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EDUACHI EVERS ACADEM Y Gravit at ion 9
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Introduction : Any two objects in the universe attract each
other with force which is called the gravitational force. It is the
gravitational force that binds us to the earth and makes the earth
and the other planets revolve around the sun. It controls the
structure and the evolution of the entire universe.
Newton's Law of Gravitation : The gravitational force of
attraction between any two particles is directly proportional to the
product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between them.
i.e.,
F m m F
r

1 2
2
1
,
Thus the force F between two particles of masses m
1
and m
2
,
separated by a distance r, is given by
2
2 1
=
r
m m
G F
Where G is called the universal gravitational constant. Its
value in S.I. system is 6.67 10
11
Nm
2
/kg
2
. The constant G is scalar
and possess the dimension [M
1
L
3
T
2
]. It is a universal constant
because its value does not depend on the type of particles, the
nature of the invening medium, or temperature etc.
If m
1
= m
2
= 1 and r = 1, then G = F. Hence constant of gravitation
is numerically equal to the force of attraction between two unit
masses placed at unit distance apart.
The gravitational force is a central force, as it acts along the
line joining the two particles.
Gravitational Field and Acceleration due to Gravity : A
gravitational field is said to exist in a region if a gravitational force
is experienced by a test mass placed at any point in that region. If a
test mass m
o
placed at a point in a gravitational field experiences a
force F, then the gravitational field strength g at that point is defined
as
0
=
m
F
g
This gives F = m
0
g
Using Newtons second law we see that the acceleration
produced by the gravitational force on the test mass is g. Therefore,
g is also called the acceleration due to gravity.
The gravitational field strength due to a mass M at a distance
r from it is given by
2
=
r
GM
g
Inertial and Gravitational Masses : The mass that appears in
Newtons second law of motion, F = ma, measures the inertia of the
body against the action of a force. Therefore, it is called inertial
mass. On the other hand, the mass of an object appearing in
Newtons law of gravitation is called gravitational mass. It is found
that the two masses are equivalent and therefore, need not be
distinguished.
Earths Gravitational Field : Let us assume that the earth is a
uniform sphere of mass M and radius R. It can be shown that a
uniform sphere produces gravitational field outside it as if whole of
its mass is concentrated at its centre. Therefore, the force experience
by an object of mass m at a distance r (>R) from the centre of the
earth is F =
GMm
r
2
.
This force is also called the weight of the object. If 'g' is the
acceleration produced by this force, then
mg
r
GMm
F = =
2
This gives the acceleration due to earth's
gravity as
2
=
r
GM
g
Variation of 'g' : The acceleration due to gravity is expressed
as
m
F
g =
where F is the attractive force exerted by the earth on a body of
mass m. This force is affected by a number of factors and hence g
also depends on these factors.
(A) Above the surface of earth : At a point which is located at
a height h above the earths surface, acceleration due to gravity
(g' ) is given as
g
GMm
R h
m
GM
R h
' = =
+
=
+
force
mass
( )
( )
2
2
' =
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
g g
R
R h
2
where g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth,
i.e.,

2
=
R
GM
g
2
|
.
|

\
|
+ 1
=
R
h
g
g'
Fig. 9.1
GRAVITATION
Fig. 9.2
R h
h
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eduachi ever s 2011

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EDUACHI EVERS ACADEM Y Gravit at ion 9
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g g < ' . When we move above the surface of earth,
acceleration due to gravity goes on decreasing, e.g., at a height
equal to radius of the earth
g
g
R
R
g
' =
+
F
H
G
I
K
J
=
1
4
2
.
If the height h is negligible compared to radius R of the earth
then expanding the above equation, by binomial theorem and terms
containing higher powers of h/R are neglected
|
.
|

\
|
= |
.
|

\
|
+ =

R
h
g
R
h
g g
2
1 1 '
2
(B) Below the surface of earth : Let us place a mass m at a
depth h below the surface of earth. This mass m is attracted towards
the centre of earth by gravitational force due to shaded sphere of
radius (R h). The net gravitational force on m due to the remaining
portion of earth (outside the shaded portion) is zero.
Let the mass of the shaded portion = M
Assuming earth to be sphere of uniform density d,

d
M
R
=
4
3
3
t
' M = (Volume of shaded part) (density)
= d h R
3
t
3
4
) (
=
3
3
3
3

=
t
3
4
t
3
4
R
h R M
R
M
h R
) (
) (
Force =
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
'
h R
R
GMm
R h R
h R GMm
h R
m GM
=

