Chemistry Unit Notes

Periodic Table, Bonding, and Acid & Bases

Syed Kamran

10/12/2011

Chemistry Unit Notes

Periodic Table, Bonding, and Acids & Bases

PERIODIC TABLE
Presently there are 118 elements on the periodic table of elements, however more are still being discovered. It is one the most useful tools to chemists. The table is organized so that you can determine its physical properties just by looking at its position.

Elements
Scientists have identified 92 naturally occurring elements and created about 26 others. The elements alone or in combinations, make up our bodies, our world, our sun, and in fact, the entire universe.

Valence Electrons
Valence electrons are the number of electrons at the outer energy level of an atom. These are the electrons that are used when atoms bond together.

Main Categories of the Periodic Table

Metals: Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. They are shiny, ductile, and malleable. Metal corrode in water. Non-Metals: Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. They are not ductile, and malleable. Solid non-metals are brittle, break easily and are dull. Many non-metals are gases. Metalloids: Metalloids have properties of both metals and non-metals. They can be shiny or dull. They can conduct heat and electricity, however not as well as metals. They are also ductile, and malleable.

Groups and Periods

Within the Periodic table of elements, elements are also organized via groups and periods. Groups (families): Groups are the vertical columns that have similar properties. Some of the columns have been given special names to distinguish them. All elements in a family have the same number of valence electrons.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011 Periods: Periods are the horizontal rows that do not have similar properties. Sizes of atoms decrease as we move left to right across a period; this is due to the increasing number of protons in the nucleus, resulting in a stronger electrical attraction between the nucleus and electrons. In addition the electronegativity increase as you move left to right across a period. The first element in a period is always an active solid, and the last is always an inactive gas.

Groups (families)

Periods

Classes
There are many classes within the Periodic table of elements; most of the elements have similar properties. Hydrogen: The hydrogen square sits atop of Group 1, but it is not a member of that family. It is a gas at room temperature. It has one proton and one electron in its electron level. Alkali Metals: The alkali family is found in the first column of the periodic table. Atoms of the alkali metals have a single valence electron. They are shiny, have the consistency of clay, and are easily cut with a knife. They are the most reactive metals, and react violently with water. Alkali metals are never found as free elements in nature, however always bonded with another element. Alkaline Earth Metals: Have two valence electrons and are never found uncombined in nature. Transition Metals: They are good conductors of heat and electricity. chemically combine with oxygen to form compounds. Can

Halogen Family: Halogens have seven valence electrons, why they are the most active. They are never found free in nature. Noble Gases: Noble gases are colorless and extremely unreactive. They outer most energy level is full, and due to this they are called inert. They are found in small amounts in earths atmosphere. Rare Earth Elements: The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the lanthanide and actinide series. Most of these elements are synthetic or man-made.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

DRAWING DIAGRAMS
There are a couple of diagrams you need to be able to draw for the test. They are as follows.

Bohr-Rutherford Diagram
Lets take an element, with an atomic number less than 20. Oxygen Eight Protons Seven Neutrons Eight Electrons

Bohr-Rutherford Ion Diagram

Lets take an element, with an atomic number less than 20. Oxide (II) ion Eight Protons Seven Neutrons Ten Electrons 8P 8N

Lewis Diagrams
Lets take any element for example Sodium it has the chemical symbol of Na. Sodium The symbol represents neutrons, protons and all electrons excluding valance electrons. Valences electrons are represented by dots on each side of the symbol. The order of placing the dots is Top, Bottom, Right, Left. Since Sodium has one valence electron it would look like this: With Ions will have the valence electron layer full with either 8 electrons or two.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

IONS
Introduction
Atoms are made up of particles, which either have a positive charge or negative charge. The positive or negative charges cancel each other out, so the net charge in an atom is zero. The positively charged particle is called a proton, and the negatively charged particle is called the electron. In atoms the protons are in the center and the electrons are on the outside, only electrons can be removed from atoms. If you add electrons to an atoms in becomes negatively charged, and if you remove them they become positively charged. An atom with a positive or negative charge is called an Ion.

