some of these go beyond mere hyperbole to to ridiculou"ness $ese go bqond mere hwerbole ridiculousness so-. i t * "t """*pt.-. especially the claim that it is sixty miles across the city of Nineveh and the idea that claim it n sixry miles adoss the city of Nineah and the idea that especialy the utterance' the entire city, including the animals, repents atatjonah's one-sentence utterance. the entire city, induding fie animals, repents Jonah's one seitence stereotypes' that at The characters in Jonah are also exaggerations, or better, stereotypes, that at o' exaggerariofls. The characters injonal afe The least border on the ridiculous. The two main characters are God and Jonah. The border on the ridiculous The two main characters are God andJonah least rlief other people and the animals provide contrasts to Jonah aswel as comic relief. well as comic other people and PrNide cofltrasts tojonah of entertainmenti The comedy is not merely for purposes of entertainment; ititisis usecl tomake used to ma{e The comedy n not merely for Purposes atdtudes' serious points about the nature of God and human attitudes. serious points about the nature of God ard human of Yahweh is an orrunpotent micromanager who controls not only the forces of Yahweh is an omnipotent mrcromanager who conEols not only the forces The nature but also personally appoints and commands sh, insects, and plants. The natu* but al"o personally appoints and conmands fish, iisects' and Plants and land God of Israel is also the God of the entire universe, the creator of sea and land. cod of lsraet is also the God of the entire universe' the creator of sea and ddsorms lllh plants, and worms, and The idea of the Almighty speaking to individual sh, Pldnrs rhe jdea of rhe Almighry sPeakingIo indindudl that God is the point that God is bur makes i5 sending them on special missions is comical, but ititmakes the Point sending them on sPecial of concerned ro' and involved in all creation. God's concern for the lowliest of for in all creation Gods concern for .oncerl'ea "ni;r-orred bc creatures also contrasts with Jonah's callousness toward his fellow human becreatures also conuasts with Jonatis callousness toward his fellow human ings in wanting to see Nineveh destroyed. ings in wanting to see Nineveh destroyed. rn( rcl God's purposes throughout the story are unfailingly redemptive and merciGod's purPosesthroughout the story arc unfailnrgly rcdcmFivc rnd r(' () bring the Ninevites to ful. The reason nfo rJ o n :rh ' s i s s n r in thecrst (place issto bdrrgrl ( N i rrcvnc$ m f ul. T he r c as o for Jonah's mission m rh l i N P l ' rl i repentance soothat ltheyymayyl rv c destruction. Yahweh'snpow c| rtnthcsthcsailors r c Dc nr an( s th n th c In a avert d .rl n rd l (!r ' Y rrhw rhpower teaches the nrri Irr

l0 reverehim but doesnot destroythem. God is especialymercifin to Jonahand revere him but does not destroy them. God is especially merciful to Jonah and docsnot puish him despite his disobedience his sell$h andarroganrattitude. snot punish him despitehis disobedienceand his selsh and arrogant attitude. and lvcn in the hce ofJonal's pleasfor death,Yahwehremainspatient and tries to in the face of Jonah's pleas for death, Yahweh remains patient and tries to irony of the story may be that the divine mercy that ln$fuctjoflah. The greatest irony of the storymay be that the divinemercy dlat uct Jonah. The greatest is is what keeps him from being the target ofdivine wrath. what keeps him ftom beingthe target of divine wrath. m rngersJonah angers Jonah Jonahis by fd the most ridiculous character in the story. Everything Jonah Jonah is by far the most ridiculous characterin the story Ever]'thing doasis comical his attempt to flee the creator of the uni\rse, his nap during a ee trShrg storm at sea,his intonation of ah1m of praisein the ltsht bel\a his exit ls storm at sea, his intonation of a hymn of praise in the sh's belly, his exit ing rcgurgitation, and his deep atrection for a plant. This Jonah is an unreal by co regurgitation, dd his deep affection for a plant. This is an unreal luurc-a satidcalimitation of a prophet rather than the histoncd prophet of mi a satirical imitation of a prophet rather than the historical prophet of lhcca It |,amename. His flagrant rebelion againstcodk command contrasrswith same name. His agrant rebellion against God's command contrasts with picty and obedienceof dle "pagan"sailors md the evil Ninevites, not to dl( l piety and obedience of the pagd" sailors and the evil Ninevites, not to lh$tion the dumb animals,plants, and for.es of nature. hition the dumb animals, plants, and forces of nature. ,kmahis full of conffadictions.Even more than d imitation of a prophet, he Jonah is full of contradictions. Eren more than an imitation of a prophet, he s h nn "antiprophet," who does not want to prophesy and whose behawiorand att"antiprophet," who does not want to prophesyand whose behavior ard in ttllludc are the opposite of what the readerexpectsina man of God. He is e de are the oppositeof what the reader expects a man of God. He is his actionsdo not match his beliefs, for he confessesthe Creator and his beliefs,for he confesses Creator ud dtludcdi his Ildeci; do not match the m dun tric$ to run away from him. He isis a self centeredbigotwhose reasoning is pt tries to run sway ftom him. He a self-centered bigot whose ieasoningis do{ded by prejudice and hatred.As aa result, hispriorities are dreadtullymixed to ded by prejudice and hatred. As resuit, his priorities are dreadfully mi{ed hhweht mercy toward other peopleor y ftuitmtes him to the point that lF, ethweh's mercy toward other people only frustrates himto the point that docldcslife is no longer worth living, to the point that he harbors deepe. hl e Rides life is no longer worth living, to the point that he harbors deeper ftlllngr for a plant that shades him than for myriads of people and animals. th p lbr a plart that shadeshim th3n for m]'riads of people and animals. Yahweh andjona}, in 'l'hc interview between the two principal characters, Yahweh and Jonah, in e tnterview between the two principal characters, ffilnl scene of the book is where its message through satirical characterizasceneof the book is where its nessagethrough satiricalcharacteriza cr nal I| 18 ea clcdrest. Jonahrather die than have God be merciful to other people. is Jonah would would rather diethm havecod be mercilirl to other people. is rultLrdcof prejudiceandhatred tov{d non-tsraelites wh3t the book sati !ll| tor attitude of prejudice and hatred toward non-Israelites is what the book sari*m, The ludicrous featuresof the story ridicule this attitude of bigotry Ideally, of 'l'he ludicrousfeatures of the story ridicule this attitude of bigotry ldeally, help rhe audienceto perceiveinjonah the si iness *t th lrrnur and exaggeration itUrnor and exaggeration help the audience to perceive in Jonah the silliness rlwn attitudes and rhe ridiculous lengthsto which arogance and preju' th.h own attitudes and the ridiculous lengths to which arrogance and prejuf e ir pur' ti[ un lmci thcm. The concluding question points to the story's didactic purcan lead them. The concluding question points to the story's didactic li l li nrih s character a mirror for the boolis audience.He embodiesan iv , x Jonah's characteris a mirrorfor the book's audience. He embodies an h|(k present or at least perceivedby the author to exist in Israel. Again, the er de lr rsrrl or dt lc ast perceived by the author ro exist in Israel.Again, the ty ahout him is not hisbry but satjreorparody, a ridiculous story that mates seabout hlrn is not history but satire or parody, a ridiculous story that makes I l:flrrtuFntrl. , Otio point, hi s rnd Expcctstion Eanrcand Expectation na p Thr|!yt',$r.lflrtcrxlhrl{|hfllr|Nri'rlir(n.'(nrlhisrcfoAnizinsirsscnn:.'ccnrc,' du to understanding the message of Jonah is recognizing its genre. "Genre," y lhr h, rini\,l|(llir||r llrl'lr( h rarfr||r lrfrl lo frli.r'r,, type or category of a piece Otti 'om French, is term used to refer to the tyP.,n .rrrSrn rn n pif(( g a

