Book of Genesis Book of Exodus Book of Leviticus Book of Numbers Book of Deuteronomy

Book of Genesis
The Book of Genesis (from Ancient Greek (gnesis), meaning "birth, origin"; from Hebrew ( B'reishit) (Biblical: B'reshiyth), meaning "In the beginning"[1]) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. The narrative of the book traces the origin of God's chosen people, Israel and his descendants, from the Creation to their descent into Egypt; the succeeding books of the Torah follow their subsequent liberation from Egypt through the power of God. Structurally, it consists of the "primeval history" (chapters 111) and cycles of Patriarchal stories (chapters 1250)Abraham, Isaac, Jacob (renamed, Israel), and concluding with Joseph. While some traditions contained in it are as old as the monarchy, with some poetry that may be earlier, its final shape and message come only from the Exilic and Persian periods (6th and 5th centuries BCE).[2] For Jews and Christians alike, the theological importance of Genesis centers on the Covenants linking the Lord (God) to his Chosen People and the people to the Promised Land. Christianity has interpreted Genesis as the prefiguration of certain cardinal Christian beliefs, primarily the need for salvation (the hope of all Christians) and the redemptive act of Christ on the Cross as the fulfillment of covenant promises as the Son of God.

Contents

1 Synopsis 2 Content o 2.1 Primeval history o 2.2 Patriarchal history 2.2.1 Abraham and Isaac 2.2.2 Jacob 2.2.3 Joseph 3 Text and composition o 3.1 Text o 3.2 Composition 4 Themes

4.1 Religion of the Patriarchs 4.1.1 Alt's "Religion of the Patriarchs" 4.1.2 Conservative views o 4.2 Covenants 4.2.1 Covenant with Noah 4.2.2 Patriarchal covenants 5 See also 6 Further reading 7 References 8 External links
o

Synopsis
God calls the world into being through his divine word and appoints man as his regent; but, man proves corrupt and God destroys his world through the Flood. The new world after the Flood is equally corrupt; but, God does not destroy it, instead calling one man, Abraham, to be the seed of its salvation. At God's command Abraham descends from his home into the land of Canaan, given to him by God. Abraham dwells in the land as a sojourner, as does his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob, whose name is changed to Israel. Jacob and his twelve sons descend into Egypt, 70 persons in all with their households, and God promises them a future of greatness.

Content
Primeval history
See also: Genesis creation narrative, on Genesis 1-2 Bereishit, on Genesis 1-6: Creation, Eden, Adam and Eve, Cain and Abel, Lamech, wickedness Noach, on Genesis 6-11: Noahs Ark, the Flood, Noahs drunkenness, the Tower of Babel

God ("Elohim") creates the world in six days and consecrates the seventh. The world God creates is good, but it becomes corrupted by the sin of man and God sends a deluge (a great flood) to destroy it, saving only a man who is righteous (Noah), his wife, his sons and his daughters in law, from whose seed the world is repopulated ("be fruitful and multiply").[Gen 8:17] Mankind falls back into rebelliousness, but God has promised that he will not destroy it a second time, and selects Abraham to be the seed of his chosen people, Israel.

Patriarchal history

Abraham and Isaac

See also: Lech-Lecha, on Genesis 12-17: Abraham, Sarah, Lot, covenant, Hagar and Ishmael, circumcision

Vayeira, on Genesis 18-22: Abraham's visitors, Sodomites, Lots visitors and flight, Hagar expelled, binding of Isaac Chayei Sarah, on Genesis 23-25: Sarah buried, Rebekah for Isaac

God reveals himself to Abram, tenth in descent from Noah and twentieth from Adam, and instructs him to travel to the land which Canaan's descendants had settled. "Lift up your eyes, and look ... for all the land which you see I will give to you and to your descendants for ever. I will make your descendants as the dust of the earth; so that if one can count the dust of the earth, your descendants also can be counted. Arise, walk through the length and the breadth of the land, for I will give it to you."[Gen 13] God makes a covenant with Abram,[3] promising that his descendants shall be as numerous as the stars in the heavens, but that they shall suffer oppression in a foreign land for four hundred years, after which they shall inherit the land "from the river of Egypt to the great river, the river Euphrates."[Gen 15] [4] Abram's name is changed to "Abraham" and that of his wife Sarai to "Sarah," and circumcision of all males is instituted as an external sign of the covenant. Sarah is barren, and tells Abram to take her Egyptian handmaiden, Hagar, as a concubine. Through Hagar, Abraham becomes the father of Ishmael,[5] Abraham asks God that Ishmael "might live in Thy sight," (that is, be favoured), but God replies that Sarah will bear a son, who will be named Isaac,[6] through whom the covenant will be established.[Gen 17] At Sarah's insistence Ishmael and his mother Hagar are driven out into the wilderness, but God saves them and promises to make Ishmael also a great nation. God resolves to destroy the city of Sodom for the sins of its people. Abraham protests that it is not just "to slay the righteous with the wicked," and asks if the whole city can be spared if even ten righteous men are found there. God replies: "For the sake of ten I will not destroy it."[Gen 18] [7] Abraham's nephew Lot is saved from the destruction of Sodom, and through incest with his daughters becomes the ancestor of the Moabites and Ammonites.[Gen 19] God tests Abraham by commanding that he sacrifice Isaac. Abraham obeys; but, as he is about to lay the knife upon his son, God restrains him, promising him numberless descendants.[Gen 22] On the death of Sarah, Abraham purchases Machpelah for a family tomb[Gen 2] and sends his servant to Mesopotamia, Nahor's home, to find among his relations a wife for Isaac; and Rebekah, Nahor's granddaughter, is chosen.[Gen 24] Other children are born to Abraham by another wife, Keturah, among whose descendants are the Midianites; and he dies in a prosperous old age and is buried in his tomb at Hebron.[Gen 25]

[edit] Jacob

Jacob Wrestling with the Angel by Alexander Louis Leloir. See also:

Toledot, on Genesis 25-28: Esau and Jacob, Esau's birthright, Isaacs blessing Vayetze, on Genesis 28-32: Jacob flees, Rachel, Leah, Laban, Jacobs children and departure Vayishlach, on Genesis 32-36: Jacobs reunion with Esau, the rape of Dinah

Isaac's wife Rebekah is barren, but Isaac prays to God, and she gives birth to the twins Esau, father of the Edomites,[8] and Jacob.[9] Jacob's name is changed to Israel, and by his wives Rachel and Leah and their handmaidens he has twelve sons, the ancestors of the twelve tribes of the Children of Israel.

[edit] Joseph
See also: Vayeshev, on Genesis 37-40: Joseph's dreams, coat, and slavery, Judah with Tamar, Joseph and Potiphar Miketz, on Genesis 41-44: Pharaohs dream, Joseph's in government, Josephs brothers visit Egypt Vayigash, on Genesis 44-47: Joseph reveals himself, Jacob moves to Egypt Vayechi, on Genesis 47-50: Jacobs blessings, death of Jacob and of Joseph

Jacob's son Judah takes a Canaanite wife. They have three sons. The oldest, Er marries an Israelite woman named Tamar. Er dies and Judah gives Tamar to his second son. He dies also leaving Tamar childless. Tamar tricks Judah into fathering twin sons, the oldest Pharez is an ancestor of the future royal house of David. Jacob's favourite son, Joseph, is sold into slavery by his jealous brothers, who resent the favouritism shown him. But Joseph prospers, and when famine comes he brings his father and his brothers and their households, seventy persons in all, to Egypt, where Pharaoh assigns to them the land of Goshen.[Gen 46-47] Jacob calls his sons to his bedside and reveals their future to them[Gen 49] before he dies and is interred in the family tomb at Machpelah (Hebron). Joseph lives to see his great-grandchildren, and on his death-bed he exhorts his brethren, if God should remember them and lead them out of the country, to take his bones with them. The book ends with Joseph's remains being "put in a coffin in Egypt."[Gen 50]

[edit] Text and composition

Bereshit aleph, or the first chapter of Genesis, written on an egg, which is kept in the Israel Museum.

[edit] Text
The oldest extant manuscripts of Genesis are the twenty-four fragments found among the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating from between 150 BC and AD 70. The next oldest are the Greek Septuagint manuscripts of the Codex Sinaiticus and Vaticanus, produced by the early Christian church in the 4th century. The oldest manuscripts of the Masoretic Text, which forms the basis of Jewish worship and many Western Christian bibles, date from around AD 1000. Also worthy of note are the Samaritan and Syriac translations. Modern scholarly translations rely on all these manuscripts, attempting to find the best possible version through critical examination of the texts.

[edit] Composition
There is currently no consensus on the process by which Genesis came to be written. The documentary hypothesis (which sees Genesis the product of the editorial weaving of a number of originally independent and complete accounts of the same material), which did enjoy the status of a consensus among many Western scholars for most of the 20th century, no longer enjoys the support it once did, and rival theories have been advanced using fragmentary models (composition by an author from various "fragments") or supplementary models (an original text later expanded and edited), or combinations of these.[10] The many anachronisms in the text point to a date in the 1st millennium BC, and current proposals place it in the 5th century when the post-Exilic Jewish community was trying to adapt itself to life under the Persian empire.[11]

[edit] Themes
[edit] Religion of the Patriarchs

[edit] Alt's "Religion of the Patriarchs"

In 1929 Albrecht Alt proposed that the Hebrews arrived in Canaan at different times and as different groups, each with its nameless "gods of the fathers." In time these gods were assimilated with the Canaanite El, and names such as "El, God of Israel" emerged. The "God of Abraham" then became identified with the "God of Isaac" and so on. Finally the name of God reconstructed by Western scholars as "Yahweh" was introduced in the Mosaic period. The authors of Genesis, living in a later period when this God had become the only God, partly obscured and partly preserved this history in their attempt to demonstrate that the patriarchs shared their own monotheistic worship of Yahweh. According to Alt, the theology of the earliest period and of later fully developed monotheistic Judaism were nevertheless identical: both "Yahweh" and the tribal gods revealed himself/themselves to the patriarchs, promised them descendants, and protected them in their wanderings; they in turn enjoyed a special relationship with their god, worshiped him, and established holy places in his honor. This flatly contradicts the commandment reported as given to Moses in Exodus 20:3 and the extremely numerous mentions of the subject throughout the Bible.[12] In 1934 Julius Lewy, drawing on the recently discovered Ugarit texts, opined that the "God of Abraham" was not anonymous, but was probably El Shaddai, "El of the Mountain" (El being identified with a mythical holy mountain). Lewy asserts that the name Shaddai, however, remains mysterious, and has also been identified with both a specific city and with a Hebrew root meaning "breast".[13] In 1962 Frank Moore Cross concluded that the name Yahweh developed as one of the many epithets of El: "El the creator, he who causes to be." For Cross the continuity between El and Yahweh explained how the other El-names could continue to be used in Genesis, and why Baal (in Canaanite mythology a rival to El) was regarded with such hostility.[14] More recently, Mark S. Smith has returned to the Ugarit texts in an attempt to show how polytheism "was a feature of Israelite religion down through the end of the Iron Age and how monotheism emerged in the seventh and sixth centuries."[15]

[edit] Conservative views

In contrast to this picture of a Canaanite background to Genesis, Lloyd R. Bailey (1968) and E.L. Abel (1973) have suggested that Abraham worshipped Sin the Amorite moon-god of Harran. To support their theory, Bailey and Abel point (1) to Abraham's association with Harran and Ur, both centers of the cult of Sin, (2) to the epithet "Father of the gods" applied to Sin (comparable to Abram's name, "Exalted Father") and, (3) to the close similarity between names associated with Abraham and with Sin: Sarah/Sarratu (Sin's wife); Milcah/Malkatu (Sin's daughter); and Terah/Ter (a name of Sin).[16] M. Haran has also distinguished between Canaanite and Patriarchal religion, pointing out that the Patriarchs never worship at existing shrines but rather build their own shrines, something which is asserted to befit a seminomadic lifestyle. He also points to the invocation of Shaddai by Baalam and the identification of the Patriarchal God with the "sons of Eber" in Genesis 10:21 as evidence that their god was not originally Canaanite. Gordon Wenham has pointed out that El (or "Il") is a well-known member of the third-millennium Mesopotamian pantheon, adding: "Whether El was ever identified with the moon god is uncertain. To judge from the names of Abraham's relations and the cult of his home town, his ancestors at least were moon-god worshippers. Whether he continued to honour this gods [sic] identifying him with El, or converted to El, is unclear."[17]

[edit] Covenants

See also: Covenant (biblical) The covenants are integral to the understanding not only of Genesis but also of the entire Bible.[18] Otto Eissfeldt, an early scholar of the Ugarit texts, recognised that in Ugarit the promise of a son was given to kings together with promises of blessing and numerous descendants, which the author asserts is a clear parallel to the pattern of Genesis. Claus Westermann (1964 and 1976), analysing the Genesis covenants in the light of Ugarit and Icelandic sagas, came to the conclusion that the Patriarchal stories were usually lacking any promises in their original form. Westermann saw the promise of a son in Genesis 16:11 and 18:1-15 as genuine, as well as the promise of land behind 15:7-21 and 28:13-15; the rest he saw as representing later editors.[19] Rolf Rendtorff accepts Westermann's thesis that the Patriarchal stories were originally independent, and suggests that the promises were added to link the stories of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob into cycles which grew through a process of gradual accretion into the final book. John Van Seters speculates that Genesis is a late and unified composition, from which it is impossible to excise the Covenants without doing damage to the overall narrative.[20]

[edit] Covenant with Noah

In Genesis 9:8-17, God makes a covenant with Noah, Noah's future descendants, and every living creature. God promises to never again destroy the earth by flood. The sign of this covenant is the rainbow. As, so to speak, the divine warrior, God is hanging God's bow in the sky. When God sees the bow, God will remember the covenant between God and all living creatures.[21]

[edit] Patriarchal covenants

Scholars assert that this is transmitted to us in three traditions, Genesis 12, Genesis 15 and Genesis 17. The Lord has contracted this covenant with Abraham with strong emphasis on the promise (especially in Gen. 17). Two promises were made, viz. the multiplication of Abrahams offspring and the inheritance of the Promised Land. The sign of this covenant is circumcision, as seen in Genesis 17:9-14. It is obvious, e.g. from the book of Exodus, that the promise of a large offspring is regarded as fulfilled (cf. Exodus 1:7-22). The description of the conquering of the Promised Land in Joshua points to the fulfillment of the promise of inheritance. The patriarchal covenant is thus mainly promissory. This covenant is seen as significant throughout the entire Old Testament.[22]

[edit] See also

Books of the Torah 1. 2. 3. 4. Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers

5. Deuteronomy Wikisource has original text related to this article: Genesis

Allegorical interpretations of Genesis Bible and history Biblical Patriarchs Dating the Bible The Genesis Code Genesis Rabba Interpretations of Genesis Kabbalah Paradise Lost Tanakh Timeline of the Bible Weekly Torah portion Wife-sister narratives in Genesis

[edit] Further reading

Avivah Gottlieb Zornberg, The Beginning of Desire: Reflections on Genesis. New York: Doubleday, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.) Bruce Vawter, On Genesis: A New Reading. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Co., 1977. (An introduction to Genesis by a fine Catholic scholar. Genesis was Vawter's hobby.) Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI), In the Beginning. Edinburgh, 1995. (A Catholic understanding of the story of Creation and Fall.) E. A. Speiser, Genesis, The Anchor Bible. Volume 1. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, 1964. (A translation with scholarly commentary and philological notes by a noted Semitic scholar. The series is written for laypeople and specialists alike.) Henry M. Morris, The Genesis Record: A Scientific and Devotional Commentary on the Book of Beginnings. Baker Books, 1981. ISBN (A creationist Christian commentary.) Jean-Marc Rouvire, Brves mditations sur la cration du monde. L'Harmattan Paris, 2006. Nahum M. Sarna, The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. (A mainstream Jewish commentary.) Nahum M. Sarna, Understanding Genesis. New York: Schocken Press, 1966. (A scholarly Jewish treatment, strong on historical perspective.) Nehama Leibowitz, New Studies in Bereshit, Genesis. Jerusalem: Hemed Press, 1995. (A scholarly Jewish commentary employing traditional sources.) Umberto Cassuto, From Noah to Abraham. Eisenbrauns, 1984. ISBN (A scholarly Jewish commentary.)

[edit] References
1. ^ Hebrew word #7225 in Strong's 2. ^ John McDermott, "Historical Issues in the Pentateuch", Bible and Interpretation 3. ^ See Fire pot#Early Jewish Symbol of God

4. ^ The "river of Egypt", traditionally identified not with the Nile but with Wadi el Arish in the Sinai, and the Euphrates, represent the supposed bounds of Israel at its height under Solomon. 5. ^ Hebrew Yishmael, "God will hear". 6. ^ Hebrew Yitzhak, "he laughed," sometimes rendered as "he rejoiced" - three explanations of the name are given, the first in this chapter where Abraham laughs when told that Sarah will bear a son 7. ^ Abraham's intercession on behalf of the people of Sodom is the foundation of the important Jewish tradition of righteousness. 8. ^ Hebrew Esau, "made" or "completed". Genesis 36. 9. ^ Hebrew Yaakov, from a root meaning "crooked, bent", usually interpreted as meaning "heel" - according to the narrative he was born second, holding Esau's heel. 10. ^ Oxford Bible Commentary (ed. John Barton, John Muddiman, Oxford University Press, 2001) p.39 11. ^ Ska, Jean-Louis, "Introduction to reading the Pentateuch" (Eisenbrauns, 2006) pp.217 ff. 12. ^ Cruden, Alexander, A Complete Concordance to the old and New Testament, very numerous editions (especially under "God" and "gods") 13. ^ See Biblical Studies Org. and David Biale, "The God With Breasts: El Shaddai in the Bible, 1982. 14. ^ Frank Moore Cross, "Yahweh and the God of the Patriarchs", 1962 and 1973. 15. ^ Mark S. Smith, "The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts", 2002. "Origins of Biblical Monotheism", Journal of Hebrew Scriptures, Vol.). 16. ^ Lloyd Bailey, "Israelite El Sadday and Amorite Bel Sade" and E.L. Abel, "The Nature of the Patriarchal God El Sadday". 17. ^ Gordon J. Wenham, "The Religion of the Patriarchs" (accessed April 7, 2010) 18. ^ Robertson, O. Palmer, The Christ of the Covenants" 19. ^ Westermann distinguished four types of promise: a son; descendents; blessing; land. He regarded promises as early if they were not combined and if they were intrinsic to the narrative. 20. ^ Summarised from "The Patriarchs: History and Religion". 21. ^ Coogan, Michael. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 55 22. ^ D. R. W. Wood and I. Howard Marshall, New Bible Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Leicester, England; Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 1996), 235236.

[edit] External links

Book of Genesis illustrated Genesis Reading Room (Tyndale Seminary): online commentaries and monographs on Genesis. Bereshit with commentary in Hebrew Bereishit - Genesis (Hebrew - English at Mechon-Mamre.org) Genesis at Mechon-Mamre (Jewish Publication Society translation) Hebrew Audiobook of Genesis from Librivox Genesis (The Living Torah) Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan's translation and commentary at Ort.org

Genesis (Judaica Press) at Chabad.org Young's Literal Translation (YLT) New International Version (NIV) New Revised Standard Version (NRSV) Westminster-Leningrad codex Aleppo Codex
Book of Genesis Pentateuch Hebrew Bible

Preceded by None

Christian Old Testament

Succeeded by Exodus

Hebrew Bible
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article or section appears to contradict itself about the subject definition. Please see its talk page for more information. (April 2011) This article is about collected Hebrew and Aramaic texts. For the Jewish canon, see Tanakh. For the various Christian canons, see Old Testament.

11th century manuscript of the Hebrew Bible with Aramaic Targum

Part of a series on

The Bible

Biblical canon and books Tanakh (Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim) Old Testament (OT) New Testament (NT) Hebrew Bible Deuterocanon Antilegomena Chapters and verses Apocrypha (Jewish OT NT) Development and authorship Jewish canon Old Testament canon New Testament canon Mosaic authorship Pauline epistles Johannine works Petrine epistles Translations and manuscripts Samaritan Torah Dead Sea scrolls Masoretic text Targums Peshitta Septuagint Vulgate Gothic Bible Vetus Latina

Luther Bible English Bibles Biblical studies Dating the Bible Biblical criticism Higher criticism Textual criticism Canonical criticism Novum Testamentum Graece Documentary hypothesis Synoptic problem NT textual categories Historicity People Places Names Internal consistency Archeology Artifacts Science and the Bible Interpretation Hermeneutics Pesher Midrash Pardes Allegorical interpretation Literalism Prophecy Perspectives Gnostic Islamic Qur'anic Christianity and Judaism Inerrancy Infallibility Criticism of the Bible

Bible book

Bible portal

vde

The Hebrew Bible (also Hebrew Scriptures, Latin Biblia Hebraica) is a term used by biblical scholars to refer to the Jewish Bible (Hebrew: "Tanakh). It takes its name from the fact that the Jewish Bible is composed mostly in Biblical Hebrew, with a few passages in Biblical Aramaic (about half of the Book of Daniel, some parts of the Book of Ezra and a few other passages). The content, which closely corresponds to the Protestant Old Testament, does not include the deuterocanonical portions of the Roman Catholic or the Anagignoskomena portions of the Eastern Orthodox Old Testaments. The term does not imply naming, numbering or ordering of books, which varies with Biblical canon. The term is an attempt to provide specificity with respect to contents, while avoiding allusion to any particular interpretative tradition or theological school of thought. It is widely used in academic writing and interfaith discussion in relatively neutral contexts meant to include dialogue among all religious traditions, but not widely in the inner discourse of the religions which use its text.