Cations
Cations are ions with a positive charge. If an atom loses an electron or more it is called cation.

Anions
Anions are ions with a negative charge. If an atom gains an electron or more it is called an anion.

Why does this occur?

All atoms want to become stable, and in order to become stable there outer most energy level must be complete. To do this they can either lose an electron and become a cation or gain an electron and become anion. The atom will do what ever is easier, in other words it would prefer losing an electron instead on gaining seven in the following case. * Note: We only work with groups 1, 2,13,15,16, and 17 when dealing with ions.

Naming Ions
Positive Ions: The name is the same of the element followed by ion. E.g. Na+ = Sodium ion Negative Ions: The name is determined by removing the end and adding ide. E.g. O- = Oxide ion

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

IONIC BONDING
Ions have charges to them, either they are negatively charged or positively. Due to this fact some ions are attracted to others and form bonds, this results in and Ionic compound with a neutral charge.

Ion+1
How it Works

Ion-1

Netural Ionic Compound

You begin with two Ions a metal and a non-metal. The metal will have a positive charge and the non-metal will have a negative charge. Follow the following instructions to make the ionic compound. 1. Write the symbol of the metal first with its charge on the top. (Lithium ion) !!

Li

2. Next write the symbol of the non-metal with its charge on the top. (Oxide ion) !! !!

Li O

3. Swap the charges and write them as subscripts, remove the positive or negative signs.

Li! O!
4. If there is a 1 in the subscript remove it (1 is assumed) or if the subscripts can be simplified. Simplify them.

Li! O
5. Voil you have your Ionic Compound.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

POLYATOMIC BONDING
Some ions bond with each other and instead of making neutral bonds they make charged polyatomic compounds. These compounds, their formula and charges are listed below.

You do not have to memorize these polyatomic ions. There will be a chart similar to this given on a test. These ions bond with other ions to become natural.

Polyatomic Compound

Ion+ or -

Netural Polyatmoic Compound

How it Works
You begin with a polyatomic compound, and an Ion. The one with the positive charge is written first and the one with the negative charge is written after. 1. Write the compound or ion that has the positive charge first and the one with the negative charge second Ca!! PO! !! 2. Swap the charges, remove the plus and minus signs and simplify if possible (get ride of the 1s as well)

Ca! (PO! )!

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
Unlike how Ionic Compounds bond attracted ions, molecular compounds form when you have two non-metals that can share electrons (something the electrons are around one nuclei and sometimes the other). This type of bonding is also known as covalent compounds

How it works
When two non-metals have enough electrons to satisfy the other atoms needs to become stable, and there is enough energy they will bonded and share some electrons. Consider the following example:

1p +

1p +

8p + 8no

Two hydrogen atoms

One oxygen atom (only valence electrons drawn)

We have two hydrogen atoms having one valences electron, and one oxygen atom with six valence electrons. If one hydrogen atom, and the oxygen atom were to share one electron with each other, the hydrogen would have a complete set but the oxygen still would need one more electron. If the oxygen shared another electron with the other hydrogen, the hydrogen shared its electron. All the atoms would be stable in terms of reactivity, and you would form the compound known as Dihydrogen Monoxide, commonly called water.

8p + 8no 1p + 1p +

One molecule of DiHydrogen Monoxide

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

Types of bonds
There are three types of bonds; atoms can make in order to combine into a compound. The bonds vary based upon the amount of electrons available and the abundance of an atom.

Single Bond
A single bond is similar to the example on the page above, where both atoms are sharing one electron with the other (2 electrons in total). In the case above, each hydrogen atom was sharing one electron with oxygen, and oxygen was sharing one electron with each hydrogen atom.

Double Bond
A double bond occurs when each atom shares two of its electrons with the other atom, making four electrons in total. This can be seen in Carbon Dioxide, where the carbon atom, and the oxygen atoms are sharing two electrons each to form the bond.