HOW TO READ THE BIBLE T EE T O RIAD HOW

B I}I'E

A GENRE N R E GE ]ON A I{ AND N D JONAH

of literature. Broadly, there are ction and nonfiction genres,andwithin eachof nonction geffes' and within of of literatue. Broadiy,there are fiction and scrence short story and science those genresthere are other genres or subgertres. Novel, those eenres thereareother genresor subgenresNovel' short story ction, for instance, are subgenresof {iction aiographt instruction manual, of ction_ Biography, instruction manual' ;;":; "* "Jgenres in ^,,"".", and catalogueare subgenres noDfiction Each of thesesubgenres turn may of and caralogue aresubgenres of nonction. Eachof these subgenres in turn may havelt" oui' *Ugs"..'. a",obiographv, for example, is a subgenre of biography. its own subgenres. Autobiography, examPle'is a subgeffe biograPhy r,"* flexible' so a literar/ Genre categories are not rm xed are uid Genre categmie"are "ot f'm or fixed but at fluid and exible, a literary incorporates work can incorporate difierent genres, as work can incorporate different genres, just as the book of Jonah incorporates the psalmin chapter 2.. psalm in chaPter2 the Discernment of genre is an essentidpart of the processof communication of g.n'. i, * essential part of the process of communication di"."""-"". between authoranJread.rs. It It provides a literary "frameof teference"within and readers. providesa titerary ftame of reference" within bemeen "othor interprets and makes useof a text Miscoflsffu4g the genre of which the reader of text. Misconstruing the genreor which the reader interprets and makes tdby rhe s a Djeceof bterarurerhere e.can be dsasnou This is nicely illustrated bv the for a pieceof literature, therefore, canbe disastrous. This is nicely 'llustrr crewof a aboutthe senes movie Galaxy Quest. In it, a science ction television series about the crew of d fictiontelevisron ir' r scienc *l*i" crl,,yQ*"'rn space shipois mistakenty aliensfor real hjrtory or ioumalism The aliens draft by aliens for real history journalism. The alinsdraft "frto the cast i'"-t"help them ght real interplanetary war' The film illus-"." il .*, members.to r,.ip them fight a real interplanetary war. The lm illus--'*t* history could betrates how confused someone who reads science ction as history could bebates how confusedsomeone**ro reads sciencefrction as surgeon took an come. Similarly, imagine the disaster that might ensue if aasurgeon took an might ensue come. Similarly, imagine tle disaster instruction manual as ction, or aa worL of fiction asImedical guidebook. Such work of ction as a medicalguidebook Such instmction manual asffction, or not scenarios may seem far-fetched. Someone as educated as a surgeonwouro not scenariosmay seemfar fefthed Someoneas educated a surgeon would or vice wrsa' at least likely mistake a work of ction for an instruction manual or vice versa, at least likelv mistake a work of ffction for an insffucnon manual owr culture andtime from his or her own culture and time as f.'"g * tf'.t surgeon is reading literature from long as that i' teadingliterature ""tg.." "" when reader, any reader, conperiod. The potential for confusion increases when a a readea anv rcadea conrr'. p*"i ia to. contusion increases oaoi fronts literature from an entirely different culture and timesuch as the Bible. *.ntirelv difierent culture and dme-such asthe Bible' t l""i' fn*",-. are no rm rules Despite the imPortance determining a work'ssgerre' there are no frm rules Despitethe importance of determininga work genre, there identi{v its own genre ln fact' for doing so. Rarely does aliterary work expressly identify its own genre. In fact, r..i.i'le * R"..ly a*' " literary work erpresslv of textsis a relatively in the idea of identifying genre as an imPortantsteP the study of texts is a relatively tne iaea-ofiaent$ng gsn'e asan important step in the study and recent phenomenon, though ancient readers and authors were certainly aware thoughJnoenrreaders au$ors werecertdiy avare recentDhenomenon. Jnd of kand" re!1s doflmenrs that they were using or producing different kinds of texts and documents. difrerenr rharr}iy wereuing or producins Discernment of genre isi" something readersdo subconsciousba has been something readers do subconsciously. Itlt has been oi"cernment oige.fe engrained within tool engrained within compared to speaking a language ltIt n an interpreti\ language. is interpretive m "p""fig culture. People typically " absorb"languageasthev grow up in a culture. They --p"r"a leople qpically"absorb" language as they grow up in a culture Thev c,rltri.e. native speakereven can tell ififsomeone makes a grammatical error oror not a native speaker even can tel someonemakesa grammatical error is is not a rhe grrmmrncrl rule rhat hasbeen though they may not be able to describe the grammatical rule that has been thouehihev mav nor be rblto desgibe lust broken. People learn to speak their native language rst, and then they learn the theirnrtiwlanguage andthenrhevlearn'hu s,o#.. n.opt.t.,'n'o 'peJ grammar. producedwithin rhe Similarly, people automatically recognize the genre of a work produced withitr Similarrypeopleautomaticallyrecognize genre a work their culture even if if *eycannot explain the process or rules by which recognithey cannot explain the processor rules bv which rccogn' th"lr culture .oen n]crl produced for tion has occurred. Itlt is an inrerpretive we possess for documents s Pr trl'rct\r rool tion hasoccurred is an interpretive tool wc posscss do'u wcapply it with ht within our culture simply by virtue ofol havnrgbcctltriscd it We rPPlvit with bv virtuc having been raised in ir *r,"* *tiiir.". "t-pry beirr*rrwurtol wh{l wc rrrr d(}lng ()rrly whcn wr out thinking, without even being aware of what we are doing. Only when we out thinkin*, withotrl cven