Contents
[hide]

1 Usage 2 Biblia Hebraica 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading

[edit] Usage
[hide]Books of the Hebrew Bible for Jewish Bible see Tanakh English Names

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers Deuteronomy Joshua Judges Ruth 1 Samuel

2 Samuel 1 Kings 2 Kings 1 Chronicles 2 Chronicles Ezra Nehemiah Esther Job Psalms Proverbs Ecclesiastes Song of Solomon Isaiah Jeremiah Lamentations Ezekiel Daniel Hosea Joel Amos Obadiah Jonah Micah Nahum Habakkuk Zephaniah Haggai Zechariah Malachi vde

Hebrew Bible is a term that refers to the common/shared portions of the Tanakh (Jewish canon) and the Christian biblical canons. In its Latin form, Biblia Hebraica, it traditionally serves as a title for printed editions of the Masoretic Text. Many scholars advocate use of the term Hebrew Bible when discussing these books in academic writing, as a neutral substitute to terms with religious connotations (e.g., the nonneutral term "old testament").[1] The Society of Biblical Literature's Handbook of Style, which is the standard for major academic journals like Harvard Theological Review and conservative Protestant journals like Bibliotheca Sacra and Westminster Theological Journal, suggests that authors "be aware of the connotations of alternative expressions such as ... Hebrew Bible [and] Old Testament" without prescribing the use of either.[2] Additional difficulties include:

In terms of theology, Christianity has struggled with the relationship between "old" and "new" testaments from its very beginnings.[3][4] Modern Christian formulations of this tension, sometimes building upon ancient and medieval ideas, include

supersessionism, covenant theology, dispensationalism, and dual covenant theology. However, all of these formulations, except some forms of dual-covenant theology, are objectionable to mainstream Judaism and to many Jewish scholars and writers, for whom there is one eternal covenant between God and Israel, and who therefore reject the very term "Old Testament." In terms of canon, Christian usage of "Old Testament" does not refer to a universally agreed upon set of books, but rather varies depending on denomination. The term Old Testament is a Christian term used to identify the Hebrew Bible as a portion of the Christian scriptures and so can sometimes imply an unintended Christian frame of reference for it.[citation needed]

Coin from Bar-Kokhba Revolt demonstrating Paleo-Hebrew Hebrew in the term Hebrew Bible refers to the original language of the books, but it may also be taken as referring to the Jews of the Second Temple era and the Diaspora, and their descendants, who preserved the transmission of the Masoretic Text up to the present day. The Hebrew Bible includes some small portions in Aramaic (mostly in the books of Daniel and Ezra), which are nonetheless written and printed in the Hebrew alphabet and script, which is the same as Aramaic square-script.[citation needed] Some Qumran Hebrew biblical manuscripts are written using the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet of the classical era of Solomon's Temple.[5] The famous examples of the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet are the Siloam inscription (8th century BCE), the Lachish ostraca (6th century BCE), and the Bar Kokhba coin shown above (circa 132 CE).

[edit] Biblia Hebraica

The Biblia Hebraica is edited by various German publishers.

Between 1906 and 1955 Rudolf Kittel published 9 editions of it. 1966, the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft published the renamed Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia in six editions until 1997. Since 2004 the Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft publishes the Biblia Hebraica Quinta including all variants of the Qumran manuscripts as well as the Masorah Magna.

[edit] See also

Biblical canon Books of the Bible Christianity and Judaism Development of the Jewish Bible canon Judeo-Christian Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible

Torah List of major biblical figures

[edit] References
1. ^ For a prominent discussion of the term's usage and the motivations for it, see "The New Old Testament" by William Safire, New York Times, 1997-25-5. Also see: Mark Hamilton. "From Hebrew Bible to Christian Bible: Jews, Christians and the Word of God". Retrieved 2007-11-19. "Modern scholars often use the term 'Hebrew Bible' to avoid the confessional terms Old Testament and Tanakh." 2. ^ Patrick H. Alexander et al., Eds. (1999). The SBL Handbook of Style. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers. pp. 17 (section 4.3). ISBN 1-56563-487-X. 3. ^ 'Marcion', in Encyclopdia Britannica, 1911. 4. ^ For the modern debate, see Biblical law in Christianity 5. ^ DOCTRINE OF THE BIBLE

[edit] Further reading

Johnson, Paul (1987). A History of the Jews (First, hardback ed.). London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0-297-79091-9. Kuntz, John Kenneth. The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3 Searching for the Better Text: How errors crept into the Bible and what can be done to correct them Biblical Archaeology Review

[show]v d eTimeline of the Ancient Near

East
Categories: Bible | Hebrew Bible

Old Testament
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Note: Judaism uses the term Tanakh to refer to its canon of the Masoretic Text. In academic circles, the more neutral term, Hebrew Bible, is commonly used to refer to these common Scriptures of Judaism and Christianity.
[show] Part of a series on

Christianity

Part of a series on

The Bible

Biblical canon and books Tanakh (Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim) Old Testament (OT) New Testament (NT) Hebrew Bible Deuterocanon Antilegomena Chapters and verses Apocrypha (Jewish OT NT) Development and authorship Jewish canon Old Testament canon New Testament canon Mosaic authorship Pauline epistles

Johannine works Petrine epistles Translations and manuscripts Samaritan Torah Dead Sea scrolls Masoretic text Targums Peshitta Septuagint Vulgate Gothic Bible Vetus Latina Luther Bible English Bibles Biblical studies Dating the Bible Biblical criticism Higher criticism Textual criticism Canonical criticism Novum Testamentum Graece Documentary hypothesis Synoptic problem NT textual categories Historicity People Places Names Internal consistency Archeology Artifacts Science and the Bible Interpretation Hermeneutics Pesher Midrash Pardes Allegorical interpretation Literalism Prophecy

Perspectives Gnostic Islamic Qur'anic Christianity and Judaism Inerrancy Infallibility Criticism of the Bible

Bible book

Bible portal

vde

The Old Testament or Hebrew Scriptures are the collection of books that forms the first of two parts of the Christian Biblical canon. The contents of the Old Testament canon vary from church to church, with the Orthodox communion having 51 books: the shared books are those of the shortest canon, that of the major Protestant communions, with 39 books. Christians hold different views of the Old Testament or Old Covenant in contrast to the New Covenant. All Old Testament canons are related to the Jewish Bible Canon (Tanakh), but with variations. The most important of these variations is a change to the order of the books: the Hebrew Bible ends with the Book of Chronicles, which describes Israel restored to the Promised Land and the Temple restored in Jerusalem; in the Hebrew Bible God's purpose is thus fulfilled and the divine history is at an end, according to Dispensationalism and Supersessionism (see Jewish Eschatology for Jewish beliefs on the subject). In the Christian Old Testament the Book of Malachi is placed last, so that a prophecy of the coming of the Messiah leads into the birth of the Christ in the Gospel of Matthew. The Tanakh is written in Biblical Hebrew and Biblical Aramaic, and is therefore also known as the Hebrew Bible (the text of the Jewish Bible is called the Masoretic, after the medieval Jewish rabbis who compiled it). The Masoretic Text (i.e. the Hebrew text revered by medieval and modern Jews) is only one of several versions of the original scriptures of ancient Judaism, and no manuscripts of that hypothetical original text exist. In the last few centuries before Christ, Hellenistic-Jewish scholars produced a translation of their scriptures in Greek, the common language of the Eastern portion of the Roman Empire since the conquests of Alexander the Great. This translation, known as the Septuagint, forms the basis of the Orthodox and some other Eastern Old Testaments. The Old Testaments of the Western branches of Christianity were originally based on a Latin translation of the Septuagint known as the Vetus Latina, this was replaced by Jerome's Vulgate, which continues to be highly respected in the Catholic Church, but Protestant churches generally follow translations of a scholarly reference known as the Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. In 1943, Pope Pius XII issued the Divino Afflante Spiritu which allows Catholic translations from texts other than the Vulgate, notably in English the New American Bible.

The Hebrew Bible divides its books into three categories, the Torah ("Instructions"), the Nevi'im ("Prophets") (according to some Christians, essentially historical, despite the title), and the Ketuvim ("Writings)," which according to some Christians might better be described as "wisdom" books (the Song of Songs, Lamentations, Proverbs, etc.). The Christian Old Testament ignore this division and instead emphasise the historical and prophetic nature of the canonthus the Book of Ruth and the Book of Job, part of the Writings in the Hebrew Bible, are reclassified in the Christian canon as history books, and the overall division into Instructions, Prophets and Writings is lost. The reason for this is the over-arching Messianic intention of Christianity - the Old Testament is seen as preparation for the New Testament, and not as a revelation complete in its own right, see Supersessionism for details. Although it is not a history book in the modern sense, the Old Testament is the primary source for the History of ancient Israel and Judah. The Bible historians presented a picture of ancient Israel based on information that they viewed as historically true. Of particular interest in this regard are the books of Joshua through Second Chronicles.[1][2] The oldest material in the Hebrew Bible and therefore in the Christian Old Testament may date from the 13th century BCE.[3] This material is found embedded within the books of the current Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, which reached their current form at various points between the 5th century BCE (the first five books, the Torah) and the 2nd century BCE,[4] see Development of the Jewish Bible canon for details.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Books of the Old Testament o 2.1 The Septuagint o 2.2 Latin translations o 2.3 Other traditions o 2.4 Literary and philosophical reception 3 Christian views of the Old Covenant 4 Historicity of the Old Testament narratives 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit] History
The early Christian Church primarily used the Septuagint, often referred to as the LXX, the oldest Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, as its religious text until at least the mid-4th century (Targums were used by Aramaic speakers). Until that time Greek was a major language of the Roman Empire and a major language of the Church (exceptions include Syrian Orthodoxy and the Church of the East which used the Syriac Peshitta and Ethiopian Orthodoxy which used the Geez, and others, see Early centers of Christianity). In the late 1st century, Rabbinic Judaism (see Council of Jamnia) began expressing a strong distrust of the

accuracy of the Septuagint and eventually rejected it. Talmudic tradition considers the LXX to be both divinely inspired and full of errors.[5] Early church teachers and writers reacted with even stronger devotion, citing the Septuagint's antiquity and its use by the Evangelists and Apostles. Being the Old Testament quoted by the Gospels and the Greek Church Fathers, the LXX had an essentially official status in the early Christian world.[5] Following in the steps of Philo and Hellenistic Judaism, they claimed its inspiration was not inferior to that of the original. They argued that divergences of the Septuagint from the current Hebrew text were due to accidents of transmission, or that they were not actual errors, but Divine adaptations of the original for the sake of the future Church.
[6]

When Jerome undertook the revision of the Old Latin translations of the Septuagint in about 400 AD, he checked the Septuagint against the Hebrew text that was then available. He came to believe that the Hebrew text better testified to Christ than the Septuagint.[citation needed] He broke with church tradition and translated most of the Old Testament of his Vulgate from Hebrew rather than Greek. His choice was severely criticized by Augustine, his contemporary, and others who regarded Jerome as a forger. But with the passage of time, acceptance of Jerome's version gradually increased in the West until it displaced the Old Latin translations of the Septuagint.[7] The Hebrew text differs from the Septuagint in some passages that Christians hold to prophesy Christ, and the Eastern Orthodox Church still prefers the Septuagint text as the basis for translating the Old Testament into other languages. The Orthodox Church of Constantinople, the Church of Greece and the Cypriot Orthodox Church continue to use it in their liturgy today, untranslated. Many modern critical translations of the Old Testament, while using the Hebrew text as their basis, consult the Septuagint as well as other versions in an attempt to reconstruct the meaning of the Hebrew text whenever the latter is unclear, undeniably corrupt, or ambiguous.[7] Many of the oldest Biblical verses among the Dead Sea Scrolls, particularly those in Aramaic, correspond more closely with the Septuagint than with the Hebrew text (although the majority of these variations are extremely minor, e.g., grammatical changes, spelling differences or missing words, and do not affect the meaning of sentences and paragraphs).[8][9][10] This confirms the scholarly consensus that the Septuagint represents a separate Hebrew text tradition from that which was later standardized as the Hebrew text (called the Masoretic Text).[8] Of the fuller quotations in the New Testament of the Old, nearly one hundred agree with the modern form of the Septuagint and six agree with the Hebrew text.[citation needed] The principal differences concern presumed Biblical prophecies relating to Christ.[citation needed]

[edit] Books of the Old Testament

Part of a series on

The Hebrew Bible

and Deuterocanon

Protocanon[show] Deuterocanon[show] Orthodox Deuterocanon[show] Syriac Peshitta[show]

Bible portal

vde

Main articles: Books of the Bible and Biblical canon See also: Septuagint#Table of books

The interrelationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament, according to the Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903) Some manuscripts are identified by their siglum. LXX here denotes the original Septuagint.

[edit] The Septuagint

In early Christianity the Septuagint was universally used among Greek speakers, while Aramaic Targums were used in the Syriac Church. To this day the Eastern Orthodox Church uses the Septuagint, in an untranslated form. Some scriptures of ancient origin are found in the Septuagint but are not in the Hebrew. These include Additions to Daniel and Esther. For more information regarding these books, see the articles Biblical apocrypha, Biblical canon, Books of the Bible, and Deuterocanonical books. Some books that are set apart in the Hebrew text are grouped together. For example the Books of Samuel and the Books of Kings are in the Septuagint one book in four parts called "Of Reigns" (). Scholars believe that this is the original arrangement before the book was divided for readability. In the Septuagint, the Books of Chronicles supplement Reigns and are called Paraleipomnon (things left out). The Septuagint organizes the Minor prophets as twelve parts of one Book of Twelve.[11] All the books of western canons of the Old Testament are found in the Septuagint, although the order does not always coincide with the modern ordering of the books. The Septuagint order for the Old Testament is evident in the earliest Christian Bibles (5th century),[11] namely the Codex Vaticanus, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Alexandrinus and Peshitta. The New Testament makes a number of allusions to and may quote the additional books (as Orthodox Christians aver). The books are Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Wisdom of Jesus Seirach, Baruch, Epistle of Jeremy (sometimes considered part of Baruch), additions to Daniel (The Prayer of Azarias, the Song of the Three Children, Sosanna and Bel and the Dragon), additions to Esther, 1 Maccabees, 2 Maccabees, 3 Maccabees, 4 Maccabees, 1 Esdras, Odes, including the Prayer of Manasses, and Psalm 151. In most ancient copies of the Bible which contain the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, the Book of Daniel is not the original Septuagint version, but instead is a copy of Theodotion's translation from the Hebrew.[12] The Septuagint version of the Book of Daniel was discarded, in favour of Theodotion's version, in the second to 3rd centuries; in Greekspeaking areas, this happened near the end of the 2nd century, and in Latin-speaking areas (at least in North Africa), it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century.[12] History does not record the reason for this, and Jerome basically reports, in the preface to the Vulgate version of Daniel, this thing 'just' happened.[12] The canonical Ezra-Nehemiah is known in the Septuagint as "Esdras B", and 1 Esdras is "Esdras A". 1 Esdras is a very similar text to the books of Ezra-Nehemiah, and the two are widely thought by scholars to be derived from the same original text. It is highly likely that "Esdras B"the canonical Ezra-Nehemiahis Theodotion's version of this material, and "Esdras A" is the version which was previously in the Septuagint on its own.[12]

[edit] Latin translations

See also: Books of the Latin Vulgate Jerome's Vulgate Latin translation dates to between 382 and 420 CE. Latin translations predating Jerome are collectively known as Vetus Latina texts. Origen's Hexapla placed side by side six versions of the Old Testament, including the 2nd century Greek translations of Aquila of Sinope and Symmachus the Ebionite.

Canonical Christian Bibles were formally established by Bishop Cyril of Jerusalem in 350 and confirmed by the Council of Laodicea in 363, and later established by Athanasius of Alexandria in 367. The Council of Laodicea restricted readings in church to only the canonical books of the Old and New Testaments. The books listed were the 22 books of the Hebrew Bible plus the Book of Baruch and the Epistle of Jeremy, together with the New Testament containing 26 books, omitting the Book of Revelation, see Development of the Old Testament canon for details. The Council of Carthage, called the third by Denzinger,[13] on 28 August 397 issued a canon of the Bible restricted to: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Josue, Judges, Ruth, 4 books of Kingdoms, 2 books of Paralipomenon, Job, Psalter of David, 5 books of Solomon, 12 books of Prophets, Isaias, Jeremias, Daniel, Ezechiel, Tobias, Judith, Esther, 2 books of Esdras, 2 books of Machabees, and in the New Testament: 4 books of Gospels, 1 book of Acts of the Apostles, 13 letters of the Apostle Paul, 1 of him to the Hebrews, 2 of Peter, 3 of John, 1 of James, 1 of Judas, and the Apocalypse of John.

[edit] Other traditions

Main article: Development of the Old Testament canon The canonical acceptance of these books varies among different Christian traditions, and there are canonical books not derived from the Septuagint. For a discussion see the article on Biblical apocrypha. The exact canon of the Old Testament differs among the various branches of Christianity. All include the books of the Hebrew Bible, while most traditions also recognise several Deuterocanonical books. The Protestant Old Testament is, for the most part, identical with the Hebrew Bible; the differences are minor, dealing only with the arrangement and number of the books. For example, while the Hebrew Bible considers Kings to be a unified text, and Ezra and Nehemiah as a single book, the Protestant Old Testament divides each of these into two books. Translations of the Old Testament were discouraged in medieval Christendom. An exception was the translation of the Pentateuch ordered by Alfred the Great around 900, and Wyclif's Bible of 1383. Numerous vernacular translations appeared with the Protestant Reformation. The differences between the Hebrew Bible and other versions of the Old Testament such as the Samaritan Pentateuch, the Syriac, Greek, Latin and other canons, are greater. Many of these canons include whole books and additional sections of books that the others do not. The translations of various words from the original Hebrew may also give rise to significant differences of interpretation.

[edit] Literary and philosophical reception

The Old Testament, and its position in world literature, has engendered a large amount of critical discussion, beginning primarily in the 19th century. In Beyond Good and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche famously wrote: "In the Jewish Old Testament, the book of divine justice, there are men, things and speeches of so grand a style that Greek and Indian literature have nothing to set beside it. One stands in

reverence and trembling before these remnants of what man once was and has sorrowful thoughts about old Asia and its little jutting-out promontory Europe, which would like to signify as against Asia the 'progress of man'. To be sure: he who is only a measly tame domestic animal and knows only the needs of a domestic animal (like our cultured people of today, the Christians of 'cultured' Christianity included) has no reason to wonder, let alone to sorrow, among these ruins - the taste for the Old Testament is a touchstone in regard to 'great' and 'small'." Friedrich Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil[14]

[edit] Christian views of the Old Covenant

Main article: Christian views on the old covenant There are differences of opinion among Christian denominations as to what and how Biblical law (generally understood as the "first five books" of the Old Testament or the Old Covenant) applies today. Most conclude that only parts are applicable, such as the Ten Commandments, some conclude that all are set aside by the New Covenant, while others conclude that all are still applicable to believers in Jesus and the New Covenant.

[edit] Historicity of the Old Testament narratives

See also: Biblical archaeology and The Bible and history Current debate concerning the historicity of the various Old Testament narratives can be divided into several camps:

One group has been labeled "biblical minimalists" by its critics. Minimalists (e.g., Philip Davies, Thomas L. Thompson, John Van Seters) see very little reliable history in any of the Old Testament. Conservative Old Testament scholars generally accept the historicity of most Old Testament narratives with some reservations, and some Egyptologists (e.g., Kenneth Kitchen) argue that such a belief is warranted by the external evidence. Other scholars (e.g., William Dever) are somewhere in between. They see clear signs of evidence for the monarchy and much of Israel's later history, though they doubt the Exodus and conquest of Canaan.

[edit] See also

Abrogation of Old Covenant laws Covenant (biblical) Expounding of the Law Law and Gospel List of ancient legal codes Lost books of the Old Testament Old Testament: Timeline Quotations from the Old Testament in the New Testament List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts Table of books of Judeo-Christian Scripture

Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts

[edit] References
1. ^ Like modern historians, biblical writers sometimes provided "historical" explanations or background information of the events they describe (e.g., 1 Sam. 28:3, 1 Kings 18:3b, 2 Kings 9:14b-15a, 13:5-6, 15:12, 17:7-23). 2. ^ Halpern, B. the First Historians: The Hebrew Bible. Harper & Row, 1988, quoted in Smith, Mark S.The early history of God: Yahweh and the other deities in ancient Israel. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.; 2nd ed., 2002. ISBN 9780802839725, p.14 3. ^ "Bible: Growth of Literature." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online . Retrieved March 5, 2010. 4. ^ Encyclopdia Britannica: "Written almost entirely in the Hebrew language between 1200 and 100 BCE"; Columbia Encyclopedia: "In the 10th century BCE the first of a series of editors collected materials from earlier traditional folkloric and historical records (i.e., both oral and written sources) to compose a narrative of the history of the Israelites who now found themselves united under David and Solomon." 5. ^ a b "The Septuagint" The Ecole Glossary. 27 December 2009 6. ^ H. B. Swete, An Introduction to the Old Testament in Greek, revised by R.R. Ottley, 1914; retrieved 27 December 2009. Reprint, Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1989. 7. ^ a b Ernst Wrthwein, The Text of the Old Testament, trans. Errol F. Rhodes, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 1995. 8. ^ a b Karen Jobes and Moises Silva, Invitation to the Septuagint. Paternoster Press, 2001. ISBN 1-84227-061-3. (The current standard for Introductory works on the Septuagint. 9. ^ Timothy McLay, The Use of the Septuagint in New Testament Research. ISBN 0-8028-6091-5. The current standard introduction on the NT & Septuagint. 10. ^ V.S. Herrell, The History of the Bible, "Qumran: Dead Sea Scrolls." 11. ^ a b Jennifer M. Dines, The Septuagint, Michael A. Knibb, Ed., London: T&T Clark, 2004 12. ^ a b c d This article incorporates text from the 1903 Encyclopaedia Biblica article "TEXT AND VERSIONS", a publication now in the public domain. 13. ^ "Denzinger 186". Catho.org. Retrieved 2010-11-19. 14. ^ Beyond Good and Evil, Trans. Hollingdale, Penguin Classics (2003), page 79-80

[edit] Further reading

Anderson, Bernhard. Understanding the Old Testament. (ISBN 0-13-948399-3 ) Bahnsen, Greg, et al., Five Views on Law and Gospel. (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993). Berkowitz, Ariel and D'vorah. Torah Rediscovered. 4th ed. Shoreshim Publishing, 2004. ISBN 0-9752914-0-8 Dever, William G. Who Were the Early Israelites? William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., Grand Rapids, MI, 2003. ISBN 0-8028-0975-8 Gerhard von Rad: Theologie des Alten Testaments. Band 12, Mnchen, 8. Auflage 1982/1984, ISBN

Hill, Andrew and John Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. 2nd ed. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2000. ISBN 0-310-22903-0 . Kuntz, John Kenneth. The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought, Harper and Row, 1974. ISBN 0-06-043822-3 Lancaster, D. Thomas. Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Disciples of Jesus. Littleton: First Fruits of Zion, 2005. Rouvire, Jean-Marc. Brves mditations sur la Cration du monde Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2006 Salibi, Kamal. The Bible Came from Arabia, London, Jonathan Cape, 1985 ISBN 0224-02830-8 Silberman, Neil A., et al. The Bible Unearthed. Simon and Schuster, New York, 2003. ISBN 0-684-86913-6 (paperback) and ISBN 0-684-86912-8 (hardback) Sprinkle, Joe M. Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2006. ISBN 0-7618-3371-4 (clothbound) and ISBN 0-7618-3372-2 (paperback) Papadaki-Oekland, Stella. Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts of the Book of Job. ISBN 2503532322 & ISBN 9782503532325