Triple Bond
A triple bond occurs when three pairs of electrons are shared. Usually one shares four, and the other shares two. This can be observed in Carbon Monoxide.

Naming the Compounds

Naming a molecular compound is fairly simple there are a set of rules and prefixes, which have to be memorized. 1. Write the atom in the lower left of the periodic table first, followed by the second atom. 2. Next count the number of atoms for each element. 3. Change the ending of the second element to ide. 4. Place the appropriate prefix in front of the name. 5. If there is mono in front of the first element, remove it. Value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Prefix Mono Di Tri Tetra Penta Hexa Hepta

Exceptions
Some compounds have common name they are as follows: CH4 - Methane H2O2 Hydrogen Peroxide NH2 - Ammonia O3 - Ozone Syed Kamran - CourseCentral 8

10/12/2011

Diatomic Gases
Diatomic gases are gases that are always bonded, with them to form stable gas compounds. All of the Halogens plus Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen form diatomic gases. You will never find just a single atom of these elements in the open.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS
There are two parts of a chemical reaction, the reactants and the products. The products the end result of the equation, and the reactants are what you start with. After each compound in the equation you add (s) for solid, (g) for gas, (aq) for aqueous, and (l) for liquid. There are five types of chemical reactions, theses reactions result in different products, and start with different reactants.

Decomposition
Decomposition is when you have a single compound, which breaks down into two or more different elements.

Single Replacement
Single replacement is where a metal or non-metal will replace another metal or non-metal in a compound.

Double Replacement
Double replacement is when the ions in the compounds, switch places with each other.

Synthesis
A synthesis reaction occurs when two substances form one compound.

Combustion
Similar to a synthesis reaction, except when two or more substance react to produce an oxide and energy.

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
In order to describe a chemical reaction we can right chemical equations. You will be given a word equation, which will be converted in chemical equations. The following steps are used to convert a word equation into a chemical equation. 1. Write the compounds one by one, making sure of the charges. 2. Place (s), (l), (g), (aq), to indicated the state of the compound. 3. Balance each side of the equation.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10/12/2011

Balancing Equations
When balancing equations we must realize that matter cannot be made nor destroyed. If you to have 2 atoms of Hydrogen on one side of the equation, you must have 2 atoms of Hydrogen on the other side. Once you have written the compounds properly you can balance the equation. Following is an example of balancing a chemical equation. ! + ! = ! Write all the compounds in the equations. ! + ! = 2! We have two oxygens on the left side and one of the other, so we add a two as the coefficient of H2O. 2! + ! = 2! Now we have 4 atoms of hydrogen on the right, and two on the left, so we can add 2 as the coefficient. 2! + ! = 2! Now you have a balanced equation.

ACID AND BASES

Acids and Bases are a key part of our lives, we utilizes them on a daily basis to accomplish simple things. For example, every time you digest food you are using the acid in your stomach (Hydrochloric Acid) to help you.

pH
pH is the measure of how acidic or basic a substance is, it is rated from the scale of 1 to 14, a s shown below. On the scale 7 is neutral, anything above is a base, and anything below is an acid.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

10

10/12/2011

Acids
Acids release hydrogen ions when added to water (H+). The pH of acids is below 7, they are sour tasting and reactive. Acids are used as food preservatives and kill microorganisms. In addition they conduct electricity when added in water. Acids can greatly damage ecosystems and damage stonework as well.

Bases
Bases release Hydroxide Ions when added in water. The have the pH of above 7, are corrosive and taste bitter. Some common bases include, Sodium Hydroxide, and Calcium Hydroxide.

Indicators
Some chemicals change colour at certain pH levels, they allow chemists to figure out the pH of a solution. Examples of indicators are red cabbage, and bromothymol.

Neutralization
When an acid reacts with a base the pH become closer to 7. This is a double displacement reaction which produces some type of salt and water (H2O). The salt is not always NaCl (Sodium Chloride); there are many other forms of salt such as MgCl2 (Magnesium Chloride). A common application to this reaction is the curing heartburn.

Syed Kamran - CourseCentral

11