tncounter ter.tsftom a new genreor aa culture withwhich we are unfamiliar do counter texts from anew genre or culture with which we are unfamiliar w! becomecogdzant of the issue. become cognizant of the issue. harderfor people cenre recognition,like learniry a foreignlanguage, isalways harder for people Genre recognition, like learning a foreign language,is always of the culture of a But, just asa language has grammatical rules, outsiale of the culture of a work. But, just as a languagehasgramatical rules, tside 'orL rc there are guidelircs or dues for determidng genre. Sometimes those dues there are guidelines or dues for determining getre. Sometimesthose dues magzines, md books oomcin the phFical form of a literarywork. Newspapers, magazines, and books me in the physical form of a literary work. Newspapers, one another, even when they are in an unfamiliar $! cesilydistinguishedfrom one another,evenwhen they are in an rnfimiliar easily distinguished from Itnguage.In the ancientworld therewere insgiptions, royaldecrees,letters,and age. In the ancient world there were inscriptions, royal deoees, letters, and Othcr docume'ts that might be distitrguishedby &e way in which they were r documents that might be distinguished by the way in which they were prtlcnted. Unfortunately such physical differences disappearedin the formasented. Unfortunately, such physical ditrerencesdisappearedin the forma must now rely on clues within llon of collectedworks like the Bible, and readers mustnow rely on clueswithin n of collected works like the Bible, and readers in order to discerngenres. $! lcxts themselves in order to discern genres. texts themselves 6uch cluesq?ically comein the form of features in a .ext thar signalits genre Such clues typically come in the form of featuresin a text that signal its genre within a particular culture or reader through thuseof conventionsestablished within a particular culture or readerUgh the use of conventions established drlp, Thesdues often occur at the beginning or end of the text and lead the , These clues often occur at the beginning or end of the rext and lead the htdcr to certainexpectations about its content. For modern American readers, der to certain expectations about its content. For modem American readers, New York," indicate that they are reading newspaper words, "Dateline New York," indicate that they are reading a3 newspaper tht Words, "Dateline Itll(lc, evenifif it doesnot appearin newsprint. The greeting "Dear Sir/ Madam" tie, cvn it does not appear in newsprint. The greeting "Dear Sir/Madam" I thc typical beginning of a business letter, and we expect it to end with "Sin typical begimiry of a businessletter, ud we expect it to end with "Sintrrcly, or the like, folilrred by a signatureof somesort. Fairy tales conrmonly or the like, followed by a signature of some sort Fairy tales commonly Onceupon a time" md end 'They lired happily mr after" hlhl n "Once upon a time" and end "They lived happily ever after." 'l'hc creation of literature has always been, to at least some extent, a creative be creation of literature ho always been, to at least some e:tent, a creati ldtlvlly, Tleoretical\, o author could create a new g{fe that Rs uriike any ey. Theoretically, an author could create a new genre that was unlike any plcviously in exjstence. But if that were to happen, no reader would be l|olk previously in existence. Bur if that were to happen, no reader would be to recognize or understand it. Hence, authors vary or mix genres to creative or lbh to ccoSnize understandit. Hence,authorsvary or mix genresto creative ' pl0yingupon the knowledge and expedationsof their readers, A business A tndr, playing upon the knowledgeand expectations of their readers. buriness thrt begins Dear Sir/Madam" would hardly end with :All my lore," un latlet that bgins "Dearsir/Madam" would hardly end with 'All my love," unlt wt's part of somekind of publicity advertising campaign. By the same hft it was part of some kind of publicity oror advertisingcampaign.By the same &||lD, a personal letter between (former) lovers that is written on letterhead n, u llc'sonal letter between (former) lolrs that is writren on letlerhead ' thnn pcrsonal stationery and that ends,"Sincerely" instead of "Love," tirI than personal stationery and that ends, "Sincercly,insread "Love," of he nrikiDg a not-too-subtlepoint about the reiationship. similar\. a fairy be making a not-too-subtle point about the relationship. Similarly, a fairy thrt b(Blr)s oncc upon a time" but ends without "They li\d happily elr that begins "Once upon a time" but endswithout "They lived happily ever ' drlci nor bodc wcll for the rclationship of the couple who 1re the subject does not bode well for the relationship of the couple who are the subject I story. etc examples Illustrate how a text's genre in and of itself may convey a gr, lh. lirrlof.r r)l t|. tcrrsiusrdcscribed not matchconventions do that op, The features of thc texts just described do not match conventions that Ftdf$l !tl h( 'f f ulr of t Nwr nr l( l( expect, or they mix cat ur csffrom different genres, oro in those cultures would xp. r l, inr hcynr ixf features r om dif f er ent genr es, is xrl gi. r 'cr iir $u. w{y {s t i) r ukr . ln, inr . 'l'hcnlcssagc subt let o t he E l thl l mixrgenres In suchlr! way as to make a point. The message is subtle to the rot a rh' ol|ly r . r ( i. r whr l ir r lr t ll|r t . ly ii r r iliiI wir h t E i l ilit that ronly readersr who arc Intimately familiar with the hf ust lil gcnr csi'r d usual genres and
( llh io I 'l([ I fi {l u' r r S l l r Ammo,erefable to pick upl! ll|| r ir , l|r gcr i the changes. 'r 'l'hrrr lxrrr|lrs ilhnrrrc how a textt genre iD and of itself may coNy a