[edit] External links

Church Fathers on the Old Testament Canon Full text of the Old (and New) Testaments in 42 different languages. Full Text of the OT Full Text of the OT in a single file (Authorized King James Version, Oxford Standard Text, 1769) Old Testament Reading Room Extensive online OT resources (incl. commentaries), Tyndale Seminary Old Testament Video Lectures from Yale University Scholarly articles on the Old Testament from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library Barry L. Bandstra, "Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible" Old Testament stories and commentary. John J. Parsons, "Are Christians restored to the Sinai Covenant?" Old Testament Timeline Old Testament revised (from Jewish archeolgists Finkelstein / Silberman: some is right, some is a fake, and a lot is missing) [show]v d ePart of a series on

Christianity [show]v d eBooks of the Bible [show]v d eTimeline of the Ancient Near East
Categories: Bible | Christian law | Christian terms | Hebrew Bible | Hebrew Bible topics | Judeo-Christian topics | Old Testament | Rastafarian texts

Log in / create account

Article Discussion Read Edit View history

Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia

Interaction Toolbox Print/export Languages

Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact Wikipedia

Afrikaans Aragons Azrbaycanca Bn-lm-g Bosanski Brezhoneg Catal Cebuano esky Corsu Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti

Espaol Esperanto Euskara Froyskt Franais Frysk Furlan Gidhlig Galego Hak-k-fa Hornjoserbsce Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Interlingua Italiano Basa Jawa Kinyarwanda Kiswahili Kreyl ayisyen Kurd Latina Latvieu Lietuvi Lumbaart Magyar Malagasy Mori Bahasa Melayu Mng-dng-ng Na Vosa Vakaviti Nederlands Nedersaksisch Norsk (bokml) Norsk (nynorsk) Nouormand

Tok Pisin Polski Portugus Reo M`ohi Romn Runa Simi Gagana Samoa Sng Scots Shqip Sicilianu Simple English Slovenina Slovenina / Srpski Srpskohrvatski / Suomi Svenska Tagalog Trke Ting Vit Yorb Zazaki emaitka This page was last modified on 31 May 2011 at 12:33. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Contact us Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers

Torah
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sefer Torah at old Glockengasse Synagogue (reconstruction), Cologne The name Torah (Hebrew: " ,Instruction"; English pronunciation: /tr/), also known as the Pentateuch (Greek: from - penta- [five] and teuchos [tool, vessel, book]),[1] refers to the Five Books of Moses[2] the entirety of Judaism's founding legal and ethical religious texts.[3][4] A "Sefer Torah" (" , book of Torah") or Torah scroll is a copy of the Torah written on parchment in a formal, traditional manner by a specially trained scribe under strict requirements. The Torah (Hebrew Bible) is the first of three parts of the Tanakh, the founding religious document of Judaism,[5] is divided into five books whose names in reference to their themes in Hebrew are, Bereshit, ( Ancient Greek Genesis), Shmot ( Koine Greek Exodus), Vayikra ( Greek Leviticus), Bamidbar ( English Numbers),[6] and Dvarim (Latin Deuteronomy), are derived from the wording of their initial verses. The Torah contains a variety of literary genres, including allegory, historical narrative, poetry, genealogy, and the exposition of various types of law. According to rabbinic tradition, the Torah contains the 613 mitzvot (" ,commandments"), which are divided into 365 restrictions and 248 positive commands.[7] In rabbinic literature, the word "Torah" denotes both the written text, "Torah Shebichtav" (" , Torah that is written"), as well as an oral tradition, "Torah Shebe'al Peh" (" , Torah that is oral"). The oral portion consists of the "traditional interpretations and amplifications handed down by word of mouth from generation to generation," now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash.[8] Outside of scholarly circles lay Jews colloquially refer to any Jewish religious text as Torah and the original Mosaic text as The 'Sefer Torah' or 'The Torah' usually refers to the whole 'Old Testament' in informal speech as apposed to the oral Torah or 'Torah SheBa'alPeh'. A person will say 'let us learn Torah' referring to the whole Old Testament though not technically correct to scholars. Maimonodes named one of his books Mishnah Torah showing a real life example that the Torah is used to refer to an authoritative text in common speech,

though technically it only refers to the sacred Five Books Of Moses in formal speech and writing. A person may say 'I am writing the torah of Sociology', to just mean I am obsessed with Sociology and authoritative. According to Jewish tradition the Torah was revealed to Moses, in 1312 BCE at Mount Sinai; [9] (another date given for this event is 1233 BCE).[10] The Zohar, the most significant text in Jewish mysticism, states that the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, and that it was used as the blueprint for Creation.[11] Modern biblical scholars believe its books were completed centuries later in the Persian period: According to Notre Dame Professor Blenkinsopp, "Here and there in the Pentateuch Moses is said to have written certain things ... but nowhere is it affirmed that the Pentateuch was authored by Moses ... One would therefore think that what calls for an explanation is not why most people stopped believing in the dogma of Mosaic authorship, but rather why anyone believed it in the first place."[12] Outside of its central significance in Judaism, the Torah is accepted by Christianity as part of the Bible, comprising the first five books of the Old Testament.[13] The various denominations of Judaism and Christianity hold a diverse spectrum of views regarding the exactitude of scripture. The Torah has also been accepted to varying degrees by the Samaritans, an ethnoreligious group of the Levant, and others as the authentic revealed message of YHWH to the early Israelites and as factual history, in both cases as conveyed by Moses. It is also accepted in the religion of Islam as a Holy Book, although it is believed by Muslims to have been modified or corrupted after the death of Moses. Muslims often place the bulk of this claimed corruption of the original text at or during the reconstruction of the Tanakh performed by Ezra the Priest and Scribe circa 400 BC, as the Tanakh itself claims that it had been lost to the Jews, and its law was not followed for many generations (cf. I and II Samuel, I and II Kings, Book of Ezekiel, etc.).

Contents
[hide]

1 Meaning and names 2 Composition 3 Structure o 3.1 Contents 4 Torah and Judaism o 4.1 Ritual use o 4.2 Biblical law 5 The Torah and Judaism's oral law 6 Divine significance of letters, Jewish mysticism 7 Production and use of a Torah scroll 8 Torah in other religions 9 See also 10 References 11 Additional Sources 12 External links

[edit] Meaning and names

Reading of the Torah The word "Torah" in Hebrew "is derived from the root which in the hifil conjugation means "to teach" (cf. Lev. 10:11). The meaning of the word is therefore "teaching," "doctrine," or "instruction"; the commonly accepted "law" gives a wrong impression."[14] Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance,[15] or system.[16] The term "Torah" is therefore also used in the general sense to include both Judaism's written law and oral law, serving to encompass the entire spectrum of authoritative Jewish religious teachings throughout history, including the Mishnah, the Talmud, the Midrash and more, and the inaccurate rendering of "Torah" as "Law"[17] may be an obstacle to "understanding the ideal that is summed up in the term talmud torah (" , study of Torah,"), characterized in Jewish tradition as excelling all things."[8] The Torah is not the only book in its class, however. Tanakh is, in Hebrew, an abbreviation alluding to its three parts; the Torah, Nevi'im ("Prophets," a narrative of what happened after the Torah which picks up exactly where it left off as well as the writings viewed as prophetically inspired by Israelite prophets after Moses), and Ketuvim (the "Writings"). Together, these books comprise the Hebrew Bible, known in Christendom as "The Old Testament", the first part of the Christian Bible. Within the Hebrew Bible, The earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been "The Torah of Moses." This title, however, is found neither in the Torah itself, nor in the works of the pre-Exilic literary prophets. It appears in Joshua (8:3132; 23:6) and Kings (I Kings 2:3; II Kings 14:6; 23:25), but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus. In contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works (Mal. 3:22; Dan. 9:11, 13; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neh. 8:1; II Chron. 23:18; 30:16) was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were "The Book of Moses" (Ezra 6:18; Neh. 13:1; II Chron. 35:12; 25:4; cf. II Kings 14:6) and "The Book of the Torah" (Neh. 8:3) which seems to be a contraction of a fuller name, "The Book of the Torah of God" (Neh. 8:8, 18; 10:2930; cf. 9:3).[18] Christians often refer to the Torah as the Pentateuch, meaning five books, or as the Law, or Law of Moses. Muslims refers to the Torah as "Tawrat" (" ,Law"), an Arabic word for the revelations given to the Islamic prophet "Musa" ( ,Moses in Arabic).

[edit] Composition
Main articles: Mosaic authorship and Documentary hypothesis

A Sefer Torah opened for liturgical use in a synagogue service The first division of the Hebrew bible is the Torah ("instruction" or "law"), frequently called the Pentateuch ("five scrolls"), its Greek name, by modern scholars. It is the group of five books made up of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy and stands first in all versions of the Christian Old Testament. According to Jewish tradition the Torah was dictated to Moses by God, with the exception of the last eight verses of Deuteronomy which describe his death.[19] Today, the majority of scholars agree that the Pentateuch does not have a single author, and that its composition took place over centuries.[20] From the late 19th century there was a general consensus around the documentary hypothesis, which suggests that the five books were created c.450 BCE by combining four originally independent sources, known as the Jahwist, or J (about 900 BCE), the Elohist, or E (about 800 BCE), the Deuteronomist, or D, (about 600 BCE), and the Priestly source, or P (about 500 BC).[21] This general agreement began to break down in the late 1970s, and today there are many theories but no consensus, or even majority viewpoint.[22] Variations of the documentary hypothesis remain popular especially in America and Israel, and the identification of distinctive Deuteronomistic and Priestly theologies and vocabularies remains widespread, but they are used to form new approaches suggesting that the books were combined gradually over time by the slow accumulation of "fragments" of text, or that a basic text was "supplemented" by later authors/editors.[23] At the same time there has been a tendency to bring the origins of the Pentateuch further forward in time, and the most recent proposals place it in 5th century Judah under the Persian empire.[24][25] Deuteronomy is often treated separately from Genesis, Exodus, Numbers, Leviticus. The process of its formation probably took several hundred years, from the 8th century to the 6th, [26] and its authors have been variously identified as prophetic circles (because the concerns of Deuteronomy mirror those of the prophets, especially Hosea), Levitical priestly circles (because it stresses the role of the Levites), and wisdom and scribal circles (because it esteems wisdom, and because the treaty-form in which it is written would be best known to scribes).[27] According to the theory of the Deuteronomistic history proposed by Martin Noth and widely accepted, Deuteronomy was a product of the court of Josiah (late 7th century) before being used as the introduction to a comprehensive history of Israel written in the early part of the 6th century; later still it was detached from the history and used to round off the Pentateuch.
[28]

[edit] Structure
Books of the Torah 1. Genesis

2. Exodus 3. Leviticus 4. Numbers 5. Deuteronomy The Hebrew names of the five books of the Torah are known by their incipit, taken from initial words of the first verse of each book. For example, the Hebrew name of the first book, Bereshit, is the first word of Genesis 1:1: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Bereshit ( ,literally "In the beginning") Shemot ( ,literally "Names") Vayikra ( ,literally "He called") Bamidbar ( ,literally "In the desert") Devarim ( ,literally "Things" or "Words")

The Anglicized names are derived from the Greek and reflect the essential theme of each book: 1. Genesis: "creation" 2. Exodus: "departure" 3. Leviticus: refers to the Levites and the regulations that apply to their presence and service in the Temple, which form the bulk of the third book. 4. Numbers (Arithmoi): contains a record of the numbering of the Israelites in the wilderness of Sinai and later on the plain of Moab. 5. Deuteronomy: "second law," refers to the fifth book's recapitulation of the commandments reviewed by Moses before his death. According to the Oral tradition, the prose in the Torah is not always in chronological order. Sometimes it is ordered by concept according to the rule: "There is not 'earlier' and 'later' in the Torah" ( , Ein mukdam u'meuchar baTorah).[29] This position is accepted by Orthodox Judaism. Non-Orthodox Jews generally understand the same texts as signs that the current text of the Torah was redacted from earlier sources (see documentary hypothesis.) Scribal requirement has a section of parshah Behaalotecha in Bamidbar written with 85 letters which are demarkated from the text which precedes and follows it by inverted letters Nun which, due to halakhic requirements explained in Masekhet Shabbat 115b-116a of the Babylonian Talmud, creates a separate book in itself, thereby dividing the Torah into seven, and not five books as was, and is known in the use of the Christian translations.[30]

[edit] Contents
Bereshit (Genesis) begins with the so-called "primeval history" (Genesis 111), the story of the world's beginnings and the descent of Abraham. This is followed by the story of the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and Joseph (Genesis 1250). God gives to the Patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt. Shemot (Exodus) begins the story of God's revelation to his people Israel through Moses, who leads them out of Egypt (Exodus 118) to Mount Sinai. There the people accept a covenant with God, agreeing to be his people in return for agreeing to abide by his Law.

Moses receives the Torah from God, and mediates His laws and Covenant (Exodus 1924) to the people of Israel. Exodus also deals with the first violation of the covenant when Aaron took part in the construction of the Golden Calf (Exodus 3234). Exodus concludes with the instructions on building the Tabernacle (Exodus 2531; 3540). Vayikra (Leviticus) begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, which they had just built (Leviticus 110). This is followed by rules of clean and unclean (Leviticus 1115), which includes the laws of slaughter and animals permissible to eat (see also: Kashrut), the Day of Atonement (Leviticus 16), and various moral and ritual laws sometimes called the Holiness Code (Leviticus 1726). Bamidbar (Numbers) tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai (Numbers 19), set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan and spied out the land (Numbers 1013). Because of unbelief at various points, but especially at Kadesh Barnea (Numbers 14), the Israelites were condemned to wander for forty years in the desert in the vicinity of Kadesh instead of immediately entering the land of promise. Even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land (Numbers 20). At the end of Numbers (Numbers 2635) Israel moves from Kadesh to the plains of Moab opposite Jericho, ready to enter the Promised Land. Devarim (Deuteronomy) is a series of speeches by Moses on the plains of Moab opposite Jericho. Moses's proclaims the Law (Deuteronomy 12-26), gives instruction concerning covenant renewal at Shechem (Deuteronomy 27-28) and gives Israel new laws (the "Deuteronomic Code)".[31] At the end of the book (Deuteronomy 34) Moses is allowed to see the promised land from a mountain, but it is not known what happened to Moses on the mountain. He was never seen again. Knowing that he is nearing the end of his life, Moses appoints Joshua his successor, bequeathing to him the mantle of leadership. Soon afterwards Israel begins the conquest of Canaan.

[edit] Torah and Judaism

Part of a series on

Judaism
Portal | Category Jewish religious movements Orthodox (Haredi Hasidic Modern) Conservative Reform Karaite Reconstructionist Renewal Humanistic Jewish philosophy Principles of faith Kabbalah Messiah Ethics

Chosenness Names of God Musar Religious texts Tanakh (Torah Nevi'im Ketuvim) umash Siddur Piyutim Zohar Rabbinic literature (Talmud Midrash Tosefta) Religious Law Mishneh Torah Tur Shulchan Aruch Mishnah Berurah Kashrut Tzniut Tzedakah Niddah Noahide laws Holy cities Jerusalem Safed Hebron Tiberias Important figures Abraham Isaac Jacob Moses Aaron David Solomon Sarah Rebecca Rachel Leah Rabbinic sages Jewish life cycle Brit Pidyon haben Bar/Bat Mitzvah Marriage Bereavement Religious roles Rabbi Rebbe Posek Hazzan/Cantor Dayan Rosh yeshiva Mohel Kohen/Priest Religious buildings & institutions Synagogue Beth midrash Mikveh Sukkah Chevra kadisha Holy Temple / Tabernacle

Jewish education Yeshiva Kollel Cheder Religious articles Sefer Torah Tallit Tefillin Tzitzit Kippah Mezuzah Hanukiah/Menorah Shofar 4 Species Kittel Gartel Jewish prayers and services Shema Amidah Aleinu Kaddish Minyan Birkat Hamazon Shehecheyanu Hallel Havdalah Tachanun Kol Nidre Selichot Judaism & other religions Christianity Islam Judeo-Christian Abrahamic faiths Pluralism Others Related topics Antisemitism Criticism Holocaust Israel Zionism
vde

The Torah is the primary holy scripture of Judaism. Rabbinic writings offer various ideas on when the Torah was composed. The revelation to Moses at Mount Sinai is considered by most to be the revelatory event. According to dating of the text by Orthodox rabbis, this occurred in 1312 BCE;[9] another date given for this event is 1280 BCE.[10] Some rabbinic sources state that the entire Torah was given all at once at this event. In the maximalist belief, this dictation included not only the quotations that appear in the text, but every word of the text itself, including phrases such as "And God spoke to Moses...", and included God telling Moses about Moses' own death and subsequent events. Other classical rabbinic sources[which?] hold that the Torah was revealed to Moses over many years, and finished only at his death. Another rabbinic school of thought holds that although Moses wrote the vast majority of the Torah, the last four verses of the Torah must have been written after his death by Joshua. Abraham ibn Ezra and Joseph Bonfils observed[citation needed] that some phrases in the Torah present information that people should only have known after the time of Moses. Ibn Ezra hinted, and Bonfils explicitly stated, that Joshua (or perhaps some later prophet) wrote these sections of the Torah. Other rabbis would not accept this belief.

The Talmud (tractate Sabb. 115b) states that a peculiar section in the Book of Numbers (10:35 36, surrounded by inverted Hebrew letter nuns) in fact forms a separate book. On this verse a midrash on the book of Mishle (English Proverbs) states that "These two verses stem from an independent book which existed, but was suppressed!" Another (possibly earlier) midrash, Ta'ame Haserot Viyterot, states that this section actually comes from the book of prophecy of Eldad and Medad. The Talmud says that God dictated four books of the Torah, but that Moses wrote Deuteronomy in his own words (Talmud Bavli, Meg. 31b). All classical rabbinic views hold that the Torah was entirely or almost entirely Mosaic and of divine origin.[32]

[edit] Ritual use

Torahs in Ashkenazi Synagogue (Istanbul, Turkey) Main article: Torah reading Torah reading (Hebrew: , K'riat HaTorah ; "Reading [of] the Torah") is a Jewish religious ritual that involves the public reading of a set of passages from a Torah scroll. The term often refers to the entire ceremony of removing the Torah scroll (or scrolls) from the ark, chanting the appropriate excerpt with special cantillation, and returning the scroll(s) to the ark. It is distinct from academic Torah study. Regular public reading of the Torah was introduced by Ezra the Scribe after the return of the Jewish people from the Babylonian captivity (c. 537 BCE), as described in the Book of Nehemiah.[33] In the modern era, adherents of Orthodox Judaism practice Torah reading according to a set procedure they believe has remained unchanged in the two thousand years since the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem (70 CE). In the 19th and 20th centuries CE, new movements such as Reform Judaism and Conservative Judaism have made adaptations to the practice of Torah reading, but the basic pattern of Torah reading has usually remained the same: As a part of the morning or afternoon prayer services on certain days of the week or holidays, a section of the Pentateuch is read from a Torah scroll. On Shabbat (Saturday) mornings, a weekly section ("parasha") is read, selected so that the entire Pentateuch is read consecutively each year.[34][35] On Saturday afternoons, Mondays, and Thursdays, the beginning of the following Saturday's portion is read. On Jewish holidays and fast days, special sections connected to the day are read.

Jews observe an annual holiday, Simchat Torah, to celebrate the completion of the year's cycle of readings. Torah scrolls are often dressed with a sash, various ornaments and a Keter (crown), although such customs vary among synagogues. Congregants traditionally stand when the Torah is brought out of the ark to be read (although they sit during the reading itself.)

[edit] Biblical law

See also: Biblical law The Torah contains narratives, statements of law, and statements of ethics. Collectively these laws, usually called biblical law or commandments, are sometimes referred to as the Law of Moses (Torat Moshe ,)or Mosaic Law. Moses received the laws of God on Mount Sinai. These laws were the first part of the Torah.

[edit] The Torah and Judaism's oral law

See also: Oral Torah Rabbinic tradition holds that the written Torah was transmitted in parallel with the oral tradition. Where the Torah leaves words and concepts undefined, and mentions procedures without explanation or instructions, the reader is required to seek out the missing details from supplemental sources known as the oral law or oral Torah.[36] Some of the Torah's most prominent commandments needing further explanation are:

Tefillin: As indicated in Deuteronomy 6:8 among other places, tefillin are to be placed on the arm and on the head between the eyes. However, there are no details provided regarding what tefillin are or how they are to be constructed. Kosher laws: As indicated in Exodus 23:19 among other places, a kid may not be boiled in its mother's milk. [A kid being a young goat.] In addition to numerous other problems with understanding the ambiguous nature of this law, there are no vowelization characters in the Torah; they are provided by the oral tradition. This is particularly relevant to this law, as the Hebrew word for milk ( )is identical to the word for animal fat when vowels are absent. Without the oral tradition, it is not known whether the violation is in mixing meat with milk or with fat. Shabbat laws: With the severity of Sabbath violation, namely the death penalty, one would assume that direction would be provided as to how exactly such a serious and core commandment should be upheld. However, there is little to no information as to what can and cannot be performed on the Sabbath. Without the oral tradition, keeping this law would be impossible.

According to classical rabbinic texts this parallel set of material was originally transmitted to Moses at Sinai, and then from Moses to Israel. At that time it was forbidden to write and publish the oral law, as any writing would be incomplete and subject to misinterpretation and abuse. However, after exile, dispersion and persecution, this tradition was lifted when it became apparent that in writing was the only way to ensure that the Oral Law could be preserved.

After many years of effort by a great number of tannaim, the oral tradition was written down around 200 CE by Rabbi Judah haNasi who took up the compilation of a nominally written version of the Oral Law, the Mishnah. Other oral traditions from the same time period not entered into the Mishnah were recorded as "Baraitot" (external teaching), and the Tosefta. Other traditions were written down as Midrashim. After continued persecution more of the oral law was committed to writing. A great many more lessons, lectures and traditions only alluded to in the few hundred pages of Mishnah, became the thousands of pages now called the Gemara. Gemara is Aramaic, having been compiled in Babylon. The Mishnah and Gemara together are called the Talmud. The Rabbis in Israel also collected their traditions and compiled them into the Jerusalem Talmud. Since the greater number of Rabbis lived in Babylon, the Babylonian Talmud has precedence should the two be in conflict. Orthodox Jews and Conservative Jews accept these texts as the basis for all subsequent halakha and codes of Jewish law, which are held to be normative. Reform and Reconstructionist Jews deny that these texts may be used for determining normative law (laws accepted as binding) but accept them as the authentic and only Jewish version for understanding the Torah and its development throughout history.