3 3 2
3
2
Acceleration due to gravity = g'

= =

=
F
H
G
I
K
J
g
m
m
GMm R h
R m
GM
R
h
R
'
( ) force on
3 2
1

|
.
|

\
|
1 =
R
h
g g'
(

=
2
R
GM
g
where g = acceleration due to gravity on the surface of earth. g'
decreases with depth. It is maximum at the earth's surface and
becomes zero at the centre of the earth (

h = R).
Note : It should be noted that value of g decreases if we move
above the surface or below the surface of the earth.
Variation of g on the Surface of the Earth : The value of g is
maximum at the poles and minimum at the equator. It decreases
gradually as one goes from the poles to the equator.
This is due to two reasons:
(i) Shape of the Earth : The earth is not a perfect sphere but is
ellipsoidal. It is flattened at the poles and is bulging at the equator.
The polar radius is less than the equatorial radius by about 21 km.
Therefore, g increases from the equator to the poles.
(ii) Rotation of the Earth : The earth rotates about an axis
which passes through the poles. Therefore, bodies on earth are not
in equilibrium because they experience centripetal acceleration as
they rotate with the earth. Consider a body of mass m at the equator.
The force on it are the downward pull F of the earths gravitational
attraction,
2
R
GMm
, which is the true weight of the body, and the
upward normal reaction, W. The apparent weight of the body is
equal to W. Since the body is moving in a circle, there is a net force
directed towards the centre of the earth. Therefore, the true weight
F must be more than the apparent weight W. If e is the angular
velocity of the earth, we have
F W = mR e
2
or , W = F mR e
2
or,
2
2
e = mR
R
GMm
mg
or, g = g
0
R e
2
where
g
GM
R
0
2
=
Substituting the value of R and e
2
, we get
g
0
g = 0.034 m/s
2
.
Actually the centripetal acceleration is not directed towards
the centre of the earth except at the equator. It is directed towards
the earths axis of rotation . It can be shown that at latitude
g = g
0
R e
2
cos
2

At the poles = 90
o
and, therefore, there is no effect of rotation
on the value of g. If the earth were a non-rotating perfect sphere,
the value of acceleration due to gravity would have been g
0
everywhere.
Gravitational Potential Energy : Potential energy of a body at
a point in a gravitational field is the work done by an external agent
in moving the body from infinity to that point.
Consider the body at some point P at any
instant such that OP = x. Then, gravitational
force on the body at P is given by
2
=
x
GMm
F
Now, small work done in moving the body
through a very small distance PQ = dx, is
dW = Fdx =
dx
x
GMm
2
...(i)
Thus, total work done by the field in moving
the body from to r is
W =
} }

2

2
=
r r
dx x GMm dx
x
GMm
=
(

1
=
(

r
GMm
x
GMm
r
=
r
GMm

Thus, the gravitational potential energy U of a body of mass m

at a distance r from the centre of earth is
Fig. 9.3
Q
A
x
O
earth
M
r
P
dx
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eduachi ever s 2011

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EDUACHI EVERS ACADEM Y Gravit at ion 9
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U = W =
r
GMm

Negative sign implies that gravitational potential energy is

due to attractive force of earth on the body, i.e., to bring the body
from to a distance r, work is done by the gravitational field of
earth itself.
Gravitational potential energy goes on increasing with increase
in distance r (as it becomes less negative) and becomes zero or
maximum at r = .
Gravitational Potential : The gravitational potential at a point
in the gravitational field of a body is defined as the work done in
bringing a unit mass from infinity to that point.
It is a scalar quantity. Its dimensions are [L
2
T
2
]. The units of
gravitational potential in SI system are joules/kg.
The gravitational potential due to earth at distance r from its
centre is
V =
r
GM

Thus, gravitational potential at a point

(i) is always negative.
(ii) increases as we move toward infinity and becomes zero or
maximum at infinity.
(iii) at the surface of earth, it is expressed as
V =
r
GM
.
Escape Velocity : It is the minimum velocity with which a body
must be projected from the surface of earth so that it permanently
overcomes and escapes the gravitational field of the earth. We can
also say that a body projected with escape velocity will be able to
go to a point which is at infinite distance from the earth.
earth
radius =
mass =
R
M
m
v
e
Fig. 9.4
Let us imagine what happens to a body of mass m if it is
thrown from the earth with a velocity v
e
(escape velocity). As the
body moves away from the earth, it slows down (due to gravitational
pull of the earth) and hence its kinetic energy is converted into
gravitational potential energy of the mass-earth system. Let us
imagine that it is just able to reach upto infinity (where G.P.E. is
zero).
K.E. lost by mass m = gain in G.P.E. of mass earth system
2
2
1
e
mv = (G.P.E)f (G.P.E.)
i
2
2
1
e
mv =
|
.
|