1,6

16

HOW TO READ THE BIBLE T O READ HOW

A GENRE E N R ! C JJONAH AND N D ON A H

Authors can use genre just as effectivelyandffeativelv astleJ canword c]::::' and creatively as they can word choice, Authors canusesenrejust asetrectivelv sentence structure,t,."n allusion, Jnd rahost oCorher features of language and writand host of other learures language 'nd^w.lr, ,..*"...,-.r"'". ing. In so doing an author plays upon the reader's expectations. This means that there is, by necessity, ;.ia.irv give-and-take between a circularity or gi't and its u'**' il:,; ;;;:;';: readers must be sensitive. Just as one musttext's genre::::':a il:il:':'i discern "' -a''k content, to which properly text's genre;;; order ," understand it, atreast in the way intendedbv its author' in to it, at least in the intended by its author, ;;;;;.;; 'av so it is also .o to *"a*' ""derstan'r subtlevariationsin genre employed by an up readers,o recognizesubtle variations in genreemplovedbv an to recognize t,iJ,rr. "" author if they-areto profit fully ftom a terltheyare to prot fully from text __ :uthor if ge e Our treatment of Jonah illustrates the importanceof the discernment genre uslratesthe importance the discernment of O*"*,-*..ff.""ft doesnor identify worLsdoes notrdentifi for interpretation of the Bible. Jonri like man) literao works, tible jonah, like many literary ari,.'0,"'a4"".*" its genre Ut ledes rt ro the readerto d$cern srill the book gives signicant but leaves it to lhe reader Io discern. Still, rhe book si\es significanr *-J '"'"1' about how it was meant to be read. Readers who have misconstrued the dues who hal'e misconstruedthe "" to be read Readers ia.", il.* 5et -* -eant genre of Jonah ast'j,,o', t avertherefore approached q irhan erroneous set of approachedrr with an erroneous of it " history have herelore ""-"* "r r"*t and have often tried to force itro fir rherrexpectations.when ir is ", elpectrrrons When it is expectations to Lried torceil to t their '"xp"."t1"' ,"J ** "oen discovered that .f.. u..f. aoesnot fit thoseexpectations' tendencvis often to the book does not t those expectations, the tendency is often to ot-'."t"..j rt r, blame the l"*, a*r"n"g it "untrue" and implving that it is somehow of less book, declaring it "untrue" and implying that it is somehow of less i"*.lr'. signicance t..""." nit a"es not describe historical events ltItis important to recbecause does not describe historical events. is important to rec U*tn ognize,".." therefore, that the Problemin the interpretation of Jonah does not lie problem in the interpretatios of Jonal does not lie i3"',"', i.'.a'"' with the book itself"",Ut "e itsits readers readerswhofail to discern its genre but with readersreaders who fail to discem its genre vith *^ltfr tt'e Soot itsaf and purpose The from internal dues and, thereby to appreciate its true nature and purpose. The i$ a"* *a ,f'-eby to aPpreciate true naiure t a"litera' "'""f problem is only exacerbated by the fact that Jonah is an ancient piece of literabi the fact thatlonah is an ancientPieceof ."t r-it." foreign culture and written inin a forcign 1*9"-g* "**'o"ed and {ritten a foreign language. ture from aa foreign culture , ,iure from '- This problem of failing to discern a book's genre goes beyond .Jonah to much bevond JonJhro much ro dlvern a book" genrcgoes it"' p,"Ur.ln-.r rwd ha of the literature in the',u'e Fortunately, biblical scholarship has long been awarere Bible. nate'\ biblicJ scholar'hiP longbeen ' rn ot thebrerurure rheBrbleForru recendvmade of the importance of properly discerning a a s'orkgenre and has recently made a p'Perlv discerni4 works s senre and has .f ii. *f*"*" which allows for a crucial insights about various genres Prcsert in the Bible' which alows tor a Bible, cru.ial insights abour viflous genrespresent in more precise understanding of their nature. *reir nature mort preciseunderstandingof

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Form Criticism Form Criticism

Because ihe iiterattrle of the Bible is so far removed in time and culture, modern the literature of the Bible is so far remNed in time andculture' modern Because recognizc readers, unlike their ancient Israelite counterparts, do not automatically recognize *"o *o"nt lsraelitecounterparts'do not automadcallv Li.r:, deoiled studv alrl "'U* ..",*r' only tluough the genres itncontains. Genre can be discerned only through detailed study and canbe discerned ,i-*.rr*" rr ".ruebibLcJscholrr'u'e help discern the genres repreanalysis. The approach that biblical scholars use toIo helpdis'rrn rhegcn'cs fr1 ,",ri's. r f.. ,pp-".r' tf'ar li'rmirr' rsm BrsrcJllv sented in different parts of the Bible is called "form criticism." Basically, form critibcdlledIorrncriti' *.'iit ."":,10,rr *^' trhe Brble givul P(!1 is uricllrc what unique about a igiven piece cism attempts to determine what is is q?ical aDd is what typical and what ar- u*.rnp,, ,o a",..';e 'rb('ut r() wishd of literature initt ora.' t' undcrsrand its author wished to communicate, ' order to understand what irs what '(nnon'rn'ir( oi tit","to.. 'urhor "'ir'"."-"ri'"'0""."'iti)rm..rilicnlinrlysisttl).8iIlsl)ylr|(ll(i!]}llIl|$l'||' There are four parts to a form-critical analysis, it begins by plotting the strut'. ottr ttl' 'lh' wltrthritirlty (lLrc$rl(trr' !'lrolulri tare or shape of the passage in question, The scholars who initially (AMC up ,."-,"itf,rp" ,'f ,f," f'*si*c irr