[edit] Divine significance of letters, Jewish mysticism

Further information: Kabbalah Kabbalists hold that not only are the words giving a Divine message, but indicate a far greater message that extends beyond them. Thus they hold that even as small a mark as a kotzo shel yod ( ,) the serif of the Hebrew letter yod ( ,)the smallest letter, or decorative markings, or repeated words, were put there by God to teach scores of lessons. This is regardless of whether that yod appears in the phrase "I am the Lord thy God" (, Exodus 20:2) or whether it appears in "And God spoke unto Moses saying" (- , .; , Exodus 6:2). In a similar vein, Rabbi Akiva (ca.50ca.135CE), is said to have learned a new law from every et ( )in the Torah (Talmud, tractate Pesachim 22b); the word et is meaningless by itself, and serves only to mark the direct object. In other words, the Orthodox belief is that even apparently contextual text "And God spoke unto Moses saying..." is no less important than the actual statement. One kabbalistic interpretation is that the Torah constitutes one long name of God, and that it was broken up into words so that human minds can understand it. While this is effective since it accords with our human reason, it is not the only way that the text can be broken up.

[edit] Production and use of a Torah scroll

Page pointers for reading of the Torah Main article: Sefer Torah Manuscript Torah scrolls are still used, and still scribed, for ritual purposes (i.e., religious services); this is called a Sefer Torah ("Book [of] Torah"). They are written using a painstakingly careful methodology by highly qualified scribes. This has resulted in modern copies of the text that are unchanged from millennia-old copies. It is believed that every word, or marking, has divine meaning, and that not one part may be inadvertently changed lest it lead to error. The fidelity of the Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered paramount, down to the last letter: translations or transcriptions are frowned upon for formal service use, and transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error of a single letter, ornamentation, or symbol of the 304,805 stylized letters which make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use, hence a special skill is required and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check. According to Jewish law, a sefer Torah (plural: Sifrei Torah) is a copy of the formal Hebrew text of hand-written on gevil or qlaf (forms of parchment) by using a quill (or other permitted writing utensil) dipped in ink. Written entirely in Hebrew, a sefer Torah contains 304,805 letters, all of which must be duplicated precisely by a trained sofer (scribe), an effort which may take as long as approximately one and a half years. Most modern Sifrei Torah are written with forty-two lines of text per column (Yemenite Jews use fifty), and very strict rules about the position and appearance of the Hebrew letters are observed. See for example the Mishna Berura on the subject.[37] Any of several Hebrew scripts may be used, most of which are fairly ornate and exacting. The completion of the sefer Torah is a cause for great celebration, and it is a Mitzvah for every Jew to either write or have written for him a Sefer Torah. Torah scrolls are stored in the holiest part of the synagogue in the Ark known as the "Holy Ark" ( aron hakodesh in Hebrew.) Aron in Hebrew means "cupboard" or "closet", and kodesh is derived from "kadosh", or "holy".

[edit] Torah in other religions

See also: Biblical law in Christianity, Islam and Judaism, and Tawrat While Christianity includes the five books of Moses among their sacred texts, Islam only believes that the original Torah was sent by the One true God. In both religions they lack the religious legal significance that they have in Orthodox Judaism.

In early Christianity a Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible was used. Its name in Latin is the Septuagint: L. septem meaning seven, plus -gint meaning "times ten". It was named Septuagint from the traditional number of its translators. Being the Pentateuch, it forms the beginning of the Old Testament that incorporate the Torah into the Catholic and Christian Orthodox Biblical canon that also includes some books not found in the Tanakh. This Greek version of the Hebrew Scriptures dates from the 3rd century B.C. It contains both a translation of the Hebrew and additional and variant material. It was regarded as the standard form of the Old Testament in the early Christian Church and is still considered canonical in the Eastern Orthodox Church.[38] [39] Though different Christian denominations have slightly different versions of the Old Testament in their Bibles, the Torah as the "Five Books of Moses" (or "the Law") is common among them all. The Quran refers heavily to Moses to outline the truth of his existence and the religious guidelines that God (Most Exalted) had revealed to the Children of Israel. God (Most Exalted) says in the Qur'an, "It is He Who has sent down the Book (the Qur'an) to you with truth, confirming what came before it. And He sent down the Taurat (Torah) and the Injeel (Gospel)." [3:1] Muslims call the Torah the Tawrat and consider it the word of God given to Moses. However, Muslims also believe that this original revelation was corrupted (tahrif) over time by Jewish scribes[40] and hence do not revere the present Jewish version Torah as much. 7:144144 The Torah in the Qur'an is always mentioned with respect in Islam. The Muslims' belief in the Torah, as well as the prophethood of Moses, is one of the fundamental tenets of Islam.

[edit] See also

Ten Commandments Christianity and Judaism Forbidden relationships in Judaism Heptateuch Hexapla Islamic view of Moses Jewish Publication Society (JPS) Sixth and Seventh Books of Moses

JPS Tanakh Judeo-Christian tradition List of burial places of biblical figures Moses in rabbinic literature Samaritan Pentateuch Tawrat Torah reading Torah study

[edit] References
1. ^ "The ancient Greek translation of the Tanak translated the word Torah as name, or law," Wylen, Stephen M. Settings of Silver: An Introduction to Judaism. Paulist Press, 2001. p. 16 [1], however, the degree to which this is accurate or potentially misleading is a matter of debate. See Torah#Meaning and names and see also Philip Birnbaum, Encyclopedia of Jewish Concepts, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964, page 630, and Coggins, R. J. Introducing the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pg 3. 2. ^ Israel Drazin, Stanley M. Wagner, Onkelos on the Torah: Understanding the Bible Text, Gefen Publishing House Ltd, 2009, p.92 [2]; Scribal requirement has a section of parshah Behaalotecha written with 85 letters which are demarkated from the text which precedes and follows it by inverted letters Nun (letter) which, due to

halakhic requirements explained in Masekhet Shabbat 115b-116a of the Baylonian Talmud, creates a separate book, thereby dividing the Torah into seven and not five books as was, and is known in the use of the Christian translations. 3. ^ Torah at the Jewish Virtual Library 4. ^ Philip Birnbaum, Encyclopedia of Jewish Concepts, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964, page 630. 5. ^ Philip Birnbaum, Encyclopedia of Jewish Concepts, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964, page 648 6. ^ From Grek arithmoi. 7. ^ Eisenberg, Ronald L. The JPS Guide to Jewish Traditions (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2004), pg 515. 8. ^ a b Philip Birnbaum, Encyclopedia of Jewish Concepts, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964, page 630 9. ^ a b History Crash Course #36: Timeline: From Abraham to Destruction of the Temple, by Rabbi Ken Spiro, Aish.com. Retrieved 2010-08-19. 10. ^ a b Kurzweil, Arthur (2008). The Torah For Dummies. For Dummies. p. 11. ISBN 9780470283066. Retrieved 2010-08-19. 11. ^ Vol. 11 Trumah Section 61 12. ^ page 1, Blenkinsopp, Joseph (1992). The Pentateuch: An introduction to the first five books of the Bible. Anchor Bible Reference Library. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 038541207X. 13. ^ Coggins, R. J. Introducing the Old Testament (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), pg 1. 14. ^ Rabinowitz, Louis Isaac and Harvey, Warren. "Torah." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 20. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. p39-46. 15. ^ Philip Birnbaum, Encyclopedia of Jewish Conceptes, Hebrew Publishing Company, 1964, page 630 16. ^ p.2767, Alcalay 17. ^ pp.164165, Scherman, Exodus 12:49 18. ^ Sarna, Nahum M. et al. "Bible." Encyclopaedia Judaica. Ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik. Vol. 3. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007. pp 576-577. 19. ^ Jacobs, Louis, "The Jewish religion: a companion" (Oxford University Press, 1995) p.375 20. ^ McDermott, John J., "Reading the Pentateuch: a historical introduction" (Pauline Press, 2002)p.21. Books.google.com.au. 2002-10. ISBN 9780809140824. Retrieved 2010-10-03. 21. ^ Gordon Wenham, Pentateuchal Studies Today, in Themelios 22.1 (October 1996): 3-13. 22. ^ Van Seters, John, "The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary" T&T Clark, 2004) p.74. Books.google.com.au. 2004-08-23. ISBN 9780567080882. Retrieved 2010-10-03. 23. ^ Van Seters, John, "The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary" T&T Clark, 2004) pp.74-79. Books.google.com.au. 2004-08-23. ISBN 9780567080882. Retrieved 2010-10-03. 24. ^ Ska, Jean-Louis, "Introduction to reading the Pentateuch" (Eisenbrauns, 2006) pp.217 ff. 25. ^ For more information on the current debates surrounding the promulgation of the Pentateuch see The Pentateuch as Torah: New Models for Understanding Its

Promulgation and Acceptance (ed. Gary Knoppers and Bernard M. Levinson; Winona Lake: Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 2007) ISBN 978-1-57506-140-5. 26. ^ Miller, Patrick D., "Deuteronomy" (John Knox Press, 1990) pp.2-3 27. ^ Miller, Patrick D., "Deuteronomy" (John Knox Press, 1990) pp.5-8 28. ^ Van Seters, John, "The Pentateuch: a social-science commentary" T&T Clark, 2004) p.93. Books.google.com.au. 2004-08-23. ISBN 9780567080882. Retrieved 2010-10-03. 29. ^ Talmud Pesachim 7a 30. ^ Israel Drazin, Stanley M. Wagner, Onkelos on the Torah: Understanding the Bible Text, Gefen Publishing House Ltd, 2009, p.92 [3] 31. ^ Coogan, Michael D. A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament: The Hebrew Bible in Its Context. Oxford University Press, 2009. page 148- 149 32. ^ For more information on these issues from an Orthodox Jewish perspective, see Modern Scholarship in the Study of Torah: Contributions and Limitations, Ed. Shalom Carmy, and Handbook of Jewish Thought, Volume I, by Aryeh Kaplan. 33. ^ Book of Nehemia, Chapter 8 34. ^ The division of parashot found in the modern-day Torah scrolls of all Jewish communities (Ashkenazic, Sephardic, and Yemenite) is based upon the systematic list provided by Maimonides in Mishneh Torah, Laws of Tefillin, Mezuzah and Torah Scrolls, chapter 8. Maimonides based his division of the parashot for the Torah on the Aleppo Codex. Though initially doubted by Umberto Cassuto, this has become the established position in modern scholarship. (See the Aleppo Codex article for more information.) 35. ^ Conservative and Reform synagogues may read parashot on a triennial rather than annual schedule. See: [4], [5] 36. ^ Rietti, Rabbi Jonathan. The Oral Law: The Heart of The Torah 37. ^ Mishnat Soferim The forms of the letters translated by Jen Taylor Friedman (geniza.net) 38. ^ Def. of Septuagint 39. ^ p.317, DeSilva 40. ^ Is the Bible God's Word by Sheikh Ahmed Deedat

[edit] Additional Sources

Friedman, Richard Elliott, Who Wrote the Bible?, HarperSanFrancisco, 1997 Welhausen, Julius, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, Scholars Press, 1994 (reprint of 1885) Kantor, Mattis, The Jewish time line encyclopedia: A yearby-year history from Creation to the present, Jason Aronson Inc., London, 1992 Wheeler, Brannon M., Moses in the Quran and Islamic Exegesis, Routledge, 2002 DeSilva, David Arthur, An Introduction to the New Testament: Contexts, Methods & Ministry, InterVarsity Press, 2004 Alcalay, Reuben., The Complete Hebrew English dictionary, vol 2, Hemed Books, New York, 1996 ISBN 978-9654481793 Scherman, Nosson, (ed.), Tanakh, Vol.I, The Torah, (Stone edition), Mesorah Publications, Ltd., New York, 2001 Heschel, Abraham Joshua, Tucker, Gordon & Levin, Leonard, Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations, London, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005

Hubbard, David The Literary Sources of the Kebra Nagast Ph.D. dissertation St Andrew s University, Scotland, 1956

[edit] External links

Wikisource has original text related to this article: Tanakh Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Torah Look up Pentateuch in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Jewish Encyclopedia: Torah Three Complete Kosher Sefer Torah Scrolls for Study online (Congregation Beth Emeth of Northern Virginia) Sefer Torah Scroll for Study online with Megillot and commentaries Computer generated Sefer Torah for Study online with translation, transliteration and chanting (WorldORT) [show]v d eJews and

Judaism [show]v d eTimeline of the Ancient Near East

Promised Land
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For other uses, see Promised Land (disambiguation).

Map showing one interpretation of the borders of the Promised Land, based on God's promise to Abraham (Genesis 15). The Promised Land (Hebrew: , translit.: ha-Aretz ha-Muvtachat) is a term used to describe the land promised or given by God, according to the Hebrew Bible, to the Israelites, the descendants of Jacob. The promise is firstly made to Abraham (Genesis 15:1821) and then renewed to his son Isaac, and to Isaac's son Jacob (Genesis 28:13), Abraham's

grandson. The promised land was described in terms of the territory from the River of Egypt to the Euphrates river (Exodus 23:31) and was given to their descendants after the Exodus. (Deuteronomy 1:8) The term should not be confused with the expression "Land of Israel" which is first used in 1 Samuel 13:19, when the Israelite tribes were already in the Land of Canaan.

Contents
[hide]

1 Divine promise 2 Descendants of Abraham 3 References 4 See also

[edit] Divine promise

The promise that is the basis of the term is contained in several verses of Genesis in the Torah. In Genesis 12:1 it is said: The LORD had said to Abram, "Leave your country, your people and your father's household and go to the land I will show you." and in Genesis 12:7: The LORD appeared to Abram and said, "To your offspring [or seed] I will give this land." Commentators note that it is to Abram's descendants that the land will (in the future tense) be given, not to Abram directly nor there and then. However, in Genesis 15:7 it is said: He also said to him, "I am the LORD, who brought you out of Ur of the Chaldeans to give you this land to take possession of it." And in Genesis 15:18-21 the boundary of the promised land is clarified in terms of the territory of various ancient peoples, as follows: On that day the LORD made a covenant with Abram and said, "To your descendants I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates - the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaites, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites and Jebusites." The verse is said to describe what are known as "borders of the Land" (Gevulot Ha-aretz).[1] In Jewish tradition, these borders define the maximum extent of the land promised to the descendants of Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob.[2]

The promise was confirmed to Jacob at Genesis 28:13, though the borders are still vague and is in terms of "the land on which you are lying". Other geographical borders are given in Exodus 23:31 which describes borders as marked by the Red Sea, the "Sea of the Philistines" i.e. the Mediterranean, and the "River," (the Euphrates). The promise is fulfilled at the end of the Exodus from Egypt. Deuteronomy 1:8 says: See, I have given you this land. Go in and take possession of the land that the LORD swore he would give to your fathersto Abraham, Isaac and Jacoband to their descendants after them. It took a long time before the Israelites could subdue the Canaanite inhabitants of the land. The furthest extent of the Land of Israel was achieved during the time of the united Kingdom of Israel under David.[3][4] The actual land controlled by the Israelites has fluctuated considerably over time and at times the land has been under the control of various empires. However, under Jewish tradition, even when it is not in Jewish occupation, the land has not lost its status as the Promised Land.

[edit] Descendants of Abraham

Traditional Jewish interpretation, and that of most Christian commentators, define Abraham's descendants as Abraham's seed only through his son Isaac and his grandson Jacob, to the exclusion of Ishmael and Esau.[2][5][6][7] [8][9][10][11][12][13][14] Johann Friedrich Karl Keil is less clear, as he states that the covenant is through Isaac, but notes that Ishmael's descendants have held much of that land through time.[15] Mainstream Jewish tradition regards the promise made to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as having been given to all Jews, including converts and in turn their descendants.[citation needed] The traditional view is that a convert becomes a child of Abraham, in the term "ben Avraham".

[edit] References
1. ^ Kol Torah, vol. 13, no. 9, Torah Academy of Bergen County, Nov 8, 2003 2. ^ a b See 6th and 7th portion commentaries by Rashi 3. ^ Stuart, Douglas K., Exodus, B&H Publishing Group, 2006, p. 549 4. ^ Tyndale Bible Dictionary, Walter A. Elwell, Philip Wesley Comfort, Tyndale House Publishers, Inc., 2001, p. 984 5. ^ Edersheim Bible History - Bk. 1, Ch. 10 6. ^ Edersheim Bible History - Bk. 1, Ch. 13 7. ^ Albert Barnes Notes on the Bible - Genesis 15 8. ^ Genesis - Chapter 15 - Verse 13 - The New John Gill Exposition of the Entire Bible on StudyLight.org 9. ^ Parshah In-Depth - Lech-Lecha 10. ^ http://www.bible.org/qa.php?qa_id=496 11. ^ Reformed Answers: Ishmael and Esau 12. ^ The Promises to Isaac and Ishmael 13. ^ God Calls Abram Abraham 14. ^ Nigeriaworld Feature Article - The Abrahamic Covenant: Its scope and significance - A commentary on Dr. Malcolm Fabiyis essay

15. ^ Biblical commentary on the Old Testament, Volume 1, Carl Friedrich Keil, Franz Delitzsch, p. 224

[edit] See also

Conquest of Canaan Abrahamic Covenant Greater Israel Land of Israel Southern Levant Who is a Jew?

Categories: Hebrew Bible words and phrases | Judeo-Christian topics | Land of Israel | Zionism | Christian terms | Southern Levant

God
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the term "God" in the context of monotheism and henotheism. For the general polytheistic concept, see Deity. For other uses, see God (disambiguation).
Part of a series on

God
General conceptions Agnosticism Apatheism Atheism Deism Henotheism Monolatrism Monotheism Panentheism Pantheism Theism Transtheism

Specific conceptions Creator Demiurge Devil Father Great Architect Monad Mother Supreme Being Sustainer The All The Lord Trinity Ditheism Monism Personal Unitarianism In particular religions Abrahamic (Bah' Christianity Islam Judaism) Ayyavazhi Buddhism Hinduism Jainism

Sikhism Zoroastrianism

Attributes Eternalness Existence Gender Names ("God") Omnibenevolence Omnipotence Omnipresence Omniscience

Experiences and practices Belief Esotericism Faith Fideism Gnosis Hermeticism Metaphysics Mysticism Prayer Revelation

Related topics Euthyphro dilemma God complex Neurotheology Ontology Philosophy Problem of evil Religion Religious texts Portrayals of God in popular media

vde

God is the English name given to a singular being in theistic and deistic religions (and other belief systems) who is either the sole deity in monotheism, or a single deity in polytheism.[1] God is most often conceived of as the supernatural creator and overseer of the universe. Theologians have ascribed a variety of attributes to the many different conceptions of God. The most common among these include omniscience (infinite knowledge), omnipotence (unlimited power), omnipresence (present everywhere), omnibenevolence (perfect goodness), divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God has also been conceived as being incorporeal (immaterial), a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the "greatest conceivable existent".[1] These attributes were all supported to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim theologian philosophers, including Maimonides,[2] Augustine of Hippo,[2] and Al-Ghazali,[3] respectively. Many notable medieval philosophers and modern philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God.[3] Many notable philosophers and intellectuals have, in contrast, developed arguments against the existence of God.

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology and usage 2 Names of God 3 Conceptions of God 4 Existence of God 5 Theological approaches o 5.1 Theism and Deism 6 History of monotheism o 6.1 Monotheism and pantheism o 6.2 Dystheism and nontheism 7 Non-religious views regarding God o 7.1 Anthropomorphism 8 Distribution of belief in God 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links

Etymology and usage

Main article: God (word) The earliest written form of the Germanic word god comes from the 6th century Christian Codex Argenteus. The English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * uan. Most linguists agree that the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * hu-t-m was based on the root * hau()-, which meant either "to call" or "to invoke".[4] The Germanic words for god were originally neuterapplying to both gendersbut during the process of the Christianization of the Germanic peoples from their indigenous Germanic paganism, the word became a masculine syntactic form.[5] The capitalized form God was first used in Ulfilas's Gothic translation of the New Testament, to represent the Greek Theos. In the English language, the capitalization continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic "God" and "gods" in polytheism.[6][7] In spite of significant differences between religions such as Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, the Bah' Faith, and Judaism, the term "God" remains an English translation common to all. The name may signify any related or similar monotheistic deities, such as the early monotheism of Akhenaten and Zoroastrianism. When used in English within a community with a common monotheistic background, "God" always refers to the deity they share. Those with a background in different Abrahamic religions will usually agree on the deity they share, while still differing on details of belief and doctrinethey will disagree about attributes of [the] God, rather than thinking in terms of "my God" and "your (different) God".

Names of God
Main article: Names of God Conceptions of God can vary widely, but the word God in Englishand its counterparts in other languages, such as Latinate Deus, Greek , Slavic Bog, Sanskrit Ishvara or Deva, or Arabic Allahare normally used for any and all conceptions. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, the tetragrammaton (written YHWH), in origin the name of a Edomite or Midianite deity, Yahweh. In many translations of the Bible, when the word "LORD" is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton.[8] God may also be given a proper name in monotheistic currents of Hinduism which emphasize the personal nature of God, with early references to his name as Krishna-Vasudeva in Bhagavata or later Vishnu and Hari.[9] For aboriginal Guanches (Tenerife, Spain) God is called Achamn.[10] It is difficult to distinguish between proper names and epitheta of God, such as the names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, the names of God in the Qur'an, and the various lists of the thousand names of Hindu gods and List of titles and names of Krishna in Vaishnavism. Throughout the Hebrew and Christian Bible there are many names for God that portray his (God is always characterised as male in Biblical sources, except Genesis 1:26-27[11][12]) nature and character. One of them is elohim,[13][14] (which is actually a plural word). Another one is El Shaddai, meaning God Almighty.[15] A third notable name is El Elyon, which means The Most High God.[16]

Conceptions of God
Main article: Conceptions of God

Detail of Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well known example of the depiction of God the Father in Western art.

