I.The Beginning of the Revolutionary Era: The American Revolution French Rev.

. represents destruction of old regime and new order based on ind. Rights, rep. Institutions, and loyalty to countries (vs. monarchs). Not completely revolutionarypolitical rights extended, but mostly to the burgeiose. The Fr. Rev. + Industrial Rev. ==> to modern history of Europe. At end of 7 Yrs' War, Britain = best colonial power. Britain retained vision of single empire with Parl. As single authority for laws, including to Americans. It controlled Americans, who had rep. Assemblies and believed that neither Parl. Nor king could tax w/o representation. Crises 1770s to 1776, with Dec. of Ind. A. The War for Independence i. Tough fight: Britain stronger military/financial resources (us. Americans had less experienced soldiers with shorter terms) internal divisions w/in colonies; most people were apathetic, ~50% Loyalists: didn't mind Brit. Policies. 15-30 % of populations. Centered in old, rich, moderates in New York and Pennsylvania Patriots: Also minority, but won over apathetic by force/words. <ostly rich, but joined to form coalition with farmers + artisans. Led to changes in rep. Gvmt, like more voting rights to non-rich people ii. Advantages: Good leaders: George Washington, named commander in chief by Second Continental Congress, which also authorized the formation of a Continental Army. He was a southerner, brought balance to effort led by New Englanders. Experience from French + Indian War. Rich patriot. Foreign countries wanted to help to mess with England: esp. the French. They served in Washington's Continental Army + gave resources/$. When British army of Gen . Cornwallis surrendered to combined American +French army/ Fr. Fleet at Yorktown under Washington 1781, Brits surrendered and with Treaty of Paris 1783 recognized indie of American colonoies and territory Appalachians to Mississippi. B.Forming an New Nation States wary of strong central gvmt stronger than state gvmt. So the Articles of Confederation in 1781 didn't do much. In 1787, convention of 55 rich, welledu'd, exp'd people made new constitution. It made executive, judicial, and legislative branches to balance/check each other. It barely passed, with the promise of Bill of Rights to be added. Embodiment of Enlig./philosophe ideas. C.Impact of the American Revolution on Europe 1789: beginning of new U.S.A. And start of Fr Rev. Am. Rev. influenced Europe thru books and other lit, and also proved that Enligh/philosophes worked outside of just theory. Much info came from soldiers. Esp. aristocrat marquis de Lafayette, who had volunteered to hurt England. Brought back ideas of ind. Liberties + republicanism and pop. Sovereignty. Joined the Society of Thirty, a club of salon people, lovers of liberty

who influenced Fr. Rev. Fr. Rev. truly the pol. Movement (not Am. Rev.) inaugurated modern pol. World, b/c more complex, violent, radicaltried to make new pol. And social order.

II. Background to the French Revolution Not just econ probs or famine; 50 yrs before 1789, actually econ growth (but spread only to wealthy). Fr. Society to blamegrounded in inequality of rights (privilege), with 3 estates A. Social Structure of the Old Regime i. The First Estate The Clergy. ~ 130,000 people, but church owned ~ 10% of land. Aristocratic. Exempt form taille. ii. The Second Estate 350,000 people, 25 to 30% of land. Under Louis 15/16, imp. Role in Fr. b/c held most admin/mil/law/church offices, + in the economy b/c invested/owned mining + metal enterprises. Of sword vs. of robe: with Segur Law in 1781, nobles of sword tried to limit new, elevated bourgeoisie nobles by limiting military officerships to 4th generation nobles. (Nobility still depended on titles) Privileges of nobles varied region to region, but all exempt from taxes, esp. the taille iii. The Third Estate The commoners, who varied in job, edu., and wealth. The Peasants: 75-80% of pop, owned 35-40 % of land, but half had none. No serfdom, but owed local landlords in relics of feudalism (payment for community resources, tithes to the clergy, hunting right, etc.) Skilled Artisans, Shopkeepers, and Urban Wage-Earners: in 1700s despite rapid growth, still small towns; prices raised more than income. Near Rev., increases in bread prices correlated with city revolts. Bourgeoisie: Included merchants, industrialists, and bankers, + lawyers, public officers, doctors, writers. Wanted status by buying land, but excluded from nobility. Tension partially ==> French Rev. owned 20-25% of land Wealthier Bourgeoisie and Nobility rather similar: decent # of bourgeoisie became nobles 1774 to 1789 aristocrats began in capitalist stuff on their estates like mining, metallurgy, glass-making, and foreign trade; economically, bourgeoisie and nobles formed single class Both groups liked Enlightenment ideas; both wanted the old order, with monarch in power, to change. But they split on how to eliminate traditional privileges. B. Other Problems Facing the French Monarchy Political probs big factor, but Fr. Monarchy failed in specific probs of 1780s: bad harvests, lots of poor extremely impoverished, unemployment in cities.