with the approachof form criticism were Germans, and Form is the German with the approach of form criticism were Germans,and Form is the German word for shapeor structule. Djicerning a ter_r's rd for shape or structure. Discerning a text's shapeor structue meansaleter shape or structure means detertust of all its extent.Where does the unit of text begin and end? Initially, hining g rstof all its extent. where does rhe unir of text begin and end?Initiall). form cnticismfocused on small literary units and was sometimes dened as a rm criticism focusedon small literary units and was sometimesdefined as a trcatment of the smallestpossibleunit. Howera in more recent yearsbiblical atment of the smallest possible unit. However, in more recent years biblical airalysis rcholarshae recognizedthe valueandindeedthe needfor form-critical analysis olars have recognized the value and indeed the need for form-critical of larger units, in.luding entire biblicai books and even units that trarxcend larger units, including entire biblical books and even units that transcend books. Thb shift is \,ery important for our work in this presentbook. what II oks. This shift is very important for our work in this present book. What hope to do is to show how recent advancesin our understandirg of the main pe to do is to show how recent advances in our understanding of the main of Scluescontainedin the Bible help to counter broadly held misconcepdonsof nres contained in the Bible help to counter broadly held misconceptions Whatthe Bible is and whar ititis trying to say. at the Bible is and what is trying to sa)4 entails the genre A secondphaseofof form-critical investigationentails determining the genre A second phase form critical investigation determining under examination-As we have seen, genre refers to the category of the passage under examination.As w haveseen,genrerefersro the categoiy the passage a 0[ ltleratureto which one assigns a text, be it a specic passage,an entire book, literature to which one assigns tel't, be it a speciffcpassage.an entire book, "a books.A leading scholarhasdefined tr a collectionof books. A leading biblicalscholar has dened genrethis way: "a a collection of biblical genre this way: lt oup of written texts marked by distircdverecurring characteristics which conup of written te*s markedby distinctive recurring chdactedsncsvhich con' Itllutc a recognizablelnd coherent tne typewriring."" There are two comPo te a recognizable and coherent of of vvriting." external.The internal lltrlg to this are two compote There definition,one internaland the other external. The internal 9 to this denition, one internal and the other a0rrlponntconsistsof the chdacteristics of a given text that can be discerned ponent consists of the characteristics of a given texr ftat canbe discerned eurcful readiag and analysis. The external component is the comparison of ty careful reading ard malysis. The extenal component is the .omparison of tcxt with other similar tets insidemd outsideof the Bible. Careful compari" lhr text with other similar texts inside and outside of the Bible. Careful comparir'cvcalswhich characteristicsof a text are "recurring" enough within a group !0ll revealswhich characteristics a tdt are"recurrilg' enoughwirhin "a group of w tten texts" to allow one to recogaize a "coherent q?e of *riting," md tten texts" to allow one to recognize a "coherent type of writing," and *hlah are "distinctive" to the particulartext in question. ch nre "distinctive" to the particular teat in question. Thr rhid and fourth stepsof form criricism representthe attempt to trace e third and fourth steps of form criticism represent the attempt to trace hlilLu y of the text being analyzed and its genre. The third is the positing of liiitory of the text being analyzed and its genre. The third is the positing of genrewould hil arisen.potential $ttlng in the actual,&ily life in which the genre would have arisen. Potential Eng in the actual, daily life in which the gr lncludetemple worship,legalproceedings, wedding, a fineral, a dassa gs include temple worship, legal proceedings, a wedding, a funeral, a classn, or nny orher of the myriad of activities that human beings etrgage in. or any other of the myriad of activities that human beings engage in. nl . r icism was initially conceived particuhly as a meais of uc(mdng the criticism was initially conceived particularly as a means of uncovering the frtlp{)ncnrs that were assumed to underlie biblical literature. This was the Components that were assumedto underlie bibiical ]iterature.This was the that li)cuscdon the smallesrpossibleunits-because it was assumed n ithfocused on the smallest possible unitsbecause it was assumed that y firy fould bc rcrained memoryandrecited in orany. example, Proph For the they could be retained in memory and recited orally. For example, the prophgrievances againsr Israel mearsof the genre by !|'rflcllrcs cxpr.ssrl Godsgrievances against Israel by means of the genre Mistimes expressed God's Thus,a prophetmighr de li h*{l {r,LrlJl.inr rhc violrtion ilagal complaint for the violation ofof a contract. a contract. Thus, a prophet might dethe The Israel breaking covenant. origifor Ynhwc|,rs lllinAsui( igarDst Yahweh as "ling suit" against Israel for breaking the covenant. The origil!llhr,{ol lhiNrcrf. wis rh. hw c,}urt of ancienrhrael. The principalgenres tang of this genre was the law court of ancient Israel. The principal genres h lirgr lhr'rlry workr rn th llil)k rlso hnd scltiDgs life, often in scriul large literary works of the Bible also had settings in life, often in scribal ( scs, butsomctimesmore evrnls nnd rprlnrrlIrAI0rlxllilr lrNrorlial rearonding to specic historical events and crises, but sometimes more