Conceptions of God vary widely. Theologians and philosophers have studied countless conceptions of God since the dawn of civilization. The Abrahamic conceptions of God include the monotheistic definition of God in Judaism, the trinitarian view of Christians, and the Islamic concept of God. The dharmic religions differ in their view of the divine: views of God in Hinduism vary by region, sect, and caste, ranging from monotheistic to polytheistic to atheistic. Divinity were recognized by the historical Buddha, particularly akra and Brahma. However, other sentient beings, including gods, can at best only play a supportive role in one's personal path to salvation. Conceptions of God in the latter developments of the Mahayana tradition give a more prominent place to notions of the divine. In modern times, some more abstract concepts have been developed, such as process theology and open theism. Conceptions of God held by individual believers vary so widely that there is no clear consensus on the nature of God.[17] The contemporaneous French philosopher Michel Henry has however proposed a phenomenological approach and definition of God as phenomenological essence of Life.[18]

Existence of God
Main article: Existence of God Many arguments which attempt to prove or disprove the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers, theologians, and other thinkers for many centuries. In philosophical terminology, such arguments concern schools of thought on the epistemology of the ontology of God. There are many philosophical issues concerning the existence of God. Some definitions of God are sometimes nonspecific, while other definitions can be self-contradictory. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types, while others revolve around perceived holes in evolutionary theory and order and complexity in the world. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive types. Conclusions reached include: "God does not exist" (strong atheism); "God almost certainly does not exist"[19] (de facto atheism); "no one knows whether God exists" (agnosticism); "God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven" (weak theism); and "God exists and this can be proven" (strong theism). There are numerous variations on these positions. Some theologians, such as the scientist and theologian A.E. McGrath, argue that the existence of God cannot be adjudicated on for or against by using scientific method.[20][21] Agnostic Stephen Jay Gould argues that science and religion are not in conflict and do not overlap. (Non-overlapping magisteria)

Theological approaches
See also: Theology Proper and Attributes of God Theologians and philosophers have ascribed a number of attributes to God, including omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, perfect goodness, divine simplicity, and eternal and necessary existence. God has been described as incorporeal, a personal being, the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable being existent.[1] These attributes were all

claimed to varying degrees by the early Jewish, Christian and Muslim scholars, including St Augustine,[2] Al-Ghazali,[3] and Maimonides.[2] Many medieval philosophers developed arguments for the existence of God,[3] while attempting to comprehend the precise implications of God's attributes. Reconciling some of those attributes generated important philosophical problems and debates. For example, God's omniscience may seem to imply that God knows how free agents will choose to act. If God does know this, their apparent free will might be illusory, or foreknowledge does not imply predestination; and if God does not know it, God may not be omniscient.[22] However, if by its essential nature, free will is not predetermined, then the effect of its will can never be perfectly predicted by anyone, regardless of intelligence and knowledge. Although knowledge of the options presented to that will, combined with perfect-infinite intelligence, could be said to provide God with omniscience if omniscience is defined as knowledge or understanding of all that is. The last centuries of philosophy have seen vigorous questions regarding the arguments for God's existence raised by such philosophers as Immanuel Kant, David Hume and Antony Flew, although Kant held that the argument from morality was valid. The theist response has been either to contend, like Alvin Plantinga, that faith is "properly basic"; or to take, like Richard Swinburne, the evidentialist position.[23] Some theists agree that none of the arguments for God's existence are compelling, but argue that faith is not a product of reason, but requires risk. There would be no risk, they say, if the arguments for God's existence were as solid as the laws of logic, a position summed up by Pascal as: "The heart has reasons which reason knows not of."[24] Most major religions hold God not as a metaphor, but a being that influences our day-to-day existences. Many believers allow for the existence of other, less powerful spiritual beings, and give them names such as angels, saints, djinni, demons, and devas.

Theism and Deism

Theism generally holds that God exists realistically, objectively, and independently of human thought; that God created and sustains everything; that God is omnipotent and eternal; personal and interacting with the universe through for example religious experience and the prayers of humans.[25] It holds that God is both transcendent and immanent; thus, God is simultaneously infinite and in some way present in the affairs of the world.[26] Not all theists subscribe to all the above propositions, but usually a fair number of them, c.f., family resemblance.[25] Catholic theology holds that God is infinitely simple and is not involuntarily subject to time. Most theists hold that God is omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent, although this belief raises questions about God's responsibility for evil and suffering in the world. Some theists ascribe to God a self-conscious or purposeful limiting of omnipotence, omniscience, or benevolence. Open Theism, by contrast, asserts that, due to the nature of time, God's omniscience does not mean the deity can predict the future. "Theism" is sometimes used to refer in general to any belief in a god or gods, i.e., monotheism or polytheism.[27][28] Deism holds that God is wholly transcendent: God exists, but does not intervene in the world beyond what was necessary to create it.[26] In this view, God is not anthropomorphic, and does not literally answer prayers or cause miracles to occur. Common in Deism is a belief that God

has no interest in humanity and may not even be aware of humanity. Pandeism and Panendeism, respectively, combine Deism with the Pantheistic or Panentheistic beliefs discussed below.

History of monotheism
Main article: Monotheism

The Name of God written in Arabic calligraphy by 17th century Ottoman artist Hfz Osman. In Islam, it is considered a sin to anthropomorphize God. Some writers such as Karen Armstrong believe that the concept of monotheism sees a gradual development out of notions of henotheism and monolatrism. In the Ancient Near East, each city had a local patron deity, such as Shamash at Larsa or Sin at Ur. The earliest known claims of global supremacy of a specific god date to the Late Bronze Age, with Akhenaten's Great Hymn to the Aten, and, depending on dating issues, Zoroaster's Gathas to Ahura Mazda. Currents of monism or monotheism emerge in Vedic India in the same period, with e.g. the Nasadiya Sukta. Philosophical monotheism and the associated concept of absolute good and evil emerges in Classical Antiquity, notably with Plato (c.f. Euthyphro dilemma), elaborated into the idea of The One in Neoplatonism. According to The Oxford Companion To World Mythology, "The lack of cohesion among early Hebrews made monotheism even monolatry, the exclusive worship of one god among many an impossibility...And even then it can be argued that the firm establishment of monotheism in Judaism required the rabbinical or Talmudic process of the first century B.C.E. to the sixth century C.E.".[29] In Islamic theology, a person who spontaneously "discovers" monotheism is called a anf, the original anf being Abraham. Austrian anthropologist Wilhelm Schmidt in the 1910s postulated an Urmonotheismus, "original" or "primitive monotheism", a thesis now widely rejected in comparative religion but still occasionally defended in creationist circles.

Monotheism and pantheism

Monotheists hold that there is only one god, and may claim that the one true god is worshiped in different religions under different names. The view that all theists actually worship the same god, whether they know it or not, is especially emphasized in Hinduism[30] and Sikhism. [31] Adherents of different religions, however, generally disagree as to how to best worship

God and what is God's plan for mankind, if there is one. There are different approaches to reconciling the contradictory claims of monotheistic religions. One view is taken by exclusivists, who believe they are the chosen people or have exclusive access to absolute truth, generally through revelation or encounter with the Divine, which adherents of other religions do not. Another view is religious pluralism. A pluralist typically believes that his religion is the right one, but does not deny the partial truth of other religions. An example of a pluralist view in Christianity is supersessionism, i.e., the belief that one's religion is the fulfillment of previous religions. A third approach is relativistic inclusivism, where everybody is seen as equally right; an example in Christianity is universalism: the doctrine that salvation is eventually available for everyone. A fourth approach is syncretism, mixing different elements from different religions. An example of syncretism is the New Age movement. Pantheism holds that God is the universe and the universe is God, whereas Panentheism holds that God contains, but is not identical to, the Universe; the distinctions between the two are subtle. It is also the view of the Liberal Catholic Church, Theosophy, some views of Hinduism except Vaishnavism which believes in panentheism, Sikhism, some divisions of Neopaganism and Taoism, along with many varying denominations and individuals within denominations. Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, paints a pantheistic/panentheistic view of God which has wide acceptance in Hasidic Judaism, particularly from their founder The Baal Shem Tov but only as an addition to the Jewish view of a personal god, not in the original pantheistic sense that denies or limits persona to God.

Dystheism and nontheism

Dystheism, which is related to theodicy is a form of theism which holds that God is either not wholly good or is fully malevolent as a consequence of the problem of evil. One such example comes from Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov, in which Ivan Karamazov rejects God on the grounds that he allows children to suffer.[32] Another example would be Theistic Satanism. Nontheism holds that the universe can be explained without any reference to the supernatural, or to a supernatural being. Some non-theists avoid the concept of God, whilst accepting that it is significant to many; other non-theists understand God as a symbol of human values and aspirations. Others such as Dawkins see the idea of God as entirely pernicious.

Non-religious views regarding God

See also: Evolutionary origin of religions and Evolutionary psychology of religion Stephen Jay Gould proposed an approach dividing the world of philosophy into what he called "non-overlapping magisteria" (NOMA). In this view, questions of the supernatural, such as those relating to the existence and nature of God, are non-empirical and are the proper domain of theology. The methods of science should then be used to answer any empirical question about the natural world, and theology should be used to answer questions about ultimate meaning and moral value. In this view, the perceived lack of any empirical footprint from the magisterium of the supernatural onto natural events makes science the sole player in the natural world.[33]

Another view, advanced by Richard Dawkins, is that the existence of God is an empirical question, on the grounds that "a universe with a god would be a completely different kind of universe from one without, and it would be a scientific difference."[19] Carl Sagan argued that the doctrine of a Creator of the Universe was difficult to prove or disprove and that the only conceivable scientific discovery that could challenge it would be an infinitely old universe.[34]

Anthropomorphism
Main article: Anthropomorphism Pascal Boyer argues that while there is a wide array of supernatural concepts found around the world, in general, supernatural beings tend to behave much like people. The construction of gods and spirits like persons is one of the best known traits of religion. He cites examples from Greek Mythology, which is, in his opinion, more like a modern soap opera than other religious systems.[35] Bertrand du Castel and Timothy Jurgensen demonstrate through formalization that Boyer's explanatory model matches physics' epistemology in positing not directly observable entities as intermediaries.[36] Anthropologist Stewart Guthrie contends that people project human features onto non-human aspects of the world because it makes those aspects more familiar. Sigmund Freud also suggested that god concepts are projections of one's father.[37] Likewise, mile Durkheim was one of the earliest to suggest that gods represent an extension of human social life to include supernatural beings. In line with this reasoning, psychologist Matt Rossano contends that when humans began living in larger groups, they may have created gods as a means of enforcing morality. In small groups, morality can be enforced by social forces such as gossip or reputation. However it is much harder to enforce morality using social forces in much larger groups. He indicates that by including ever watchful gods and spirits, humans discovered an effective strategy for restraining selfishness and building more cooperative groups.[38]

Distribution of belief in God

Main article: List of religious populations

The percentage of population in European countries who responded in a 2005 census that they "believe there is a God". Countries with Roman Catholic (e.g.: Poland, Portugal) Eastern Orthodox (Greece, Romania, Cyprus) or Muslim (Turkey, Cyprus) majorities tend to poll highest. As of 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population identifies with one of the three primary Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, <1% Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6% with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve a god or gods.[39] (Other Abrahamic religions include Baha'i, Samaritanism, the Rastafari movement, Yazidism, and the Unification Church.)

See also

God the Father God in Christianity God the Father in Western art God in Islam God in Judaism God in Sikhism God in the Baha'i Faith God in Hinduism God (male deity)

Notes
1. ^ a b c Swinburne, R.G. "God" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995. 2. ^ a b c d Edwards, Paul. "God and the philosophers" in Honderich, Ted. (ed)The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Oxford University Press, 1995. 3. ^ a b c d Platinga, Alvin. "God, Arguments for the Existence of," Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Routledge, 2000. 4. ^ The ulterior etymology is disputed. Apart from the unlikely hypothesis of adoption from a foreign tongue, the OTeut. "ghuba" implies as its preTeut-type either "*ghodho-m" or "*ghodto-m". The former does not appear to admit of explanation; but the latter would represent the neut. pple. of a root "gheu-". There are two Aryan roots of the required form ("*g,heu-" with palatal aspirate) one with meaning 'to invoke' (Skr. "hu") the other 'to pour, to offer sacrifice' (Skr "hu", Gr. i;, OE "geotn" Yete v). OED Compact Edition, G, p. 267 5. ^ Barnhart, Robert K (1995). The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words, page 323. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-2700947 6. ^ Webster's New World Dictionary; "god n. ME < OE, akin to Ger gott, Goth guth, prob. < IE base * hau-, to call out to, invoke > Sans havat, (he) calls upon; 1. any of various beings conceived of as supernatural, immortal, and having special powers over the lives and affairs of people and the course of nature; deity, esp. a male deity: typically considered objects of worship; 2. an image that is worshiped; idol 3. a person or thing deified or excessively honored and admired; 4. [G-] in monotheistic

religions, the creator and ruler of the universe, regarded as eternal, infinite, allpowerful, and all-knowing; Supreme Being; the Almighty 7. ^ Dictionary.com; "God /gd/ noun: 1. the one Supreme Being, the creator and ruler of the universe. 2. the Supreme Being considered with reference to a particular attribute. 3. (lowercase) one of several deities, esp. a male deity, presiding over some portion of worldly affairs. 4. (often lowercase) a supreme being according to some particular conception: the god of mercy. 5. Christian Science. the Supreme Being, understood as Life, Truth, Love, Mind, Soul, Spirit, Principle. 6. (lowercase) an image of a deity; an idol. 7. (lowercase) any deified person or object. 8. (often lowercase) Gods, Theater. 8a. the upper balcony in a theater. 8b. the spectators in this part of the balcony. 8. ^ Barton, G.A. (2006). A Sketch of Semitic Origins: Social and Religious. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 142861575X. 9. ^ Hastings 2003, p. 540 10. ^ Guanche Religion 11. ^ Elaine H. Pagels "What Became of God the Mother? Conflicting Images of God in Early Christianity" Signs, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1976), pp. 293-303 12. ^ Coogan, Michael (October 2010). "6. Fire in Divine Loins: God's Wives in Myth and Metaphor". God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (1st ed.). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group. p. 175. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. Retrieved May 5, 2011. "humans are modeled on elohim, specifically in their sexual differences." 13. ^ Isa. 45:18; 54:5; Jer. 32:27; Gen. 1:1; Deut. 5:23; 8:15; Ps. 68:7 14. ^ Bible Gateway, http://www.biblegateway.com/. . . 15. ^ Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; Ex. 6:31; Ps. 91:1, 2 16. ^ Gen. 14:19; Ps. 9:2; Dan. 7:18, 22, 25 17. ^ "DOES GOD MATTER? A Social-Science Critique". by Paul Froese and Christopher Bader. Retrieved 2007-05-28. 18. ^ Michel Henry : I am the Truth. Toward a philosophy of Christianity (Stanford University Press, 2002) 19. ^ a b Dawkins, Richard. "Why There Almost Certainly Is No God". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2007-01-10. 20. ^ Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins' God: genes, memes, and the meaning of life. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405125390. 21. ^ Floyd H. Barackman (2001). Practical Christian Theology: Examining the Great Doctrines of the Faith. Kregel Academic. ISBN 9780825423802. 22. ^ Wierenga, Edward R. "Divine foreknowledge" in Audi, Robert. The Cambridge Companion to Philosophy. Cambridge University Press, 2001. 23. ^ Beaty, Michael (1991). "God Among the Philosophers". The Christian Century. Retrieved 2007-02-20. 24. ^ Pascal, Blaise. Penses, 1669. 25. ^ a b Smart, Jack; John Haldane (2003). Atheism and Theism. Blackwell Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 0631232591. 26. ^ a b Lemos, Ramon M. (2001). A Neomedieval Essay in Philosophical Theology. Lexington Books. p. 34. ISBN 0739102508. 27. ^ "Philosophy of Religion.info Glossary Theism, Atheism, and Agonisticism". Philosophy of Religion.info. Archived from the original on April 24, 2008. Retrieved 2008-07-16. 28. ^ "Theism definition of theism by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". TheFreeDictionary. Retrieved 2008-07-16.

29. ^ The Oxford Companion To World Mythology (David Leeming, Oxford University Press, 2005, page 153) 30. ^ See Swami Bhaskarananda, Essentials of Hinduism (Viveka Press 2002) ISBN 1-884852-04-1 31. ^ Sri Granth: Sri Guru Granth Sahib 32. ^ [1] pp259-261 33. ^ Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Great Britain: Bantam Press. ISBN 0-618-68000-4. 34. ^ Sagan, Carl (1996). The Demon Haunted World p.278. New York: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-345-40946-9. 35. ^ Boyer, Pascal (2001). Religion Explained,. New York: Basic Books. pp. 142243. ISBN 0-465-00696-5. 36. ^ du Castel, Bertrand; Jurgensen, Timothy M. (2008). Computer Theology,. Austin, Texas: Midori Press. pp. 221222. ISBN 0-9801821-1-5. 37. ^ Barrett, Justin (1996) (PDF). Conceptualizing a Nonnatural Entity: Anthropomorphism in God Concepts. 38. ^ Rossano, Matt (2007) (PDF). Supernaturalizing Social Life: Religion and the Evolution of Human Cooperation. Retrieved 2009-06-25. 39. ^ National Geographic Family Reference Atlas of the World p. 49

References

Beck, Guy L. (Ed.) (2005). Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity. SUNY Press. ISBN 0791464156. Pickover, Cliff, The Paradox of God and the Science of Omniscience, Palgrave/St Martin's Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4039-6457-2 Collins, Francis, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, Free Press, 2006. ISBN 0-7432-8639-1 Harris interactive, While Most Americans Believe in God, Only 36% Attend a Religious Service Once a Month or More Often Miles, Jack, God: A Biography, Knopf, 1995, ISBN 0-679-74368-5 Book description. Armstrong, Karen, A History of God: The 4,000-Year Quest of Judaism, Christianity and Islam, Ballantine Books, 1994. ISBN 0-434-02456-2 National Geographic Family Reference Atlas of the World, National Geographic Society, 2002. Pew research center, The 2004 Political Landscape Evenly Divided and Increasingly Polarized Part 8: Religion in American Life Sharp, Michael, The Book of Light: The Nature of God, the Structure of Consciousness, and the Universe Within You. Avatar Publications, 2005. ISBN 09738555-2-5. free as eBook Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, Vol. 1 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951). ISBN 0-226-80337-6 Hastings, James Rodney (2nd edition 19251940, reprint 1955, 2003) [190826]. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics. John A Selbie (Volume 4 of 24 ( Behistun (continued) to Bunyan.) ed.). Edinburgh: Kessinger Publishing, LLC. p. 476. ISBN 07661-3673-6. http://books.google.com/?id=Kaz58z--NtUC&pg=PA540&vq=Krishna. Retrieved 5 March 2008. "The encyclopedia will contain articles on all the religions of the world and on all the great systems of ethics. It will aim at containing articles on every religious belief or custom, and on every ethical movement, every philosophical idea, every moral practice."

External links
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: God Wikimedia Commons has media related to: God Wikinews has related news: Nebraska Senator sues God Listen to this article (info/dl)

This audio file was created from a revision of God dated 2008-01-06, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)

More spoken articles

Concept of God in Christianity Concept of God in Islam God Christian perspective God in Judaism Hindu Concept of God Jewish Literacy Mystical view of God Relation of God to the Universe Discussion about God in Germany 2009

Christ
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the Christian theological role. For other uses, see Christ (disambiguation).

The oldest known icon of Christ Pantocrator - Saint Catherine's Monastery. The two different facial expressions on either side emphasize Christ's dual nature as both divine and human.[1][2] Christ is the English term for the Greek (Khrists) meaning "the anointed one".[3] It is a translation of the Hebrew ( Ma), usually transliterated into English as Messiah or Mashiach. In popular modern usageeven within secular circlesthe term usually refers explicitly to Jesus of Nazareth. The word is used as a title, hence its common reciprocal use Christ Jesus, meaning "The Messiah Jesus". Followers of Jesus became known as Christians because they believe out of Christian doctrine that Jesus is the Christ, or Christos, or Christian Messiah, prophesied in the Old Testament - therefore they often call him Jesus Christ, meaning Jesus is the Christos. Since the Apostolic Age, Jesus was never accepted as the Jewish Messiah.[4] Many Christians, however, await the Second Coming of Christ when they believe he will fulfill the major rest of the Christian Messianic prophecy. The area of Christian theology focusing on the identity, life, teachings and works of Jesus, is known as Christology.

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology and origins 2 Background and New Testament references 3 Pre-existence, Incarnation and Nativity 4 Christ and salvation in Christianity 5 Symbols for "Christ" 6 See also

7 References 8 Further reading

Etymology and origins

Further information: Chrism and Christian (word) See also: Holy Name of Jesus The word Christ (or similar spellings) appears in English and most European languages, owing to the Greek usage of Christs (transcribed in Latin as Christus) in the New Testament as a description for Jesus. Christ has now become a name, one part of the name "Jesus Christ", but originally it was a title (the Messiah) and not a name.[5] In the Septuagint version of the Hebrew Bible (written over a century before the time of Jesus), the word Christ was used to translate into Greek the Hebrew mashiach (messiah), meaning "anointed."[6][7] Khrists in classical Greek usage could mean covered in oil, or anointed, and is thus a literal translation of messiah. The spelling Christ (Greek Genitive: , to Christo,; Nominative: , ho Christs) in English was standardized in the 18th century, when, in the spirit of the Enlightenment, the spelling of certain words was changed to fit their Greek or Latin origins. Prior to this, in Old and Middle English, the word was usually spelled Crist the i being pronounced either as /i/, preserved in the names of churches such as St Katherine Cree, or as a short //, preserved in the modern pronunciation of Christmas). The spelling "Christ" is attested from the 14th century.[8] In modern usage, even within secular terminology, Christ usually refers to Jesus, building on the centuries old tradition of such use. Since the Apostolic Age, the use of the definite article before the word Christ and its development into a proper name signifies its identification with Jesus as the promised Jewish messiah.[9]

Background and New Testament references

First page of Mark, by Sargis Pitsak (14th century): "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God".