\
|
0
R
GMm
v
e
=
R
GM 2
or v
e
= gR 2
m
h
r
orbit
earth
Fig. 9.5
Substituting the value of g = 9.81 m/s
2
and R = 6400 km, we get
v
e
= 11.3 km/s.
Hence any object thrown with a velocity of 11.3 km/s or more
will escape the gravitational field of the earth and will never come
back to the earth.
Satellite : The celestial bodies which revolve around the
planets in close and stable orbits are called as satellites, i.e., A
body revolving around a large body under the influence of the
later.
For example : moon is a satellite of earth. This is natural satellite.
A man made satellite is called artificial satellite. These satellites
are launched from the earth so as to move round it. The multistage
rocket carries the satellite to the required vertical height and then
gives it appropriate horizontal velocity required for stable orbit
around the earth.
Motion of a Satellite around Earth : Consider a satellite of
mass m revolving in a circle around the earth (mass M) which is
located at the centre of its orbit. If the satellite is at a height h above
the earth's surface, the radius of its orbit is r = R + h, where R is the
radius of earth. The gravitational force between m and M provides
the centripetal force necessary for circular motion.
Orbital Velocity : The velocity of a satellite in its orbit is called
orbital velocity. Let v be the orbital velocity of satellite, then
r
mv
r
GMm
2
2
=
v
GM
r
= or
v
GM
R h
=
+
Hence the orbital velocity of a satellite is decided by the radius
of its orbit or its height above the earth's surface.
Time Period : The time taken to complete one revolution is
called the time period. It is given by:
T =
GM
r
r
v
r
t 2 =
t 2
GM
r r
T
t
=
2
or
GM
r
T
3 2
2
t 4
= .
Total Energy of the Satellite : A satellite revolving around the
earth has potential energy as well as kinetic energy. It has potential
energy because of attractive force acting on it due to earth and
kinetic energy because of its motion.
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EDUACHI EVERS ACADEM Y Gravit at ion 9
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Total Energy = Kinetic energy + Potential energy
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
2
1
2
r
GMm
mv
=
r
GMm
r
GM
m |
.
|

\
|
2
1
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
2 r
GMm
r
GMm
Total energy =
r
GMm
2

The total energy of the satellite is negative implies that in order

to send the satellite to infinity, we have to provide an extra energy
to satellite. If satellite is not given extra energy, it will go on revolving
in closed orbit, i.e., the satellite is bound to earth.
Now, binding energy = Total Energy =
r
GMm
2
For a satellite very close to the earth's surface,
v = gR
R
GM
r
GM
= =
Geostationary Satellite : An earth satellite so positioned that
it appears stationary to an observer on earth is called a geostationary
satellite. Its time period of revolution is 1 day. It serves as a fixed
relay station for long distance TV transmission.
If r is the radius of the geostationary orbit. M is the mass of
earth and T is the time period, then
3
2
2
t 4
= r
GM
T or
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
t 4
|
.
|

\
|
=
t 4
= T
R
R
GM
T
GM
r
R being the radius of the earth = 6400 km. This gives
r =
2
2
2
t 4
T
gR
or r =
4
2
2 2 6
10 2 4 =
|
|
.
|

\
|
14 3 4
3600 24 10 4 6 8 9
.
) . (
) ( ) . . (
km
Height of the satellite = r R = 35.93 10
6
m.
Thus, the radius of the geostationary orbit is 4.2 10
4
km and
the height above the surface of the earth is about
3.6 10
4
km.
KEPLERS LAWS
1. Law of Orbits : Each planet revolves around the sun in an
elliptical orbit with the sun at one focus of the ellipse.
Fig. 9.6
2. Law of Areas : This law states that radius vector from the
sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals.
Both shaded areas are equal if time from A to B is equal to
the time from P to Q.
Fig. 9.7
3. Law of periods : It states that the square of the time taken
by the planet about the sun is proportional to the cube of
the planets mean distance from the sun.
If T be time period of the planet and r be the mean distance
of planet from the sun (average of maximum and minimum
distances from the sun =
r r
min max
+
2
). Then
T r T K r
2 3 2 3
= or where K is a constant
or K =
3
2
r
T
is same for all planets.