1 7

In nature,

18 I8

HOW TO READ THE BIBLE

A GENRE N R I GE J JONAH AND N D ON A H

is The fourth part of a form-critical treatment is the discernment of the in' The fourth patt of a form_critical {xeatmenr the discernment of the intended purpose of the genre in most urder scrutiny This is the most tended ouroose of the genre in the passage under scrutiny. This is important phaseA r..--ffitical analysis becauseit gets at the very reasonfor of form-critical analvsis at the very reason for becauseit *".""1r, tlr,^" the passage's existencethe author's intention in writing ir -and ilus is the ulrifie authors intenrionb wriring itand this is rheulti.ilr,.'*" '.*"*. mate goal of form criticism. Continuing with the example above,$e firrm(riLi: Comiiuing wirh theex,mpl' above the form critic who ".ri"r.'*.nu.nm not more so, in the setting of the prophets who adapted -,J" as i"'...''.0 n is just interested, if mo.e so.in *e semngor rhe Prcphecs adap(ed i"l'"^ ".r in their oracles against Israel as in the legar Engor as ag'in5rlsrael in chelegal ser the setting of " qenreof an indicrmenr $eir oracles the genreot an indictment ln the ".;;;; original genre. Form critics should also be interested in the setting of the be inre*s..d in the strus or the Fo,m .r.i.s shourd ;; ;.*. 'iso oradesinro-Mirten scribes whoir'* transcribed and rrrarged LbeProphcric oracles into written then and arranged the prophetic '."u."1rr'" are no**" for uncoveringthe intent behind a ten's useof a given ""^.nbed uncovering books. There rules for of a given behind text's **" i..* "" must simply be inferred or deduced from the features and features and genre. -. be inferred ot deducedftom the ;;;;;;;-".,The intent content of the ."*. Of special importance in this respect are the distinctive chartext. of "irnprv impotance; this respectarethe distinctile char i""..", .f .f'. acteristics of the text in"oecial comparison to others of its genre. genre of acterisncs the text ir comparisonto o$e$ of its -- The treatment of Jonah earlier in this introduction was basically a formjltroduction was basicallv a form A l."ah earlier ir this ir'" i*",-"", critical one. We began with matters of structure. Because we were interestedin interested in o.," W. U"g"o-itft mattersof sructuJe Because ..iJ discerning the genre and purpose of the book as a whole therewas no quesnon purpose the book s whole, there question discerningthe genreand about its extentwhere it began and where it ended. We did have to consider where it ended we did have consider i bepn and "u.",-n"i-r.'.:.--r'.'" the question of whether the psalm in Jonah a wrs ar oriSral part of the book, ,he plarrnin Jonahz was an original pafl of rhebook ,f'. "f "f'"**form-critical issues, specically having to do with the origi(o and"".'"." this involved rr'" r.'--criucal issues the havins do lrrh rheoriS! specificaUv ,"oilt' t*r*a thanlsgiving for res' to nal setting of the psalm, which appeared to be a poem of thanksgiving for resappeared be a .t ,n 0""-' ""ir""t"* cue from near death that -ntchadoptednot endrelyappropriatelyfor Jonah's was entirely apPropriately forJonah's ftom'near deaththat was adopted-not c,-re predicament. '"nJ. ud " While the extent of the bookwas not an issue, its beginning and ending proved *" boor wd noran isue ir( begurning endingprowd r'. ."-' "r because of the uniqueness of Jonah among the pro' of to be extremely important because the uniqueness Jonahamong the proof to be stremely imPortant lilr$erconfirmed irsunique phetic books. A careful look at the book's content further conrmed its uniquebool s conrenr *..r"rr.okJl l-he "i..'. -.1".,0 prophets as narrative with plot rrrher Lhan colleoionol ness among tft. ot.on." rs r anarrrbvewith a Plotrather than a collection of the l"*,-."* 'j rhat oracles. The outline of the book alone led to the recognition that its plot reled book.'lone ro the recognjrion irsPlorre .."i... in"" *,|rn. "r 'he volves around the interaction between Jonah and the other characters in the other charactersin the volves alounal the interaction betweenJonah and story Further examination of its contents showed that the interaction of God of its contentsshowedihat the interaction of cod *"*".u." r.*-""J* with Jonah is the focus of the book, withjonah is the focus of the book' able make a a de On the basis of these form-critical observations, we were able to to makedeOn the ba* of theseform-critical obseflations' we were of the book genre is termination about Jonah's genre. Again, determination of the book's s genre is termination about Jonah'sgenre Again' detetmination bur nrrrative a a fictronal the key to its interpretation. Ittti"nor h;sro"cal 'tory ,tt. t.u,o i"lrt,"tpr.,,ton is not historical narrative but ctional story. Biblical scholars generally characterize Jonah as a "novella," a kind of short story lonah charrcreriTe r" novclld akhdof shorr$"rv *r'.r,^ ***rrr, in which a series of episodes involving the same set of characters leads to a tl involving the same set of charatersleadsr(t "'UuJ t *fti.f, "f "pitodes "".i.i conclusion"or resolution of a problem that has arisen. Other examples ofof nov'l novela pmblemthathasalisen OtherexamPlcs ..".f,"""" * **f"O.".f includcrhcbo( ol I lsth| las in the Bible, to which Jonah might be compared, 'include the books of Esther | miShrbe compared lasin the Bible,to whichJonah 'ks and Ruth, and the story ofofJosephGenesis 37-50. 37 the story Joseph in nr Ccncsis 50' andRuth,and fr)r1'r'r'rrnu xs The unhistorical nnIUrcoffert'lin details lrn\trh natureol certain (lrrtrils in srrrlr rlr('NC in Thc unhistoricrl lonah, such as those setting was (r)rl|il(l'tlrblv rrrrovctllirrrr rhr'rilll1rl1 Nineveh, suggests that its concerning considerably removed from the eighth wrrr thrrr s(lJ,r{$rs it$ $'rrrrrL Ni'1cvch,

aentury when the story is set.AA number oflate linguistic featuresin the book century when the story is set. number of late linguistic features in the book This date{its we with hdiate aa date in the postexilic period (around aoo soR). This date ts well with dicate datein the postexilicperiod (around aooBcE). the rhemesof Yahweh'suniversaldomidon md concdtr for all people, which e themes of Yahweh's universal dominion and concern for all people, which .urface inJonah and which becameespeciallypointed issuesof debatein the tface in Jonah and which became especially pointed issues of debate in the ostexilic period. These matters loom large in other biblical books from this lortexilic period. These matters loom large in other biblical books ftom this ,erlod, suchasChroniclesand Ezra Nehemiah.JonahwasliLely written to conod, such as Chronicles and Ezra-Nehemiah. Jonah was likely written to contrlbute to this theological debate. bUte to this theological debte. Dererminingthat Jonah's gerue is not historyfrees us to examine the quesDetermining that Jon3h'sgenre is not history ftees us to examinethe ques tlon of the storyt intent andpurpose.which is the marn objectir of ifterpretan of the story's intent and purpose, which is the main objective of interpretsofJonah. Jonah's intent must be !lo[ andthe focusof our form-criticalanalysis of Jonah. Jonal's intent must be and the focus of our form-critical analysis llllhrred ftom the book's content, asthere is no statementin irit articulating the rred from the booLs content, as there is no statement in articulating the and absurd elements in t$lhor's purpose in witirg. The many exaggerations and absurd elementsin thor's purpose in writing. The many exaggerations was not intended to be read as a th! rtory a.e good hdicatiors that the story was not intended to be read as a Story are good indications that the story hirlorical novel or biography. Rather, thesefeatures,along with the caricaturat rical novel or biograph} Rathet these features, along with the caricatural 0r rtcrorpical nature of its characters, lead to the reasonable deducion that litereotypical nature of its chda.ters, lead to the reasonablededuction that lht Nory rvasintended asaa satire or parody. The concluding interview between Story was intended as satircor parodlaThe condudiag interview between the ood 0ndJonah,especially the question withwhich the book ends,turther indiand Jonah, especially questionwith which the book ends, further indi' purpose was didactic-Jonah was intended to setre as an object ttl$ that its purpose was didacticJonah was intended to serve as an object that its l mr, illusrrating in bold relief the stupidity of the attitude that the author n, illustrating in bold relief the stupidity of the attitude that the author ived in the book's intended readership lflc.ivcd in the book's intended readership. book fhc book ofjonah furnishes a paradigmatic exampleof rhe importance of of Jonah furnishes a paradigmatic example of the importance of appreciating ldlndlllng the geme of a pieceof biblical literature for properly appreciating its ing the genre of a piece of biblical literature for properly its giticism asa tool for genre identilication. Eachreader of a $t!nt $rtd of form criticism as a tool for genre identication. Each reader of a And of form
tcxt makes an assumption about the genre of that tert The reader then SVlr text makes an assumption about the ge.re of tl'at text. The reader then rh assumption in the couise of reading rcording to the signals in the til thatl assumption in the course of reading according to the signals in the l[J the reader's fami]iadty with literary and cultural conventions. Since the 'inti lhc reader's familiarity with literary md cultual coNentions. Since the