"But who do you say that I am?" Peter answered: "The Christ of God".- Luke 9:20 [10]

At the time of Jesus, there was no single, coherent form or order within Judaism, and significant political, social and religious differences existed among the Jews.[11] However, for centuries the Jews had used the term "the Anointed" to refer to their expected deliverer.[12] A large number of Old Testament passages were regarded as messianic by the Jews, many more than are commonly considered messianic by Christians, and various groups of Jews assigned varying degrees of significance to them.[11] The Greek word Messias appears only twice in the Old Testament of the promised prince (Daniel 9:26; Psalm 2:2); yet, when a name was wanted for the promised one, who was to be at once King and Savior, this title was used.[13][14] The New Testament states that the Messiah, long awaited, had come and describes this savior as The Christ. In Matt 16:16 Apostle Peter, in what has become a famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the first century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God."[11] The opening words in the Gospel of Mark 1:1, namely "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God" also identify Jesus as both Christ and the Son of God. The divinity being again re-affirmed in Mark 1:11.[15] Thereafter Mark never applies Christ to Jesus as a name. Matthew 1:1 uses Christ as a name and Matthew 1:16 explains it again with: "Jesus, who is called Christ". In the Gospel of John, Jesus refers to himself as the Son of God far more frequently than in the Synoptic Gospels.[16] The use of the definite article before the word Christ and its gradual development into a proper name show the Christians identified the bearer with the promised Messiah of the Jews who fulfilled all the Messianic predictions in a fuller and a higher sense than had been given them by the Rabbis.[12] In the New Testament e.g. Matthew 1:1, 1:18; Mark 1:1; John 1:17; 17:3; 9:22; Mark 9:40; Luke 2:11; 22:2, the word Christ is preceded by Jesus.[12]

A series of articles on

Christology

Christ Pre-existence of

Christ Logos (The Word) Incarnation Nativity Person of Christ Hypostatic union Knowledge of Christ Perfection of Christ Imitation of Christ Threefold office
While the Gospels of Mark and Matthew begin by calling Jesus both Christ and Son of God, these are two distinct attributions. They develop in the New Testament along separate paths and have distinct theological implications. The development of both titles involves "the precursor", John the Baptist. At the time in Judaea the Jews had been awaiting the "messiah". And many people were wondering who it would be. When John the Baptist appeared and began preaching, he attracted disciples who assumed he would be announced as the Messiah, or "the one" they had been awaiting. But the title Son of God was not attributed to John. In the Gospel narrative that describe the life of Jesus, the first instance for him being called the Son of God appears during his Baptism by John the Baptist. In the narrative, a voice from heaven calls Jesus the Son. In Messengers from John the Baptist episode, in Matthew 11:2-6 and Luke 7:18-23.[17] when John the Baptist is in prison two of his disciples go and ask Jesus a question on his behalf: "Are you the one to come after me or shall we wait for another?" [18] indicating that the identity of Jesus as Christ was not yet certain at that time. In John 11:27 Martha tells Jesus "you are the Christ, the Son of God, who is coming into the world", signifying that both titles were generally accepted (yet considered distinct) among the followers of Jesus before the Raising of Lazarus.[19] Explicit claims of Jesus being the Messiah are found in the Canonical Gospels in the confession of Peter in Matthew 16 and the words of Jesus before his judges in the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus.[13] These incidents involve, of course, far more than a mere claim to the Messiahship; taken in their setting, they constitute a claim to be the Son of God.[13] In the trial of Jesus before the Sanhedrin and Pilate, it might appear from the narratives of Matthew and Luke that Jesus at first refused a direct reply to the high priest's question: "Art thou the Christ?" Although his answer is given merely as su eipas (thou hast said it), the Gospel of Mark states the answer as ego eimi (I am) and there are instances from Jewish literature in which the expression, "thou hast said it", is equivalent to "you are right".[13] The Messianic claim was less significant than the claim to Divinity which caused the high priest the horrified accusation of blasphemy and the subsequent calls for the death sentence. Before Pilate on the other hand it was merely the assertion of his royal dignity which gave ground for his condemnation.[13]

In the Pauline Epistles the word Christ is so closely associated with Jesus that it is apparent that for the early Christians there is no need to claim that Jesus is Christ, for that is considered widely accepted among them. Hence Paul can use the term Christos with no confusion as to who it refers to, and as in 1Corinthians 4:15 and Romans 12:5 he can use expressions such as "in Christ" to refer to the followers of Jesus.[20] St. Paul proclaims him as the new Adam, who restores through obedience what Adam lost through disobedience.[21] There are also implicit claims to being the Christ in the words and actions of Jesus.[13] Episodes in the life of Jesus and statements about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the New Testament. Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ was and forever is fully God (divine) and, in time and history, became fully human, uniting his human nature and his divine nature in one divine person.[22]

Pre-existence, Incarnation and Nativity

See also: Pre-existence of Christ, Logos (Christianity), and Nativity of Jesus

The Anointing of Jesus, c. 1450. There are distinct, and differing, views among Christians regarding the existence of Christ before his conception. A key passage in the New Testament is John 1:1-18 where John 1:17 specifically mentions that "grace and truth came through Jesus Christ." Those who believe in the Trinity, consider Christ a pre-existent divine hypostasis called the Logos or the Word. Other, non-Trinitarian views, question the aspect of personal pre-existence or question the aspect of divinity, or both. The concept of Christ as Logos derives from John 1:1: "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God." In the original Greek, Logos () is used for "Word," and is often used untranslated. In the Christology of the Logos, Christ is viewed as the Incarnation of the "Divine Logos", i.e. The Word.[23] Saint Paul viewed the Nativity of Jesus as an event of cosmic significance which by the Incarnation of Christ brought forth a new world of harmony to undo the damage caused by the fall of the first man, Adam. St. Paul's eschatological view of the birth of Jesus as the Christ counter-positions him as ushering in the new world of order that leads to salvation, unlike Adam, whose disobedience caused a rift with God.[24][25] In the 2nd century, with his theory of "recapitulation", Saint Irenaeus connected "Christ the Creator" with "Christ the Savior", relying on Ephesians 1:10 ("when the times reach their fulfillment to bring unity to all things in heaven and on earth under Christ") to gather together and wrap up the cycle of the Nativity and Resurrection of Christ.[26]

Christ and salvation in Christianity

Mosaic of Christ Pantocrator with the Christogram IC XC.[27]

"She will bear a son, and you shall call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins." In Matthew 1:21 the name Jesus was selected by Divine direction.[28]

In Colossians 1:15-16 Apostle Paul viewed the Nativity of Jesus as an event of cosmic significance which changed the nature of the world by paving the way for salvation.[29][30][31][32] In the 2nd century, Church Father Saint Irenaeus expressed his views of salvation as in terms of the imitation of Christ and his theory of "recapitulation". For Irenaeus the imitation of Christ is based on God's plan of salvation, which involved Christ as the second Adam. He viewed the Incarnation as the way in which Christ repaired the damage done by Adam's disobedience. For Irenaeus, salvation was achieved by Christ restoring humanity to the image of God, and he saw the Christian imitation of Christ as a key component on the path to salvation.[33] For Irenaeus Christ succeeded on every point on which Adam failed.[34] Irenaeus drew a number of parallels, e.g. just as in the fall of Adam resulted from the fruit of a tree, Irenaeus saw redemption and salvation as the fruit of another tree: the cross of crucifixion.[33] Following in the Pauline tradition, in the 5th century Saint Augustine viewed Christ as the mediator between God and man and as the conqueror over sin. He viewed Christ as the cause and reason for the reconciliation of man with God after the fall of Adam, and he saw in Christ the path to Christian salvation.[35] Augustine believed that salvation is available to those who are worthy of it, through faith in Christ.[36] In the 13th century Saint Thomas Aquinas aimed to recapture the teachings of the Church Fathers on the role of the Holy Trinity in the economy of salvation.[37] In Aquinas' view angels and humans were created for salvation from the very beginning.[38] For Acquinas the passion of Christ poured out the grace of salvation and all its virtues unto humanity.[39] Martin Luther distinguished between the history of the salvation between the Old and the New Testament, and saw a new dimension to salvation with the arrival of Christ.[40]

The focus on human history was an important element of the biblically grounded 16th century theology of John Calvin. Calvin considered the coming of Christ as the key turning point in human history. He viewed Christ as "the one through whom salvation began" and he saw the completion of Christ's plan of salvation as his death and Resurrection.[41]

Symbols for "Christ"

See also: Christogram and Chrismon

The Chi-Rho. The use of "," derived from Chi, the Greek alphabet initial, as an abbreviation for Christ (most commonly in the abbreviation "mas") is often misinterpreted as a modern secularization of the term. Thus understood, the centuries-old English word mas, is actually a shortened form of CHmas, which is, itself, a shortened form for Christmas. Christians are sometimes referred to as "Xians," with the 'X' replacing 'Christ.[42] A very early Christogram is the Chi Rho symbol formed by superimposing the first two Greek letters in Christ ( Greek : "" ), chi = ch and rho = r, to produce .[43]

See also

Anointing of Jesus Antichrist Christology Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament Perfection of Christ Son of Man

References
1. ^ God's human face: the Christ-icon by Christoph Schoenborn 1994 ISBN 0898705142 page 154 2. ^ Sinai and the Monastery of St. Catherine by John Galey 1986 ISBN 9774241185 page 92 3. ^ "Etymology Online: ''Christ''". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2010-11-19. 4. ^ The nine questions people ask about Judaism by Dennis Prager, Joseph Telushkin 1981 ISBN 0671425935 page 87 5. ^ Jesus God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0664244688 pages 30-31 6. ^ Jesus of history, Christ of faith by Thomas Zanzig 2000 ISBN 0884895300 page 314 7. ^ "Etymology Online: ''messiah''". Etymonline.com. Retrieved 2010-11-19.

8. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. "Christ" 9. ^ "Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1913. 10. ^ Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0664257526 page xvi 11. ^ a b c Christianity by Donald W. Ekstrand 2008 ISBN 1604779292 pages 147150 12. ^ a b c Catholic encyclopedia on Christ 13. ^ a b c d e f Catholic encyclopedia on Messiah 14. ^ Jesus the Christ by Walter Kasper 1976 ISBN 080912081X pages 104-105 15. ^ Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0802831672 page 288 16. ^ Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0802831672 pages 363-363 17. ^ The Gospel of Matthew by Rudolf Schnackenburg 2002 ISBN 0802844383 page 104 18. ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0865543739 page 459 19. ^ Christianity by Donald W. Ekstrand 2008 ISBN 1604779292 page 81 20. ^ Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0802831672 page 99 21. ^ Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0860120066 pp 730-739 22. ^ Grudem, Wayne A. Systematic Theology: An Introduction to Biblical Doctrine. Zondervan, 1994. ISBN 0310286700 23. ^ A theology primer by Robert C. Neville 1991 ISBN 0791408493 page 141 24. ^ Systematic Theology, Volume 2 by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN pages 297-303 25. ^ An exposition of the epistle of Saint Paul to the Philippians by Jean Daille 1995 ISBN 0802825117 pages 194-195 26. ^ Christ at the Center: The Early Christian Era by Lisa D. Maugans Driver 2009 ISBN 0664228976 page 134 27. ^ Symbols of the Christian faith by Alva William Steffler 2002 ISBN 0802846769 page 67 28. ^ Bible explorer's guide by John Phillips 2002 ISBN 0825434831 page 147 29. ^ The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0802837859 page 30. ^ An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies by Orlando O. Espn, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0814658563 page 238 31. ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0865543739 page 712 32. ^ Basic Theology: by Charles Caldwell Ryrie 1999 ISBN 0802427340 page 275 33. ^ a b Theological turning points by Donald K. McKim 1989 ISBN 080420702X page 80 34. ^ The Christian theology reader by Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN 140515358X page 35. ^ Theological turning points: major issues in Christian thought by Donald K. McKim 1989 ISBN 080420702X pages 85-86

36. ^ An introduction to the theology of religions by Veli-Matti Krkkinen 2003 ISBN 083082572X page 66 37. ^ The Trinitarian Theology of Saint Thomas Aquinas by Gilles Emery, Francesca Aran Murphy 2010 ISBN 0199582211 pages 13-15 38. ^ Thomas Aquinas' trinitarian theology: a study in theological method by Timothy Lee Smith ISBN pages 17-19 39. ^ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 5 by Erwin Fahlbusch 2008 ISBN 080282417X page 490 40. ^ Systematic Theology, Volume 3 Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 ISBN 0567080684 page 84 41. ^ Theological turning points by Donald K. McKim 1989 ISBN 080420702X page 161 42. ^ "X". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2nd ed. 1989. 43. ^ Symbols of the Christian faith by Alva William Steffler 2002 ISBN 0802846769 page 66

Son of God
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Not to be confused with Sons of God, God the Son, or divi filius.

God the Father and the Holy Spirit with a young Jesus, by Murillo, c. 1670. "Son of God" is a phrase which according to most Christian denominations, Trinitarian in belief, refers to the relationship between Jesus and God, specifically as "God the Son". To a minority of Christians, nontrinitarians, the term Son of God is accepted, while "God the Son" is not.

Throughout history, emperors have assumed titles that amount to being "a son of god", "a son of a god" or "son of Heaven".[1] Roman Emperor Augustus referred to his relation to the deified adoptive father, Julius Caesar as "son of a god" via the term divi filius which was later also used by Domitian and is distinct from the use of Son of God in the New Testament.[2] In the New Testament, the title "Son of God" is applied to Jesus on many occasions.[3] It is often used to refer to his divinity, from the beginning in the Annunciation up to the Crucifixion.[3] The declaration that Jesus is the Son of God is made by many individuals in the New Testament, and on two separate occasions by God the Father as a voice from Heaven, and is asserted by Jesus himself.[3][4][5][6]

Contents
[hide]

1 Historical context 2 Christianity o 2.1 New Testament narrative o 2.2 Jesus' own assertions o 2.3 New Testament references o 2.4 Theological development 3 Other religions and belief systems 4 Imperial titles 5 See also 6 References

[edit] Historical context

See also: sons of God and Roman gods For thousands of years, emperors and rules ranging from the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1000 B.C.) in China to Jimmu Tenno of Japan (perhaps c. 600 B.C.) to Alexander the Great (c. 360 BC) have assumed titles that reflect a filial relationship with deities.[1][7][8][9] Around the time of Jesus, the title divi filius (son of the divine one) was specially, but not exclusively, associated with Emperor Augustus (as adopted son of Julius Caesar). Later, it was also used to refer to Domitian (as son of Vespasian).[2][10] Augustus used the title "Divi filius", not "Dei filius", and respected the distinction.[11] In the Book of Exodus Israel as a people is called "God's son", using the singular form.[12] Both the terms sons of God and "son of God" appear in Jewish literature predating the New Testament. In Jewish literature, the leaders of the people, kings and princes were called "sons of God" based on the view of the king as the lieutenant of God.[3] However, the Messiah, the Anointed One, was uniquely called the Son of God, as in Psalm 2:7: The "Lord hath said to me: Thou art my son, this day have I begotten thee".[3] This psalm can obviously be seen as referring to a particular king of Judah, but has also been understood of the awaited Messiah.[13]

[edit] Christianity
See also: God the Son
[show] Part of a series on

Christianity

"But who do you say that I am?" Peter answered him, "You are Christ, the Son of the living God". Jesus replied: "Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah". Matthew 16:15-17.[14]

In the New Testament, the title "Son of God" is applied to Jesus on many occasions.[3] It is often used to refer to his divinity, from the beginning of the New Testament narrative when in Luke 1:32-35 the anglel Gabriel announces: "the power of the Most High shall overshadow thee: wherefore also the holy thing which is begotten shall be called the Son of God."[3] The declaration that Jesus is the Son of God is echoed by many sources in the New Testament. On two separate occasions the declarations are by God the Father, when during the Baptism of Jesus and then during the Transfiguration as a voice from Heaven. On several occasions the disciples call Jesus the Son of God and even the Jews scornfully remind Jesus during his crucifixion of his claim to be the Son of God."[3] Of all the Christological titles used in the New Testament, Son of God has had one of the most lasting impacts in Christian history and has become part of the profession of faith by many Christians.[15] In the mainstream Trinitarian context the title implies the full divinity of Jesus as part of the Holy Trinity of Father, Son and the Spirit.[15] However, the concept of God as the father of Jesus, and Jesus as the exclusive Son of God is distinct from the concept of God as the Creator and father of all people, as indicated in the Apostle's Creed.[16] The profession begins with expressing belief in the "Father almighty, creator of heaven and earth" and then immediately, but separately, in "Jesus Christ, his only Son, our Lord", thus expressing both senses of fatherhood within the Creed.[16]

[edit] New Testament narrative

First page of Mark: "The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God", by Sargis Pitsak 14th century. The Gospel of Mark begins by calling Jesus the Son of God and reaffirms the title twice when a voice from Heaven calls Jesus: "my Son" in Mark 1:11 and Mark 9:7.[17] In Matthew 14:33 after Jesus walks on water, the disciples tell Jesus: "You really are the Son of God!"[5] In Matthew 27:43, while Jesus hangs on the cross, the Jewish leaders mock him to ask God help, "for he said, I am the Son of God", referring to the claim of Jesus to be the Son of God.[6] Matthew 27:54 and Mark 15:39 include the exclamation by the Roman commander: "He was surely the Son of God!" after the earthquake following the Crucifixion of Jesus. In Luke 1:35, in the Annunciation, before the birth of Jesus, the angel tells Mary that her child "shall be called the Son of God". In Luke 4:41, (and Mark 3:11) when Jesus casts out demons, they fall down before him, and declare: "Thou art the Son of God." In John 1:34 John the Baptist bears witness that Jesus is the Son of God and in John 11:27 Martha calls him the Messiah and the Son of God. In several passages in the Gospel of John assertions of Jesus being the Son of God are usually also assertions of his unity with the Father, as in John 14:7-9: "If you know me, then you will also know my Father" and "Whoever has seen me has seen the Father".[17] In John 19:7 the Jews cry out to Pontius Pilate "Crucify him" based on the charge that Jesus "made himself the Son of God." The charge that Jesus had declared himself "Son of God" was essential to the argument of the Jews from a religious perspective, as the charge that he had called himself King of the Jews was important to Pilate from a political perspective, for it meant possible rebellion against Rome.[18] Towards the end of his Gospel (in 20:31) John declares that the purpose for writing it was "that you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God".[17] In Acts 9:20, after the Conversion of Paul the Apostle, and following his recovery, "straightway in the synagogues he proclaimed Jesus, that he is the Son of God."

[edit] Jesus' own assertions A series of articles on

Christology

Christ Pre-existence of Christ Logos (The Word) Incarnation Nativity Person of Christ Hypostatic union Knowledge of Christ Perfection of Christ Imitation of Christ Threefold office
When in Matthew 16:15-16 Apostle Peter states: "You are Christ, the Son of the living God" Jesus not only accepts the titles, but calls Peter "blessed" and declares the profession a divine revelation by stating: "flesh and blood did not revealed it to you, but my Father who is in Heaven."[4] By emphatically endorsing both titles as divine revelation, Jesus unequivocally declares himself to be both Christ and the Son of God in Matthew 16:15-16. The reference to his Father in Heaven is itself a separate assertion of sonship within the same statement.[4] In the Sanhedrin trial of Jesus in Mark 14:61 when the high priest asked Jesus: "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed one?" Jesus responded "I am". Jesus' claim here was emphatic enough to make the high priest tear his robe.[19] In the new Testament Jesus uses the term "my Father" as a direct and unequivocal assertion of his sonship, and a unique relationship with the Father beyond any attribution of titles by others:[6] In Matthew 11:27 Jesus claims a direct relationship to God the Father: "No one knows the Son except the Father and no one knows the Father except the Son", asserting the mutual knowledge he has with the Father.[6]

In John 5:23 he claims that the Son and the Father receive the same type of honor, stating: "so that all may honor the Son, just as they honor the Father".

[6][20]

In John 5:26 he claims to possess life as the Father does: "Just as the Father has life in himself, so also he gave to his Son the possession of life in himself".[6][21]

In a number of other episodes Jesus claims sonship by referring to the Father, e.g. in Luke 2:49 when he is found in the temple a young Jesus calls the temple "my Father's house", just as he does later in John 2:16 in the Cleansing of the Temple episode.[6] In Matthew 1:11 and Luke 3:22 Jesus allows himself to be called the Son of God by the voice from above, not objecting to the title.[6] References to "my Father" by Jesus in the New Testament are distinguished in that he never includes other individuals in them and only refers to his Father, however when addressing the disciples he uses your Father, excluding himself from the reference.[22]

[edit] New Testament references

Humans, including the New Testament writers, calling Jesus Son of God Matthew 14:33, Matthew 27:54 Mark 1:1 , Mark 15:39 , Romans 1:4, John 1:34 , John 1:49 , John 11:27, John 20:31 , Acts 9:20 , Galatians 2:20, Hebrews 4:14 , Hebrews 6:6 , Hebrews 7:3, Hebrews 10:29 , 1 John 3:8 , 1 John 4:15, 1 John 5:1 , 1 John 5:5, 1 John 5:10 , 1 John 5:13, 1 John 5:20 , Revelation 2:18, 2 Corinthians 1:19

his (i.e. God's) son, in various forms: John 3:16, Romans 1:9, Romans 5:10, Romans 8:3, Romans 8:32, 1 Corinthians 1:9, Galatians 4:4, Galatians 4:6, 1 John 4:9, 1 John 4:10, 1 John 5:11

Attributed to Jesus himself Matthew 26:63-64 , Mark 14:61-62, Luke 22:70, John 5:25, John 10:36, John 11:4

Unclear whether attributed to Jesus himself or only a comment of the evangelist

John 3:18

The devil or demons calling Jesus Son of God Matthew 4:3, Matthew 4:6 , Luke 4:3, Luke 4:9, Mark 3:11, Luke 4:41, Matthew 8:29

Jesus referred to as the Son: Matthew 11:27 , Matthew 24:36, Matthew 28:19, Mark 13:22 , Luke 10:22, John 1:18 , John 3:35 , John 5:19-26 , John 6:40 , John 14:13 , John 17:1, 1 John 2:22-24 , 1 John 4:14 , 2 John 1:9

The God and Father of Jesus

The New Testament also contains six[23] references to God as "the God and Father" of Jesus.[24] Romans 15:6 , Corinthians&verse=1:3&src=! 2 Corinthians 1:3, Corinthians&verse=11:31&src=! 2 Corinthians 11:31, Ephesians 1:3 , Peter&verse=1:3&src=! 1 Peter 1:3, Revelation 1:6

[edit] Theological development

Emperor Constantine and the Fathers of the First Council of Nicaea of 325 with the Niceno Constantinopolitan Creed of 381. Through the centuries, the theological development of the concept of Son of God has interacted with other Christological elements such as Pre-existence of Christ, Son of man, the hypostatic union, etc. For instance, in Johannine "Christology from above" which begins with the Pre-existence of Christ, Jesus did not become Son of God through the Virgin Birth, he always 'was' the Son of God.[25] By the 2nd century, differences had developed among various Christian groups and to defend the mainstream view in the early Church, St. Irenaeus introduced the confession: "One Christ only, Jesus the Son of God incarnate for our salvation".[26] By referring to incarnation, this professes Jesus as the pre-existing Logos, i.e. The Word. It also professes him as both Christ and the only-begotten Son of God.[26] To establish a common ground, the Nicene Creed of 325 began with the profession of the Father Almighty and then states the belief:[27] "And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father [the onlybegotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God], Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father." Saint Augustine wrote at length on the Son of God and its relationship with the Son of man, positioning the two issues in terms of the dual nature of Jesus as both divine and human in terms of the hypostatic union.[28] He wrote:

Christ Jesus, the Son of God, is God and Man: God before all worlds, man in our world.... But since he is the only Son of God, by nature and not by grace, he became also the Son of Man that he might be full of grace as well.[28] Just as in Romans 10:9-13 Paul emphasized the salvific value of "professing by mouth" that Jesus is Lord (Kyrion Iesoun) Augustine emphasized the value of "professing that Jesus is the Son of God" as a path to salvation.[29][30] For Saint Thomas Aquinas (who also taught the Perfection of Christ) the "'Son of God' is God as known to God".[31] Aquinas emphasized the crucial role of the Son of God in bringing forth all of creation and taught that although humans are created in the image of God they fall short and only the Son of God is truly like God, and hence divine.[31]