i. Ideas of Philosophes Though didn't advocate rev., philosophe ideas criticized privileges + soc/pol institutions of 1700s. Influence unknown, but rev. leaders quote philos a lot, esp. Rousseau ii. Failure to Make Reforms b/c of French Parlements (13 law courts) that could block royal edicts by ignoring them. Had gained power in 1700s as defenders of liberty against arbitrary power of monarchs. Followed own interests of blocking new taxes, though one of fundamental probs of monarchy was financial. iii. Financial Crisis Immediate cause of Fr Rev. due to costly wars + royal extravagance. Half of debt was interest on borrowing. 1786 Charles de Calonne, controller of gen. Finance, gathered an assembly of notables to redo fiscal + admin. systemmade sit. even worse. Gvmt had to call Estates-General, which hadn't met since 1614. By calling it, basically admitting consent of nation required to raise taxes.

III. The French Revolution E-G meeting not supposed to be rev. from either side, but was w/commoners, peasants, and legal changes. Model for Euro pol. + soc. Change. A. From Estates-General to a National Assembly Reps from the 3 orders of French society. 3rd estate got ~ 600 delegates (since 97% of population), 1st + 2nd 300 each. Opened May 1789. Lots of 3rd estate had legal training/were urban, down with privileges. 1/3 to of 1st + 2nd estate young, liberal, urban, enlightened, down privileges. Two above groups agreed on cahiers de doleances (statents of local grievances) advocating a reg. Constitutional gvmt and no fiscal privileges of church and nobles to regenerate France. Parlement wanted each order voted separately, w/ power to vet0: ensured aristocratic control over reforms. Reformers known as patriots or lovers of liberty, mostly bourgeoisie and nobles, wanted each head (delegate) to vote. One group of Patriots, Society of Thirty, got most members from Paris salons. Mostly nobles, some directly influenced by Am Rev, all by Enlig. Reason + utility. i. The National Assembly Gvmt hadn't taken control of E-G, so 3rd Estate pushed for voting by head. 1st Estate wanted by order still, so 3rd Estate declared self a National Assembly and decided to draw up a constitution. 3 days later on June 20th, 1789 they went to their meeting place, but it was locked; so swore an oath (aka Tennis Court Oath) to meet until they made a French Constitution. First official act of French Rev b/c the 3rd Estate had no right to act as the Nat. Assembly (mostly the work of the lawyers). Rev. seemed in danger b/c king sided with 1st Estate, prepared to dissolve EG/ use force.