1 9

ol ,louah does not expressly identify its genre, the assumptionthat it is of Jonah does not expresslyidentify its genre, the aisumption that it is or ar the outiet. Its genre hnx 'y has no specialclaim to correctnessor legi.imacyat the outset. Its genre no special claim to correctness legitimacy hc uddlrcd from its content. t bo adducedfrom its content. priorityto an assumption as aboutits t thc Ercn1:rto readJonah historygivespriority to an assumption about its ta attempt to readlonah as history gives Uvfl lrr .rLr rl conrcnt . A hisrorical Fadng ignoresor srrueglesto explr in over its actuall content. A historical reading ignores or struggles to explain to and rlltt' exaggerations, caricatures, and absurd features that are essential to the eilf ! xu$lc rlli(nrs, caricaturs, absurdfeaturesthat are essential the readingof 0l thc st{r'y rs satificalficrion.worst of all, the historical Ur the story as satirical ction. Worst of all, the historical reading of the misleads funs rhc riskof missing book'srichness.lt lr Irorx'lirhir'nr)d the risk of missing the book's richness. It misleads ii monolithic and runs missing main point the stu' its lnlr|l llvr lri whllc lirr rh(:c dlys ..and 001Ild live in a whale for three daysand missing its main pointthe stu'r rrlltiorrly conscrvrtivc commentarors advowho ol hlAory, Ir,'||[1rlly, d bigotry. Ironically, religiously conservative commentators who advo rhf rr(x'y rnlry .rurllyLrnscprobkxnstbrthefaith vrfr.hy('l thFhhr'It.dl ilie veracity of the story may actually cause problems for the faith lintrrrr hrthr rrrny rl$Lf(r)llll wirhwhurthcycxpc.t tsrdlrr whoobxer'vc
t?tdd into focusing on relatively insignicant detailssuch as whether aa oder lor0 litrNing ,n) fcl tivcly nrsignificantdetails such as whether

ro who observe features in the story that conict with what they expect

20 HOW TO READ THE BIBLE HOW

TO

R!AD

AND CEN JJONAH AND GENRE 21 R E ONAH

from a historical account. ftom a historical accout.'o Recognition rhat the story is satidcal alctws the reader 4 Recognition that the to perceive truth in its message about Prejudice apart {iom the question of hisin irs message about prejudice aPdt from the question of his ro percei\, torical accuracy story is satirical allows the reader

The Purpose of This Book Book Purpose of

The thesis behind this book is that the Bible at lfge. like drc book ofjonah within The thesis behind this book is that the Bible at large, like the book of Jonah within it, has been and continues to be widelv misunderstood because its principargenres it. has been and continues to be widely misundestood because its principal genres its are mjiconstrued. Readersof the Bible have long recognized the diversity of its are misconstrued. Readers of the Bible have long recognized the diversity literature one is to the kind of literature one is literature and the importance of being sensitive to the kind literature and the importaffe of being an anthology containing lala history biographv, h)'rnns, reading. The Bible is an anthology containing law, history, biography, hymns, rading. The letters, contracts, and a host of other genres. Most people recognize this and do letters, contracts, and a host of other geDres.Most peoPle recognize fiis and do not want to read everything in the Bible as a law or commddinent Those who not want to read everlahing in the Bible as law or commandment Those *'ho do attempt to read it all as law fait to see how dangerous this move is, since there to read it all as law fail to seehow dangerous this move is' since there are plenty of stories in which the actions of characterseven "good" onesare plenty stories in which the actions of characters-eln good ones-are not meant to be emulated. The example of Jonah shows that correct discernnot meant to be emulated. The exarnPle ofjonah shows that co ect discern ment of genre is crucial for ProPer interpretation. genre is crucial for proper interPretation ment In Jonah's case, the geire was misconstrued as ltrstory and then the satirical Injon3h's case, the genre was misconstrued as history and then the satnical cotmonly in t}le Bible, the gerre of a intention of the story was missed. More commonly in the Bible, the genre of a intention of the story wd missed book or section of literature is is misconstrued h different, less dramatic way book or sedion of literature misconstrued in a a different, less dramatic vaynot by improper classication or identication of its genre but by improper not by improper dassification or idefltification of irs genre -but by improper denition of the ancient genre. To put ititanother way, a genre is correctly idendefinition of the and-enr genre. To put another way a genre is correcdy iden irs ancient setting, what n the getre tied, but the nature and meaning of the genre in its ancient setting, what it tilied, but the natuft and meaning entailed for its ancient Israelite authors and readers, isis misundetstood As a a re_ entailed for its ancient lsraelite authois and readers, misunderstood. As result, the intent is misinterpreted. slt, the intent is misinterPreted The Bible, quite naturally, reects the culture of the ancient Israelite and GrecoThe Bible, quite naturalla rflects the culture of fie sncient Israelite and GrecoRoman societies that produced it It was written in Hebrew and Greek, not EnRoman societies that produced it. lt was written in Hebrew and GreeL not En_ glish. We do not expect to nd references to modern Western clothing styles or glish. We do not expect find references to modem Western dothing styles or modes of transportation within itsits pages-Neither should we er_pecttoto use modmodes transportatiotr within pages. Neither should we expect it it use modem literary genres. Misconstrual of genre leads modern readers to unrealistic and liter"ry genres. Misconstrual of geffe leads modern readers to uniealistic and sometimes unreasonable expectations about the contents and message of the Bible sometimes unreasonableexpectations about the conterts 5nd messageof dre Bible fact almost nser' identical ro a modern An ancient genre is not always, in fact almost never, identical to a modern An ancient genre not always, one. For instance, law ir the Bible indudes "secular" and "religious" legislation law in the Bible includes seculai' and religious" legislatior one. For instmce, (t and is therefore quite different from modern, American law, The separation of and therefot quite diferent ftom modern, American law The separation law" (16rl'4)d(r!r church and state is not eEn imagined lndeed' the very word "law" (torah) act church and state is not even imagined. Indeed, the very word u means insrruction," so that biblicallaw is rcally primarily religious instruc ally ally means "instruction," so that biblical law is really primarily rclign)usinsrftrr don. It is closerto what we mighr call 'catechism' rhan is to our secular law. -tion. It is closer to what we might call "catechism" than itil is ri) (trrr ri'rtrlnr l'rw To think of thee t-a wo lMoses,stherefore, ,in| terms of lmodern law codes, like the , T o t hink of t h Law of Mo s c rh o l rl i n c i r onrs (' rrr)cl trnl xw ' o(l (s l l kf Ihr il rrrl i Constitution of fthe c tJ ' ri l { States, is to rn i s (l ci i trcland to r, $l | rl rrP its rintent. o Cons t it ur i( ln th United ds l tl .$ i r l 0 misdeilne it tr' tr1l misinterpret r' r I' n' rrl