[edit] Other religions and belief systems

Islam considers Jesus a respected prophet, but not the "Son of God". In Islam Jesus has no earthly father and is born through the breathing of the "Spirit of God" on Mary. However, Jesus is not considered the Son of God.[32][33] Rather, the Quran compares the nature of his birth to the birth of Adam, who had neither mother nor father.[34] In the writings of the Bah' Faith, the term Son of God is a term that is applied to Jesus.[35] However the term is not seen as a literal physical relationship between Jesus and God;[36] instead the Bah' teachings state that the term is symbolic and is used to indicate the very strong spiritual relationship between Jesus and God,[35] and the source of his authority.[36] Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bah' Faith, also noted that the term Son of God does not indicate that the station of Jesus is superior to other prophets and messengers, that Bah's name Manifestations of God, and include Jesus, Buddha, Muhammad and Baha'u'llah among others.[37] Shoghi Effendi notes that since all Manifestations of God share the same intimate relationship with God and reflect the same light, the term Sonship can in a sense be attributable to all the Manifestations.[35]

[edit] Imperial titles

See also: Roman gods and divi filius Throughout history, emperors and rules in diverse cultures have assumed titles that reflect their filial relationship with deities.[1] The title "Son of Heaven" i.e. (from meaning sky/heaven/god and meaning child) was first used in the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1000 B.C.). It is mentioned in the Shijing book of songs, and reflected the Zhou belief that as Son of Heaven (and as its delegate) the Emperor of China was responsible for the well being of the whole world by the Mandate of Heaven.[7][8] This title may also be translated as "son of God" given that the word Ten or Tien in Chinese may either mean sky or god.[38] Jimmu Tenno, the first Emperor of Japan (perhaps c. 600 BC) was also called the Son of Heaven, (Ten for Heaven and O for son).[9] Given that in Greek mythology, Heracles and many other figures, were considered sons of gods such as Zeus, from around 360 BC onwards Alexander the Great may have implied he was a demigod by using the title "Son of Ammon Zeus".[39] The reference in Psalm 2 to the king as the son of God implies the authority of the king and the confirmation of his being adopted as the son of God at coronation time.[40]

A denarius minted circa 18 BC. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVSIVLIV(S) Around the time of Jesus, the title "son of a god" was specially, but not exclusively, associated with Emperor Augustus. Later, it was also used to refer to Domitian.[2] There are textual and contextual arguments for and against the translation of the Greek phrase used of Jesus by non-Jewish soldiers in Matthew 27:54 as "the son of God", "a son of God" or "a son of a god".[41] In 42 BC, Julius Caesar was formally deified as "the divine Julius" (divus Iulius). His adopted son, Octavian (better known by the title "Augustus" given to him 15 years later, in 27 BC) thus became known as "divi Iuli filius" (son of the divine Julius) or simply "divi filius" (son of the Divine One) because of being the adopted son of Julius Caesar.[10] As a daring and unprecedented move, Augustus used this title to advance his political position in the Second Triumvirate, finally overcoming all rivals for power within the Roman state.[10][42] The word applied to Julius Caesar as deified was "divus", not the distinct word "deus". Thus Augustus called himself "Divi filius", and not "Dei filius".[11] The line between been god and god-like was at times less than clear to the population at large, and Augustus seems to have been aware of the necessity of keeping the ambiguity.[11] However, the subtle semantic distinction was lost outside Rome, where Augustus began to be worshiped as a deity.[43] The inscription DF thus came to be used for Augustus, at times unclear which meaning was intended.[11][43] The assumption of the title "son of a God" by Augustus meshed with a larger campaign by him to exercise the power of his image. Official portraits of Augustus made even towards the end of his life continued to portray him as a handsome youth, implying that miraculously, he never aged. Given that few people had ever seen the emperor, these images sent a distinct message.[44] As a purely semantic mechanism, and to maintain ambiguity, the court of Augustus sustained the concept that any worship given to an emperor was paid to the "position of emperor" rather than the person of the emperor.[45] Later, Tiberius (emperor from 14-37 AD) came to be accepted as the son of divus Augustus and Hadrian as the son of divus Trajan.[10] By the end of the 1st century, the emperor Domitian was being called "dominus et deus" i.e. master and god.[46] Outside the Roman Empire, the 2nd century Kushan King Kanishka I used the title devaputra meaning "son of God".[47]

[edit] See also

Divine filiation God the Father Jesus, King of the Jews Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament

Son of Heaven Son of Man Sons of God

[edit] References
1. ^ a b c Introduction to the Science of Religion by Friedrich Muller 2004 ISBN 141797401X page 136 2. ^ a b c Matthew and empire by Warren Carter 2001 ISBN 156338342X page 69 3. ^ a b c d e f g h Catholic Encyclopedia: Son of God 4. ^ a b c One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel by John Yueh-Han Yieh 2004 ISBN 3110181517 pages 240-241 5. ^ a b Dwight Pentecost The words and works of Jesus Christ 2000 ISBN 0310309409 page 234 6. ^ a b c d e f g h The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0802837859 page 571-572 7. ^ a b China : a cultural and historical dictionary by Michael Dillon 1998 ISBN 0700704396 page 293 8. ^ a b East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History by Patricia Ebrey, Anne Walthall, James Palais 2008 ISBN 0547005342 page 16 9. ^ a b A History of Japan by Hisho Saito 2010 ISBN 0415585384 page 10. ^ a b c d Early Christian literature by Helen Rhee 2005 ISBN 0415354889 pages 159-161 11. ^ a b c d The world that shaped the New Testament by Calvin J. Roetzel 2002 ISBN 0664224156 page 73 12. ^ The second book of the Bible: Exodus by Benno Jacob 1992 ISBN 0881250287 page 105 13. ^ The latter interpretation was adopted by Christians from the start, as shown in the Acts of the Apostles and the Letter to the Hebrews, and is found also in Jewish tradition (see Jewish Messianic Interpretations of Psalm 2). 14. ^ Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology by Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0664257526 page xvi 15. ^ a b Christology and the New Testament Christopher Mark Tuckett 2001 ISBN 0664224318 page 16. ^ a b Symbols of Jesus: a Christology of symbolic engagement by Robert C. Neville 2002 ISBN 0521003539 page 26 17. ^ a b c Who do you say that I am?: essays on Christology by Jack Dean Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0664257526 pages 246251 18. ^ Studies in Early Christology by Martin Hengel 2004 ISBN 0567042804 page 46 19. ^ Who is Jesus?: an introduction to Christology by Thomas P. Rausch 2003 ISBN 9780814650783 pages 132-133 20. ^ The Wiersbe Bible Commentary by Warren W. Wiersbe 2007 ISBN 9780781445399 page 245 21. ^ The person of Christ by Gerrit Cornelis Berkouwer 1954 ISBN 0802848168 page 163 22. ^ Jesus God and Man by Wolfhart Pannenberg 1968 ISBN 0664244688 pages 53-54

23. ^ Romans 15:6, 2 Corinthians 1:3, 2 Corinthians 11:31, Ephesians 1:3, 1 Peter 1:3, Revelation 1:6 24. ^ Charles H. H. ScobieThe ways of our God: an approach to biblical theology 2003 p136 "God is "the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ" (Rom 15:6; Eph 1:3), but also the Father of all believers (cf. Bassler 1992: 1054-55). Clearly this derives from the usage and teaching of Jesus himself." 25. ^ Who do you say that I am?: essays on Christology by Jack Dean Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0664257526 pages 73-75 26. ^ a b Irenaeus of Lyons by Eric Francis Osborn 2001 ISBN 9780521800068 pages 11-114 27. ^ Readings in the History of Christian Theology by William Carl Placher 1988 ISBN 0664240577 pages 52-53 28. ^ a b The Augustine Catechism by Saint Augustine of Hippo 2008 ISBN 1565482980 page 68 29. ^ Augustine: Later Works by John Burnaby 1980 ISBN 0664241654 page 326 30. ^ Lord Jesus Christ by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0802831672 page 142 31. ^ a b The thought of Thomas Aquinas by Brian Davies 1993 ISBN 0198267533 page 204 32. ^ Jesus: A Brief History by W. Barnes Tatum 2009 ISBN 1405170190 page 217 33. ^ The new encyclopedia of Islam by Cyril Glass, Huston Smith 2003 ISBN 0759101906 page 86 34. ^ The Noble Quran V.3:59-60 35. ^ a b c Lepard, Brian D (2008). In The Glory of the Father: The Baha'i Faith and Christianity. Bah' Publishing Trust. pp. 7475. ISBN 1931847347. 36. ^ a b Taherzadeh, Adib (1977). The Revelation of Bah'u'llh, Volume 2: Adrianople 1863-68. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. pp. 182. ISBN 0853980713. 37. ^ Hornby, Helen, ed (1983). Lights of Guidance: A Bah' Reference File. New Delhi, India: Bah' Publishing Trust. pp. 491. ISBN 8185091463. 38. ^ The Problem of China by Bertrand Russell 2007 ISBN 1605200204 page 23 39. ^ Cartledge, Paul (2004). "Alexander the Great". History Today 54: 1. 40. ^ Eerdmans commentary on the Bible James D. G. Dunn, John William Rogerson 2003 ISBN 0802837115 page 365 41. ^ The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 080282501X page 1084 42. ^ Augustus by Pat Southern 1998 ISBN 0415166314 page 60 43. ^ a b A companion to Roman religion by Jrg Rpke 2007 ISBN1405129433 page 80 44. ^ Gardner's art through the ages: the western perspective by Fred S. Kleiner 2008 ISBN 0495573558 page 175 45. ^ Experiencing Rome: culture, identity and power in the Roman Empire by Janet Huskinson 1999 ISBN 9780415212847 page 81 46. ^ The Emperor Domitian by Brian W. Jones 1992 ISBN 0415042291 page 108 47. ^ Encyclopedia of ancient Asian civilizations by Charles Higham 2004 ISBN 9780816046409 page 352

Genesis creation narrative

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Genesis creation narrative is a description of the creation of the world, as written in the first two chapters of the Book of Genesis in the Hebrew Bible. As a creation myth it is markedly similar to several other ancient Mesopotamian creation myths, while differing in its monotheistic outlook.[1][2][3] As a sacred narrative it is part of the biblical canons of Judaism and Christianity.[4] Chapter one describes the creation of the world by Elohim (God), by means of divine incantation in six days and the designation of the seventh day as Sabbath, a holy (set apart) day of rest. Man and woman are created to be God's regents over his creation. Chapter two tells of YHWH (God) creating the first man, whom he forms from clay (or dust) and into whom he "breathes" the "breath of life". The first woman is formed from the side of the first man, and God plants a garden "east of Eden" into which he places them. Chapter two ends with a statement concerning why men and women are given into marriage. According to Old Testament scholar Gordon Wenham this creation account bears the marks of a carefully contrived literary creation, written with a distinct theological agenda: the elevation of Yahweh, the god of Israel, over all other gods, and notably over Marduk, the god of Babylon.[5]

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview 2 Summary o 2.1 First narrative: creation week o 2.2 Literary bridge o 2.3 Second narrative: Eden o 2.4 Biblical creation narratives outside of Genesis 1-2 3 Structure and composition o 3.1 Two stories or one? o 3.2 Structure o 3.3 Composition 4 Exegetical points o 4.1 "In the beginning..." o 4.2 The names of God o 4.3 "Without form and void" o 4.4 The "rach" of God o 4.5 The "deep" o 4.6 The "firmament" o 4.7 "Great sea monsters" o 4.8 The number seven o 4.9 Man in "the image of God" o 4.10 Typology 5 Interpretation o 5.1 Questions of genre o 5.2 Ancient Near East context

5.3 Theology 5.4 Creationism 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links o 9.1 Sources for the biblical text
o o o

9.2 Sources for earlier related Mesopotamian texts

[edit] Overview
The opening passages of the Book of Genesis consecutively contain two creation stories. In the first story God progressively creates the different features of the world over a series of six days, resting on the seventh day.[Gen. 1:12:3] Creation is performed by divine incantation: on the first day God says, "Let there be light!" and light appears. On the second day God creates an expanse (firmament) to separate the waters above (the sky) from those below (the ocean/abyssos). On the third day God commands the waters below to recede and make dry land appear, and fills the earth with vegetation. God then puts lights in the sky to separate day from night to mark the seasons. On the fifth day, God creates sea creatures and birds of every kind and commands them to procreate. On the sixth day, God creates land creatures of every kind. Man and woman are created last, after the entire world is prepared for them; they are created in the image of God, and are given dominion and care over all other created things. God rests on the seventh and final day of creation as Sabbath, which he marks as holy. In the second story the creation of man follows the creation of the heavens and earth, but occurs before the creation of plants and animals.[Gen. 2:42:25] God takes dirt (adamah, ochre) from the ground to form a man and breathes life into him. God prepares a garden in the East of Eden and puts the man there, then fills it with trees bearing fruit for him to eat. The man is invited to eat the fruit of any tree but one: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. God commands the man not to eat of that one tree "for when you eat of it you will surely die."[Gen. 2:17] Birds and animals are then created as man's companions and helpers, and God presents them to the man. The first man gives names to each one, but finds none of them to be "like him." So God puts the first man into a deep sleep and removes something from man's side, and uses it to make the first woman. "For this reason," the text reads, "a man will leave his father and mother for his wife, and they shall be joined as one flesh."

[edit] Summary

God creating the land animals (Vittskvle Church fresco, 1480s).

[edit] First narrative: creation week

Genesis 1:32:4 The creation week consists of eight divine commands executed over six days, followed by a seventh day of rest.

First day: God (Elohim) creates light ("Let there be light!")[Gen 1:3]the first divine command. The light is divided from the darkness, and "day" and "night" are named. Second day: God creates a firmament ("Let a firmament be...!")[Gen 1:67]the second commandto divide the waters above from the waters below. The firmament is named "skies". Third day: God commands the waters below to be gathered together in one place, and dry land to appear (the third command).[Gen 1:910] "earth" and "sea" are named. God commands the earth to bring forth grass, plants, and fruit-bearing trees (the fourth command). Fourth day: God creates lights in the firmament (the fifth command)[Gen 1:1415] to separate light from darkness and to mark days, seasons and years. Two great lights are made (most likely the Sun and Moon, but not named), and the stars. Fifth day: God commands the sea to "teem with living creatures", and birds to fly across the heavens (sixth command)[Gen 1:2021] He creates birds and sea creatures, and commands them to be fruitful and multiply. Sixth day: God commands the land to bring forth living creatures (seventh command); [Gen 1:2425] He makes wild beasts, livestock and reptiles. He then creates humanity in His "image" and "likeness" (eighth command).[Gen 1:2628] They are told to "be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it." The totality of creation is described by God as "very good." Seventh day: God, having completed the heavens and the earth, rests from His work, and blesses and sanctifies the seventh day.

[edit] Literary bridge

Genesis 2:4 "These are the generations of the heavens and the earth when they were created." This verse lies between the creation week account and the account of Eden which follows. Its significance is found in that it is the first of ten tledt ("generations") phrases used throughout the book of Genesis, which provide a literary structure to the book.[6] Since the phrase always precedes the "generation" to which it belongs, the "generations of the heavens and the earth" can logically be taken to refer to Genesis 2; a position taken by most commentators.[7] Nevertheless, Rashi argues that in this case it should apply to what precedes.
[8]

[edit] Second narrative: Eden

Genesis 2:425

Painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder (14721553), depicting Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden.

The Creation stained glass window at St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina Genesis 2:42:25 tells of God (YHWH) forming the first man (Adam) from dust, then planting a garden, then forming animals and birds for Adam to name, and finally, creating the first woman, Eve, to be his wife. The two stories are linked by a short bridge[9] and form part of a wider unit in Genesis labeled by scholars as the primeval story.[10] This second creation narrative in Genesis is thought to be much older, and reflects a different historical and literary context.[11] Its presentation uses imagery reflective of the ancient pastoral shepherding tradition of Israel,[11] and it addresses the creation of the first man and woman in the Garden of Eden:

Genesis 2:4 Genesis 2:4bthe second half of the bridge formed by the "generations" formula, and the beginning of the Eden narrativeplaces the events of the narrative "in the day when YHWH Elohim made the earth and the heavens...."[12]

Before any plant had appeared, before any rain had fallen, while a mist[13] watered the earth, Yahweh formed the man (Heb. ha-adam )out of dust from the ground (Heb. ha-adamah ,)and breathed the breath of life into his nostrils. And the man became a "living being" (Heb. nephesh). Yahweh planted a garden in Eden and he set the man in it. He caused pleasant trees to sprout from the ground, and trees necessary for food, also the tree of life and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Some modern translations alter the tense-sequence so that the garden is prepared before the man is set in it, but the Hebrew has the man created before the garden is planted. An unnamed river is described: it goes out from Eden to water the garden, after which it parts into four named streams. He takes the man who is to tend His garden and tells him he may eat of the fruit of all the trees except the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, "for in that day thou shalt surely die." Yahweh resolved to make a "helper"[14] suitable for (lit. "corresponding to")[15] the man.[16] He made domestic animals and birds, and the man gave them their names, but none of them was a fitting helper. Therefore, Yahweh caused the man to sleep, and he took a rib,[17] and from it formed a woman. The man then named her "Woman" (Heb. ishah), saying "for from a man (Heb. ish) has this been taken." A statement instituting marriage follows: "Therefore shall a man leave his father and his mother, and shall cleave unto his wife: and they shall be one flesh." The lack of punctuation in the Hebrew makes it uncertain whether or not these words about marriage are intended to be a continuation of the speech of the man. The man and his wife were naked, and felt no shame.

[edit] Biblical creation narratives outside of Genesis 1-2

Descriptions of creation abound throughout the Bible. The Harper's Bible dictionary writes that, "Divine struggle with waters, victory over chaos, and cosmogonic promulgation of law/wisdom are found throughout biblical poetry."[18] For some examples of this in the Old Testament, see, Job 38-41; Psalms 18, 19, 24; 24; 33; 68; 93; 95; 104; Proverbs 8:22-33; Isaiah 40-42. In the New Testament, see, John 1; Colossians 1; Hebrews 3; 8.

[edit] Structure and composition

Michelangelo's painting of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel shows the creation of the sun, moon and earth as described in the first chapter of Genesis.

[edit] Two stories or one?

Until the latter half of the 19th century Genesis 1 and 2 were seen as one continuous, uniform story with Genesis 1:12:6 outlining the world's origin, and 2:72:25[19] carefully painting a more detailed picture of the creation of humanity. Modern scholarship, citing (1) the use of two different names for God, (2) two different emphases (physical vs. moral issues), and (3) a different order of creation (plants before humans vs. plants after humans), believes that these are two distinct scriptures written many years apart by two different sources, chapter 1 by the Priestly source and chapter 2 by the Jahwist, with the bridge the work of a "redactor", or editor.[20][21]

[edit] Structure
See also: Framework interpretation Genesis 1 consists of eight acts of creation within a six day framework followed by a day of rest. In each of the first three days there is an act of division: Day one divides the darkness from light; day two, the waters from the skies; and day three, the sea from the land. In each of the next three days these divisions are populated: day four populates what was created on day one, and heavenly bodies are placed in the darkness and light; day five populates what was created on day two, and fish and birds are placed in the seas and skies; finally, day six populates what was created on day three, and animals and man are place on the land. This sixday structure is symmetrically bracketed: On day zero primeval chaos reigns, and on day seven there is cosmic order.[22] Genesis 2 is a simple linear narrative, with the exception of the parenthesis about the four rivers at 2:1014. This interrupts the forward movement of the narrative and is possibly a later insertion.[23] The two are joined by Genesis 2:4a, "These are the tledt ( in Hebrew) of the heavens and the earth when they were created." This echoes the first line of Genesis 1, "In the beginning Elohim created both the heavens and the earth," and is reversed in the next line of Genesis 2, "In the day when Yahweh Elohim made the earth and the heavens...". The significance of this, if any, is unclear, but it does reflect the preoccupation of each chapter, Genesis 1 looking down from heaven, Genesis 2 looking up from the earth.[24]

[edit] Composition

Michelangelo's The Creation of Adam (1512) is the most famous Fresco in the Sistine Chapel

Traditionally attributed to Moses, today most scholars accept that the Pentateuch is "a composite work, the product of many hands and periods.[25] Genesis 1 and 2 are seen as the products of two separate authors, or schools: Genesis 1 is by an author, or school of authors, called the P (for Priestly), while Genesis 2 is by a different author or group of authors called J (for Jahwist sometimes called non-P). There are several competing theories as to when and how these two chapters originated some scholars believe they each come from two originally complete but separate narratives spanning the entire biblical story from creation to the death of Moses, while others believe that P is not a complete narrative but rather a series of edits of the J material, which itself was not a single document so much as a collection of material. In either case, it is generally agreed that the J account (Genesis 2) is older than P (Genesis 1), that both were written during the 1st millennium BC, and that they reached the combined form in which we know them today about 450 BC.

[edit] Exegetical points

[edit] "In the beginning..."
Main article: Genesis 1:1 The first word of Genesis 1 in Hebrew, "in beginning" (Heb. bert ,)provides the traditional Hebrew title for the book. The inherent ambiguity of the Hebrew grammar in this verse gives rise to two alternative translations, the first implying that God's initial act of creation was before time was created[26] and ex nihilo (out of nothing),[7][27] the second that "the heavens and the earth" (i.e., everything) already existed in a "formless and empty" state, to which God brings form and order:[28] 1. "In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without form, and void.... God said, Let there be light!" (King James Version). 2. "At the beginning of the creation of heaven and earth, when the earth was (or the earth being) unformed and void.... God said, Let there be light!" (Rashi, and with variations Ibn Ezra and Bereshith Rabba).

[edit] The names of God

Two names of God are used, Elohim in the first account and Yahweh Elohim in the second account. In Jewish tradition, dating back to the earliest rabbinic literature, the different names indicate different attributes of God.[29][30] In modern times the two names, plus differences in the styles of the two chapters and a number of discrepancies between Genesis 1 and Genesis 2, were instrumental in the development of source criticism and the documentary hypothesis.