ii. Intervention of the Common People Commoners, in rural and urban uprisings in July and August 1789, saved 3rd Estate. But used name of 3rd estate to wage war against the rich, claiming that aristocrats were plotting to destroy E-G/retain their privileges. That was not = to what the deputies of the 3rd Estate wanted. Storming of the Bastille = most famous of urban uprisings. King Luis 16th had added more troops around Paris/Versailles, but this inflamed peasants to attack and secure Paris. Then they took Bastille (more a symbol ,since only 7 prisoners). This saved the Nat. Assembly. Meanwhile, in other cities additionally, permanent committees and national guards were created to maintain order after crowds had seized the chiefs citadels. + peasant revolts in the country. Collapse of royal authority. iii. Peasant Rebellions and the Great Fear Growing resentment of the seigneurial system (mainly its fees and obligations) + good economy of nobles and bourgeois + difficult time in 1780s for peasants + Bastille falling + king's apparent capitulation to demands of 3rd Estate enc'd peasant revolts. From July 19 to Aug. 3, revolts in 5 major areas. They renounced dues and tithes in some places, burned obligation charters in others. People often thought that king would support them. Agrarian revolts ==> Great Fear (of invasion by foreigners, aided by supposed aristocratic plot led to more citizens' militias and perm. Committees. ==> National Assembly meeting at Versailles, where it attempted to reform France. B. Destruction of the Old Regime Nat. Assembly (a.k.a. Constituent Assembly b/c made constitution) was to destroy leftover feudalism/aristocratic privileges seen as necc. To calm peasants/restore countryside order, but many bourgeois just wanted to. Voted Aug. 4, 1789 to abolish seigneurial rights + fiscal privileges of nobles, clergy, towns, and provinces i.The Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen adopted the above charter for idea basis + edu. of assembly/for members. Basic liberties that reflected ideas of philosophes + Dec. of Ind. + Am. State constitutions. Restricted monarchy. All citizens have right in legislative process. Freedom of speech and press, no arbitrary arrest. Many deputies insisted women not included in all citizens. Olympe de Gouges, playwright and pamphleteer, wrote . . . of Woman and the Female Citizen, demanding women be given same rights as men. The Nat. Assembly ignored her demands. ii. The Women's March to Versailles Women marched on Oct. 5th to city hall to get bread for starving kids. Louis 16 wasn't there, so went to Versailles to confront Louis + Nat. Assembly. Paris Nat. Guard under Lafayette followed them to Versailles. Louis complied next day, sent flour with him to Paris, as every1 forced him to go and stay in Paris. He accepted the Nat. Assembly's decrees, as he was fiscally imprisoned.

iii. The Catholic Church Imp. Pillar of old order, so it needed to go Gvmt needed money, so took church land and issued assignats (form of paper $) as collateral Church was secularized. Bishops and priests elected by the people and paid by the state. Clergy required to swear to the Civil Constitution, but most clergy and bishops refused. Therefore church seen ad enemy of the Rev. Bad move by Nat. Assembly, b/c people who opposed Rev. could operate in name of church. iv. A New Constitution (made by the Nat. Assembly by 1791 Constitutional monarchy. The king of the French had few powers not controlled by the new Legislative Assembly, which had sovereign power. Representative Democracy: 745 people, but passive citizens (the poor) not well represented b/c only active citizens, 4.3 million (paid taxes 3x laborer's day wages) ==> [voted for] electors (50K, 10X) ==> deputies (54x) Administrative rev. too: 1789 all old provinces abolished, replaced with 83 about = size/ pop, then divided into districts/communes. Bourgeoisie + nobles available for office, but mostly bourgeoisie, esp. lawyers v. Opposition from Within Most people were angry: clerics at their Civil Constitution; lower class at inflation of the assignats; Peasants who still had dues; Political clubs with more radical solutions. Of the above pol. Clubs, Jacobins the most famous. Grew quickly, sprung from beg. Of Rev, esp. August 4th. Spread out to around France from Paris. Usually elite, but some artisans and tradesppl. (attempted) Escape to Varennes: by mid 1791, bourgeois politicians still trusted king despite horrrible debt. But Louis fled France to out of country but captured in Varennes, brought back. People didn't trust him even less, plus seemed disloyal. National Assembly prohibited reelection of its members, therefore . . . Composition of elected members of the Legislative Assem. Was very different. Not many clerics or nobles, most people lawyers with property. Louis worked with them well, but downfall was b/c of . . . . vi. Opposition from Abroad Other Euro countries feared that the Fr. Rev. would spread. ==> Declaration of Pillnitz: August 27, 1791, Leopold 2 of Austria and Fred. Will. 2 of Prussia invited other Euro monarchs to strengthen France's monarch. Kinda failed b/c other monarchs suspicious, didn't support it. Legislative Assem. Declared war on Austria 1792 b/c many people wanted war: reactionaries wanted a distraction to rev, leftists wanted rev. to strengthen and spread. They lost badly, people looked for scapegoats, esp. with bad economic times. Radical groups gained power; one attacked royal + Leg. Assem, attacked Louis.