The sameis ffue of eachof the five geffes treatedin this booL hirtoriogra The same is true of of the ve genres treated in this book: historiograpbi prcphecy,wisdom, apocab?tic,and lettels.In each case,the genreis more hy, prophecy, wisdom, apocalyptic, and letters. In ea.h case,the genre is more or lessfamiliar to modern readers; but in each case,aswell, there aresignificanr r less familiar to modern readersj in eachcase, as well, there are signicant dlffrences betweenthe atrcientgetre in the Bible md rhe dodern one or the the erencesbet. een the ancient genre in the Bible and the modern wey peopleusually deffne it. The problem,as in the caseof Jonah,is nor with y usually dene it. problem, as the case of Jonah, is not with lhc Bible but with the way people try to interpret rhe Bible, wirhout properly e Bible but with the way people try to interpret the Bible, without properly derstanclirtg its genres and their intents. its UDderstanding genresand their intenrs. The purpose of this book is to help readersof the Biblunderstandthe major e purpose of this book is readers of Bible the major properly, nres of literature in the Bible to identiry i$ genres,define fenres of literature in the Bibleto identify its genres, dene them properly, discussion ofjonal, all tnd correcdycharacterize their intents. As we saw in our discussion of Jonah,all d correctly chaiacterze rheir intenrs.As we saw about the genres texts asthey read them. Yetbib $lders make assumptions ders make assumptions about the genres of texts as they read them. Yet bibllrul boots, likeJonah,do not usually explicidyidentiq.or dene their respective books, like Jonah, do not usually explicitly identify or deffnethei' respective grnrcs.Biblicalwritings do provide dues to their genresin such things astheir res. Biblical writings do provide cluesto then gmres in su.h things as their suchas the litany of ridi.ulous ideasandimages llnrctures andintemal features, such asthe litany of ridiculous ideas and images ctures and internal features, That is where form criticism comes in: It seeks to higtiight those inter' diticism comesin: It seeks highlight thoseinterlu Jonah.That is where form natl. dues,in comparisonwith features simild textsin dd outside rhe Bible. lltl tines, in comparison with features of similar texts in and outside of the Bible, r,rdr determine a work's geme intent. In order to determine a work sgenre and inrent. the followingchapters discussesa distinct genreof biblical literature. loch of Each of following chaptersdiscussesa distinct genre of biblical literature. fh. chapterstypically begin with an attempt to dene the gdre in its ancient chapters typically begin with an aftempt to deffne the genre in its ancient ittllng. The deffnitions are based on internal and e"\tenal considerations. ln lg. The denitions are bared on internal alld external considerations.In advaftes of recentcomparative schol llmostevery case, the definitionsrepresent it everycare,the denitions represent advances of recent comparative scholfocusingon rhlp, Then, eachchaptercontainsdose readirys of specifictexts,focusing on p, Then, each chapter contains dose readings of specic texts, lbut major concernsof form criticism(stluctm, gem, setting,ident). Ttese Sl tour major concernsof form criticism (structure, genre, setting, intent). These for t0fl(crns will not be dealt with mechanically or systematically for each passage, terns will not be dealtvith mednically or systematicalty eachpassage, cqualspace be given to each one. Our main objectiveswill be ro net'willequal space alwaysbegien to eachone-Our mailrobjectives be to Will always will of and hllhllgh Lthe characteristics of the principal genre under discussion and io show lght tlre characteristics the principai genreunder discussion to show and It! hllcflrnr its historical culturalsetting. tent In its historical and cultural senins. Thcic rcrdings will pay closeattention both to what is tpical of a particular hope readings will pay close attention both to what is typical of a particular
[n!l to what is distinctive in a given text thal represents the genre. The And Lr) what is distinctive in a given text that represents the genre. The tt!r'wc understand what is typical of a genre, the easierititis to pick out what r we undcNtnnd what is typical of a genre, the easier is to pick out what Uulqur [r r sfeLilic rc](t. Familiarity with the history and culture behind the que in a specic text. Familiarity with the history and cultue behind the wrll nr rhc languages which was originally written, can be impornr h, ai well as the lnDgu.rgcs inwhich itit was oliginally \l,dtten,can be impor (ll (.nrin8 lhc tctring of gcnre, and make use of such irems where li,r discerning the setting of acgenre, and II make use of such items where t fOr d,rlr rls" drrw ,nr ()rhcrdncicntsources outside the B;blefor evitoprigte, II also draw on other ancient sources outside of the Bible for evi{h,rr thr nirr. ol thc incicrr ltcrrrus. I hope to show that many of llriFihout the nature of the ancient genres. RurI hope ro showrharmanyof But rh. lliblcrlircrL[ufc arc.rvailablenonro &lrlLr!|rolrrr4rr.rrrrr,lcrir,rrlilirS,,l cluas to proper understanding of the Bible's literature are available to non-. r.J(|s. itir isolicninrh.uniquct!,f is often in the uniquesl!r'ilk lFErldllrlrlhrollBlr,i|tlrlr.{rllrlB,n idiots through careful reading of specic texts. For l .rl, di we saw In Jonah,ilr r l lli llr l. nt iI ir . l] I r ) sl . l( . nr ly ol i tom, as wr iiw lr lr t r r {h,that Its Intent surfacesrmost clearly,

HOW TO READ THE BIBLE HOIV TO READ THE BIBLE

eLitu fuoPheq, atur History, Prophecy, Literature History, Need Readers to Know theDiffuence' Why Modern W Modern Readers Needtol(nowthe Difference, and What It Means for Faith Today andWlnt It Mea$for FatthTodary

STEVEN [, McKENZIE L. STEVEN McKBNZIE

DEC ? 2005 Dtc 2 7 2005

OXFORD OXTORD
100 106t 9

UNIVIMIITY PRUNI E TT UF IVg NBIT Y PC