 To prevent more radical stage of Rev., power passed from assembly to the new Paris Commune aka the sans-culottes, ordinary patriots w/o fine clothes. Many were well-off merchants and artisans. C. The Radical Revolution Paris Commune led by Georges Danton (c. 1760-1800). the sans-culottes sought revenge against king and people who had resisted the popular will. Killed lots of people until . . . 1792, National Convention took over. Mostly young lawyers, prop. Owners, professionals, but now some artisans. All hated the king, so they abolished the monarchy for a republic. But they split into groups over what to do with king, two most important were derivatives of the Jacobin club: the Girondins and the Mountain.

i. Domestic Crises Girondins feared the radical Parisian mobs and eradicated to keep the king alive as collateral. The Mountain represented the interests of Paris and the radicals, though they were us. Middle class. They condemned Louis 16 to death in 1793. This finished the old regime, but made enemies of Rev. at home + abroad. Power struggles: local gvmt controlled by the Commune, which was led by city' aristans and shopkeepers. Pushed for radical change and imposed these on Nat. Convention. Attacked it/ killed many Girondins in 1793, leaving the Mountain in control. This control was refused in W. France, esp. in Vendee, by peasants who revolted against the new military draft; grew to a counter-rev., supported the king. Some other major cities (Lyon + Marseilles) supported them. ii. Foreign Crisis Early 1793: informal coalition of Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and Dutch Republic were pitted against France. To defend, Nat. Conv. (overextended armies outside country, fighting anarchy inside country) gave more power to an executive comm., the Committee of Public Safety. Initially 'ruled' by Danton, then Maximilien Robespierre (c. 1760-1800, same time as Danton). For a year, same people reelected; great leaders, lead France out of 1793 safely. iii. A Nation in Arms Committee of Public Safety degreed in 1793 universal mobilization of the nation: men to fight will called, every1 to perform their duties, even children. It worked: the Republic's nation in arms largest ever in euro history; pushed back assailants, broke up anti-French coalition by 1795. Sign of modern warfare: a war of the people's gvmt, not dynastic struggles iv. The Committee of Public Safety and the Reign of Terror The above and the National Convention est'd the Reign of Terror to 'protect the Republic from internal enemies' thru any means. People who opposed radical activities of the sans-culottes, from royalists (M. Antoinette) to Girondins (Olympe de Gouges). Officially, 16K killed

thru guillotine (rev. b/c quick and efficient decapitation), but truly 50K people killed, mostly in Vendee and Lyons, Marseillescities against Nat. Convention. Military armies led by Nat. Convention brutally repressed the above cities. Reign of Terror not led by class prejudice; seen as a temp. measure; afterwards, Dec. of the Rights of Man and Citizen would be est'd. Justified by Rousseau's general will, but didn't act for it and led by 12 men, not many people. v. The Republic of Virtue By 1793, Comm. Of Public Safety sent agents to make sure laws carried out. Also supported more economic controls; the Law of the General Maximum est'd price controls of goods declared of first necessity, but failed b/c gvmt didn't have tools to enforce the rules. vi. The Role of Women Spectators of rev. clubs and the National Convention. 1793, a group formally appealed to lower bread prices; they were basically ignored. 1793 two women founded the Society for Rev. Republic Women: composed of working-class , Parisian women bonded to defend France, But most men, radical or conservative, agreed that women belong at home, not in mil/pol. Affiars. Vii. Dechristianization and the New Calendar Nat. Convention, in attempt for new order, pushed for dechrist. ex. removed saint from street names, armies pillaged/closed churches, priests supposed to marry. Notre-Dame designated the Temple of Reason, supported lady Liberty in her pursuit of reason. Ultimately backfired, since France still mostly French. Created more enemies than friends. New Republican calendar in 1793. Beg. Would be Sep. 22, 1792 (start of Fr. Republic), not Jesus' birth. Got rid of Sat/Sunday masses, church holidays/festivals. 5 leftover days at end of years to support rev. virtues (intelligence, labor, etc.). Months renamed after its seasons/harvest properties. Opposition: not many people followed it, not even gvmt people, let alone peasants. Napoleon abandoned it due to unpopularity. Nat. Convention told journalists to use it. Signified restructuring of time and all traditional order to forge new habits/order. viii. Equality and Slavery 1791, slavery abolished. But people in colonies wanted slaves for their sugar plantations. Nat. Conv. Abolished it in 1794 for equality. One Fr. Colony hadn't waited: 1791, blacks of Saint Domingue revolted against Fr. Plantation owners, killing many. Toussaint L'Ouverture (c. 17501800) assumed leadership. Napoleon accepted rev. equality, but disliked reports of massacres of whites. In 1802, he reinstated slavery there and sent

army. L'Ouverture died in prison, but soldiers weakened by disease, so W. Hispaniola fought and became free (now k.a. Haiti) ix. Decline of the Committee of Public Safety Law of 14 Frimare: designed to give the Committee of Public Safety more control over France by providing a structured 'chain of authority' under the rev. gvmt; tried to centralize it. Only executive, no1 else could change their decrees. Robespierre (powerful) was obsessed with purifying politics of the corrupt to allow the Rep. Of Virtue to follow. So in 1794 Comm. Of Pub. Safety turned against radical Parisian supporters, killed leaders of rev. Paris Commune to docilize it. Made order, but hurt own supporters. Robespierre was guillotined by Nat. Convention deputies 1794, ending the radical stage of Fr. Rev. Nat. Convention and it is Committee of Public Safety led foundation for domestic politics violence. But by creating a nation in arms, it preserved the Fr. Rev. and saved it from foreign enemies and from counter-rev. D. Reaction and the Directory After Robespierre executed, terror decreased in favor of Thermidorean Reaction. The National Convention reduced power of Committee of Public Safety and shut down the Jacobin club. Churches + cults allowed to worship. Laissez-faire policies vs. economic regulation adopted. In 1795 and New Constitution that allowed ideals of 1789 with order of 1795. To avoid a single leg. Assembly, the New Constitution had 750 people in 2 chambers: general Council that initiated legislation, and the Council of Elders that (dis)approved it. The latter elected 5 directors to act as the executive authority, or Directory. To continue from old ==> new order, decreed that 2/3 of Nat. Convention must be in new order. This created Paris uprisings that were quenched by Napoleon; sent fierce msg to Fr. People, since it was last uprising in Rev., + the Directory relied on the military. Directory was an era of corruption and stillness, as a result of the suffering of the Reign of Terror and the Republic of Virtue. Social changes: old, fancy noblitiy clothing back in style; speculators made money; gambling back in fashion. Directory gvmt fought right (royalists) and left (Jacobins more popular b/c of econ. Probs, esp. the collapse of the assignats). One such radical was Gracchus Rabeuf, who thought that the Fr. Rev. was An open war. . .between rich and poor. He despised misery of commoners, wanted to abolish private property/enterprise with Conspiracy of Equals. Executed in 1797. 1797: Directory battled opponents raising to power thhru new elections, + bad economically, + had to deal with leftover wars, + against general will, relied on military. ==> Coup d'etat in 1799 by popular Napoleon.