[edit] "Without form and void"

The phrase traditionally translated in English "without form and void" is th wbh (Hebrew: .) The Greek Septuagint (LXX) rendered this term as "unseen and unformed" (Greek: ), paralleling the Greek concept of Chaos. In the Hebrew Bible, the phrase is a dis legomenon, being used only in one other place, Jeremiah 4:23,[Jer. 4:23] where Jeremiah is telling Israel that sin and rebellion against God will lead to "darkness and chaos," or to "de-creation," "as if the earth had been uncreated.".[31][32]

[edit] The "rach" of God

The Hebrew rach ( )has the meanings "wind, spirit, breath," but the traditional Jewish interpretation here is "wind," as "spirit" would imply a living supernatural presence co-extent with yet separate from God at creation. This, however, is the sense in which rach was understood by the early Christian church in developing the doctrine of the Trinity, in which this passage plays a central role.[28]

[edit] The "deep"

The "deep" (Heb. tehm) is the formless body of primeval water surrounding the habitable world. These waters are later released during the great flood, when "all the fountains of the great deep burst forth" from under the earth and from the "windows" of the sky.[Gen. 7:11] [7] The word itself may show literary or linguistic parallels with the Babylonian Tiawath (chaos) or the Assyrian Tamtu (deep sea).[33]

[edit] The "firmament"

The "firmament" (Heb. rqa) of heaven, created on the second day of creation and populated by luminaries on the fourth day, denotes a solid ceiling[34] which separated the earth below from the heavens and their waters above. The term is etymologically derived from the verb rqa ( ,) used for the act of beating metal into thin plates.[7][35]

[edit] "Great sea monsters"

Heb. hatanninim hagedolim ( ) is the classification of creatures to which the chaos-monsters Leviathan and Rahab belong.[36] In Genesis 1:21, the proper noun Leviathan is missing and only the class noun great tannnim appears. The great tannnim are associated with mythological sea creatures such as Lotan (the Ugaritic counterpart of the biblical Leviathan) which were considered deities by other ancient near eastern cultures; the author of Genesis 1 asserts the sovereignty of Elohim over such entities.[37]

[edit] The number seven

Seven denoted divine completion.[38] It is embedded in the text of Genesis 1 (but not in Genesis 2) in a number of ways, besides the obvious seven-day framework: the word "God" occurs 35 times (7 5) and "earth" 21 times (7 3). The phrases "and it was so" and "God saw that it was good" occur 7 times each. The first sentence of Genesis 1:1 contains 7 Hebrew words composed of 28 Hebrew letters (7 4), and the second sentence contains 14 words (7 2), while the verses about the seventh day[Gen. 2:13] contain 35 words (7 5) in total.[39]

[edit] Man in "the image of God"

Main article: Image of God The meaning of the "image of God" has been debated since Hellenistic times. The medieval Jewish scholar Rashi believed it referred to "a sort of conceptual archetype, model, or blueprint that God had previously made for man," while his colleague Maimonides believed that it referred to man's free will.[40] Modern scholarship still debates whether the image of

God was represented equally in the man and in woman, or whether Adam possessed the image more fully than Eve.[citation needed]

[edit] Typology
Since the earliest days of the Christian church, theologians have interpreted incidents in Genesis and other Hebrew Bible passages as containing prefigurations (prototypes) of cardinal New Testament concepts, including the Passion of Christ and the Eucharist.[41]

[edit] Interpretation
[edit] Questions of genre
In academic circles the Genesis creation narrative is often described as a creation or cosmogonic myth. The word myth comes from the Greek root for "story" or "legend", and describes a culturally significant or sacred account explaining the origins of existence by using metaphorical language and symbolism to express ideas. In academic use, the term myth generally does not pass judgment on the truth or falsity of the story.[citation needed] The text has also been variously described as historical narrative[42][43] (i.e., a literal account); as mythic history (i.e., a symbolic representation of historical time); as ancient science (in that, for the original authors, the narrative represented the current state of knowledge about the cosmos and its origin and purpose); and as theology (as it describes the origin of the earth and humanity in terms of God).[44]

[edit] Ancient Near East context

Cuneiform tablet with the Atra-Hasis Epic in the British Museum See also: Panbabylonism The two Genesis creation storiesGenesis 1:12:3 and Genesis 2:4-2:25are both comparable with other Near Eastern creation storiesnotably Narrative I has close parallels with the Enma Eli[45][46] and Narrative II has parallels with the Atra-Hasis[47] According to the Enma Eli the original state of the universe was a chaos formed by the mingling of two primeval waters, the female saltwater Tiamat and the male freshwater Apsu. [48] The opening six lines read:

When skies above were not yet named Nor earth below pronounced by name Apsu, the first one, their begetter And maker Tiamat, who bore them all Had mixed their waters together, But had not formed pastures, nor discovered reed-beds.[49]

[edit] Theology
Jewish and Christian theology both define God as unchangeable since he created time and therefore transcends time and is not affected by it.[50] Traditional Jewish scholarship has viewed it as expressing spiritual concepts (see Nachmanides, commentary on Genesis). The Mishnah in Tractate Chagigah states that the actual meaning of the creation account, mystical in nature and hinted at in the text of Genesis, was to be taught only to advanced students one-on-one. Tractate Sanhedrin states that Genesis describes all mankind as being descended from a single individual in order to teach certain lessons. Among these are:

Taking one life is tantamount to destroying the entire world, and saving one life is tantamount to saving the entire world. A person should not say to another that he comes from better stock because we all come from the same ancestor. To teach the greatness of God, for when human beings create a mold every thing that comes out of that mold is identical, while mankind, which comes out of a single mold, is different in that every person is unique.[51]

Among the many views of modern scholars on Genesis and creation one of the most influential is that which links it to the emergence of Hebrew monotheism from the common Mesopotamian/Levantine background of polytheistic religion and myth around the middle of the 1st millennium BC.[52] The "creation week" narrative forms a monotheistic polemic on creation-theology directed against gentile creation myths, the sequence of events building to the establishment of Biblical Sabbath (in Hebrew: ,Shabbat) commandment as its climax. [53] Where the Babylonian myths saw man as nothing more than a "lackey of the gods to keep them supplied with food,"[54] Genesis starts out with God approving the world as "very good" and with mankind at the apex of created order.[Gen. 1:31] Things then fall away from this initial state of goodness: Adam and Eve eat the fruit of the tree in disobedience of the divine command. Ten generations later in the time of Noah, the earth has become so corrupted that God resolves to return it to the waters of chaos sparing only one family who is righteous and from whom a new creation can begin.

[edit] Creationism
See also: Creationism and Creation-evolution controversy Since the 18th and 19th centuries literalist interpretations of Genesis have been in conflict with the growing scientific consensus that the age of the earth is around 4.6 billion years.[55] There still remain some movements of Biblical literalism who are committed to interpreting the Bible by adhering closely to the explicit words given in the text.[56] Strict literalists view

Genesis creation as a historical event that transpired exactly as written,[57] but do not all agree on how literally to interpret the creation account in Genesis. "Young earth" creationists, for instance, maintain that the Genesis creation took place between 6,000 and 10,000 years in the past, and that the seven "days" of Genesis 1 correspond to normal 24-hour days. Beginning in the first half of the 20th century, such interpretations have been divided in a variety of schools of thought.

"Day-age" creationists believe that each "day" in Genesis's opening represents an "age" of perhaps millions or billions of years. Progressive creationists infer that each day of creation represents an eon of development rather than a 24 hour day, but place importance on both the numerical and naturalistic features in the account and claim these Genesis passages can be seen to have anticipated later scientific findings regarding the creation of the planet and solar system.[58] Gap creationism is a form of Old Earth creationism that posits that the six-day creation, as described in the Book of Genesis, involved literal 24-hour days, but that there was a gap of time between two distinct creations in the first and the second verses of Genesis.

In the United States, the concept of "Creation science" or "Scientific Creationism" has been forwarded since the 1960s, dedicated to casting creationism in scientific terminology. Proponents maintain that the science behind the age of the earth and evolution is flawed, and claim to have scientific evidence of their own that fully supports the Genesis account. When attempts to legislate "equal time" for teaching of creation science were ruled out by the Edwards v. Aguillard court case, various synonyms such as Intelligent design were introduced as forms of neocreationism aimed at finding a way of introducing creationism into public school science classrooms.[59]

[edit] See also

Allegorical interpretations of Genesis Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament Babylonian mythology Biblical criticism Christian mythology Creation (disambiguation) Hexameron Jewish mythology Mesopotamian mythology Religion and mythology Sacred history Sumerian creation myth Sumerian literature Timeline of the Bible Tree of life

[edit] Notes

1. ^ Leeming 2004 - "To the extent that this myth was influenced by Mesopotamian concepts, it can be said that it purposely establishes a monotheistic creation as opposed to the Babylonian polytheistic one." 2. ^ Gordon & Sarna 1997, p. 50 - "In order to develop their beliefs, the Hebrews borrowed some Mesopotamian themes but adapted them to the unique conception of their one God." 3. ^ Alter 2008, p. xii - "Genesis opens with a narrative of originsCreation and the Garden Storythat is compelling in its archetypal character, its adaptation of myth to monotheistic ends ..." 4. ^ Leeming 2004 - "Although it is canonical for both Christians and Jews, and in part for followers of Islam, different emphases are placed on the story by the three religions." 5. ^ Wenham 2008, pp. 1518 6. ^ Cross 1997 The other nine are for: 2 Adam "Bereishit - Genesis - Chapter 5". Genesis 5:1 3 Noah, Genesis 6:9 4 Noah's sons "Bereishit - Genesis - Chapter 10"., 5 Shem, Gen. 11:10 6 Terah, Gen. 11:27 7 Yishmael, Gen. 25:12 8 Isaac, Gen. 25:19 9 Esau, Gen. 36:1 and 10 Jacob. Gen. 37:2 7. ^ a b c d Wenham 1987 8. ^ Rashi, "Commentary on Genesis", chapter 2, verse 4. The argument is based on several grounds, notably the fact that Genesis 1 uses the phrase "heavens and earth" to introduce and close the creation, while the account in Chapter 2 is introduced by the phrase "earth and heavens." Advocates of the other view argue that Genesis 2:4 is designed as a chiasm. (Wenham 1987, p. 49) 9. ^ Alter 1997, p. 7 10. ^ Rendtorff 2009, p. 41 11. ^ a b Hyers 1984, Chapter 5, p 107 12. ^ The lack of punctuation in the Hebrew creates ambiguity over where sentence-endings should be placed in this passage. This is reflected in differing modern translations, some of which attach this clause to ;&version= Genesis 2:4a; Genesis 2:4 and place a full stop at the end of 4b, while others place the full stop after 4a and make 4b the beginning of a new sentence, while yet others combine all verses from 4a onwards into a single sentence culminating in Genesis 2:7. 13. ^ in some translations, a stream 14. ^ `ezer: Most often used to refer to God, such as "The Lord is our Help (`ezer)"[Ps. 115:9] and many other Old Testament verses. (Strong's H5828) 15. ^ footnote to Gen. 2:18 in NASB 16. ^ Kvam, Schearing & Ziegler 1999 17. ^ Hebrew tsela`, meaning side, chamber, rib, or beam (Strong's H6763). Some scholars have questioned the traditional "rib" on the grounds that it denigrates the equality of the sexes, suggesting it should read "side".(Reisenberger 1993) Others note: "Eve was created from a rib taken from the side of Adam, signifying that she was not to control him as the head, nor to be trampled under his feet as an inferior, but to stand by his side as an equal, to be loved and protected by him."(White 1958, p. 46) 18. ^ Achtemeier 1996, p. 193

19. ^ Stagg 1962, p. 297 20. ^ Metzger & Murphy 1991 21. ^ Metzger & Coogan 1993, pp. 140141 22. ^ Bandstra 1999 23. ^ Carr 1993, pp. 577595 24. ^ Friedman 2005, p. 35 25. ^ Speiser, E. A. (1964). Genesis. The Anchor Bible. Doubleday. p. XXI. ISBN 0-385-00854-6. 26. ^ Yonge 1854 27. ^ Schaff 1995 28. ^ a b Orlinsky 2001 page number needed. 29. ^ Kaplan 2002, p. 93 30. ^ Wylen 2005, p. 108 31. ^ Huey 2001, p. 85 32. ^ Thompson, 1980, p. 230 33. ^ Spence 1995, p. 72 34. ^ Seeley 1991, pp. 227240 and Seeley 1997, pp. 23155 35. ^ Hamilton 1990, p. 122 36. ^ Vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew, Texas A&M University. 37. ^ Hamilton 1990, p. 123 38. ^ Bar-Ilan 2003, p. 105 39. ^ Wenham 1987, p. 6 40. ^ Footnotes to Genesis translation at bible.ort.org 41. ^ Janzen 2004 42. ^ Feinberg 2006 43. ^ Boyd 2008 44. ^ Sparks 2008 45. ^ Heidel, Alexander. Babylonian Genesis Chicago University Press; 2nd edition edition (1 Sep 1963) ISBN 0226323994 (See especially Ch3 on Old Testament Parallels) 46. ^ Smith, Mark S. The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts Oxford University Press USA (30 Aug 2001) ISBN 019513480X (See especially Ch 9.1) 47. ^ Dalley, Stephanie Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and others Oxford World Classics, Oxford University Press (2000) ISBN 0192835890 (see esp. p.4 Atrahasis Introduction on 'Creation of Man') 48. ^ Bandstra, Barry L. (1999), "Enma Eli", Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible, Wadsworth Publishing Company. 49. ^ Oxford World Classics Dalley, Stephanie (2000). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, The Flood, Gilgamesh, and others. Oxford University Press. p. 233 The Epic of Creation. Tablet 1.. ISBN 0192835890. I-CIAS.com 50. ^ Clontz 2008 51. ^ Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Sanhedrin 37a. 52. ^ For a discussion of the roots of biblical monotheism in Canaanite polytheism, see Mark S. Smith, "The Origins of Biblical Monotheism"; See also the review of David Penchansky, "Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible", which describes some of the nuances underlying the subject. See the Bibliography section at the foot of this article for further reading on this subject. 53. ^ Meredith G. Kline, "Because It Had Not Rained", (Westminster Theological Journal, 20 (2), May 1958), pp. 14657; Meredith G. Kline, "Space and Time in the

Genesis Cosmogony", Perspectives on Science & Christian Faith (48), 1996), pp. 2 15; Henri Blocher, Henri Blocher. In the Beginning: The Opening Chapters of Genesis. InterVarsity Press, 1984.; and with antecedents in St. Augustine of Hippo Davis A. Young (1988). "The Contemporary Relevance of Augustine's View of Creation" ( Scholar search). Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith 40 (1): 4245.
[dead link]

54. ^ T. Jacobson, "The Eridu Genesis", JBL 100, 1981, pp.529, quoted in Gordon Wenham, "Exploring the Old Testament: The Pentateuch", 2003, p.17. See also Wenham 1987 55. ^ Stenhouse 2000, p. 76 56. ^ Lindbeck 2001, p. 295 57. ^ Scott 2005, pp. 2278 58. ^ Hyers 1984, Chapter 4, p 80 59. ^ Scott, Eugene (2001). "Antievolutionism and Creationism in the United States". National Center for Science Education.

[edit] References
Books

Achtemeier, Paul J., ed (1996). "Creation". HarperCollins Bible Dictionary (Rev Upd Su ed.). San Francisco: HarperOne. pp. 1280. ISBN 00060600373. Alter, Robert (1997). Genesis: Translation and Commentary. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 9780393316704. Alter, Robert (2008). The Five Books of Moses. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 1120. ISBN 0393333930. Anderson, Bernhard W. (1997). Creation Ver Bernhard W. Understanding the Old Testament. ISBN 0-13-948399-3. Anderson, Bernhard W. (1985). Creation in the Old Testament. ISBN 0-8006-1768-1. Bandstra, Barry L. (1999). "Priestly Creation Story". Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Wadsworth Publishing Company. pp. 576. ISBN 0495391050. Bar-Ilan, Meir (2003) (in Hebrew). The Numerology of Genesis. Rehovot: Association for Jewish Astrology and Numerology. pp. 218. ISBN 9659062001. Bauckham, Richard (2001). Word Biblical Commentary: Jude, 2 Peter. Thomas Nelson Publishers. p. 297. ISBN 0849902495. Beecher, Henry Ward (1885). Evolution and religion. Pilgrim Press. Benware, P.N. (1993). Survey of the Old Testament. Moody Press. Blocher, Henri AG (1984). In the Beginning: the opening chapters of Genesis. InterVarsity Press. Bloom, Harold and Rosenberg (1990). David The Book of J. New York, USA: Random House. Bouteneff, Peter C. (2008). Beginnings: Ancient Christian Readings of the Biblical Creation Narrative. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic. ISBN 9780801032332. Emphasis on the Christian interpretations of Genesis 1-3 from Paul to Origen, and an introduction to modern scholarship. Boyd, Steven W. (2008). "The Genre of Genesis 1:1-2:3:What Means This Text?". In Mortenson, Terry; Ury, Thane H. Coming to Grips with Genesis: Biblical Authority and the Age of the Earth. New Leaf Publishing Group. pp. 174 ff. ISBN 0890515484.

Clontz, T.E.; Clontz, J., eds (2009). The Comprehensive New Testament with complete textual variant mapping (Hard Cover Edition ed.). Cornerstone Publications. pp. 768. ISBN 0977873714. Cross, Frank Moore (1997) [1973]. "The Priestly Work". Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in the History of the Religion of Israel. Harvard University Press. pp. 394. ISBN 0674091760. Davis, John (1975). Paradise to PrisonStudies in Genesis. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House. p. 23. Douglas, J.D.; et. al. (1990). Old Testament Volume: New Commentary on the Whole Bible. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale,. Feinberg, John S. (2006). "The Doctrine of CreationLiterary Genre of Genesis 1 and 2". No One Like Him: The Doctrine of God. Foundations of Evangelical Theology. 2. Good News Publishers. pp. 577. ISBN 1581348118. Friedman, Richard E. (1987). Who Wrote The Bible?. NY, USA: Harper and Row. ISBN 0060630353. Friedman, Richard E. (2003). Commentary on the Torah. HarperOne. ISBN 0060625619. Friedman, Richard E. (2005), The Bible With Sources Revealed, San Francisco: HarperOne, pp. 400, ISBN 006073065X Gordon, Cyrus H.; Sarna, Nahum M. (1997). "The Mists of Time: Genesis I-II". In Feyerick, Ada. Genesis: World of Myths and Patriarchs. New York: NYU Press. pp. 560. ISBN 0814726682. Gunkel, Hermann (1894). Schpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Hamilton, Victor P (1990). The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1-17. New International Commentary on the Old Testament (NICOT). Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 540. ISBN 0802825214. Heidel, Alexander (Sep 1963). Babylonian Genesis (2nd ed.). Chicago University Press. ISBN 0226323994. Heidel, Alexander (Sep 1963). Gilgamesh Epic and Old Testament Parallels (2nd Revised ed.). Chicago University Press. ISBN 0226323986. Hodge, B. C. (Jan 2011). Revisiting the Days of Genesis: A Study of the Use of Time in Genesis 1-11 in Light of Its Ancient Near Eastern and Literary Context (First ed.). Wipf & Stock. ISBN 1608995976. Huey, H. B. (2001) [1993]. Jeremiah, Lamentations. The New American Commentary. 16. Nashville: Broadman & Holman Publishers. pp. 512. ISBN 0805401164. Hyers, M. Conrad (1984). The Meaning of Creation: Genesis and Modern Science. Atlanta: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0804201250. Janzen, David (2004). The social meanings of sacrifice in the Hebrew Bible: a study of four writings. Walter de Gruyter Publisher. ISBN 978-3110181586. Kaplan, Aryeh (2002). "Hashem/Elokim: Mixing Mercy with Justice". The Aryeh Kaplan reader: the gift he left behind. Mesorah Publication, Ltd.. pp. 224. ISBN 0899061737. Retrieved 29 December 2010. King, Leonard (April 2007). Enuma Elish: The Seven Tablets of Creation; The Babylonian and Assyrian Legends Concerning the Creation of the World and of Mankind. 1 and 2. Cosimo Inc. ISBN 1602063192. Kvam, Kristen E.; Schearing, Linda S.; Ziegler, Valarie H., eds (1999). Eve and Adam: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim readings on Genesis and gender. Indiana University Press. pp. 515. ISBN 0253212715.

Leeming, David A. (2004). "Biblical creation". The Oxford companion to world mythology (online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2010-05-05. Lindbeck, George (2001). "Literalism". Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Baker Academy. p. 295. May, Gerhard (1994). Creatio ex Nihilo: The Doctrine of "Creation out of Nothing" in Early Christian Thought (English version ed.). Edinburgh: T & T Clark. Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D., eds (1993). The Oxford Companion to the Bible (First Printing ed.). Oxford University Press,. pp. 932. ISBN 0195046455. Metzger, Bruce M.; Murphy, Roland E., eds (1991). "Annotation to Genesis 2:4b". The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha (Revised edition ed.). USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 2048. ISBN 0195283562. Nicholson, Ernest (2003). The Pentateuch in the Twentieth Century: The Legacy of Julius Wellhausen. Oxford University Press. Orlinsky, Harry (2001) [1962]. Notes on the New translation of the Torah. Varda Books. pp. 297. ISBN 0827601530. Penchansky, David (Nov 2005). Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible (Interpretation Bible Studies). U.S.: Westminster/John Knox Press. ISBN 0664228852. Radday, Yehuda Thomas; Shore, Haim (June 1985). "Introduction". Genesis: an authorship study in computer-assisted statistical linguistics. Analecta Biblica. No. 903, Vol. 20. Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. pp. 283. ISBN 8-876-53103-3. Retrieved 18 November 2010. Rendtorff, Rolf (2009). Problem of the Process of Transmission in the Pentateuch. Sheffield Academic Press. ISBN 0567187926. Rouvire, Jean-Marc (2006) (in French). Brves mditations sur la cration du monde. Paris: L'Harmattan. Ryan, Halford R. (1990). Henry Ward Beecher : Peripatetic Preacher. New York: Greenwood Press.. Schaff, Philip (1995). "The Confessions and Letters of Augustine with a Sketch of his Life and Work". The Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers. First. 1. Hendrickson Publishers. ISBN 1565630955. Scott, Eugenie C. (2005). "John MacArthur". Evolution vs Creationism: An Introduction. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520246508. Smith, George (Mar 2004). The Chaldean account of Genesis: Containing the description of the creation, the fall of man, the deluge, the tower of Babel, the times of the ... of the gods; from the cuneiform inscriptions. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1402150997. Smith, Mark S. (Oct 2002). The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel (2nd ed.). William B Eerdmans Publishing Co. ISBN 080283972X. Smith, Mark S. (Nov 2003). The Origins of Biblical Monotheism: Israel's Polytheistic Background and the Ugaritic Texts (New Ed ed.). Oxford University Press USA. ISBN 0195167686. Sparks, Kenton (2008). "Chapters 6 & 7 on Biblical Genres". God's Word in Human Words: An Evangelical Appropriation of Critical Biblical Scholarship. Baker Academic. ISBN 0801027012. Spence, Lewis (1995). Myths and Legends of Babylonia and Assyria. Kessinger Publishing, LLC. pp. 496. ISBN 1564595005. Spurrell, G.J. (1896). Notes on the Text of the Book of Genesis. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Stagg, Frank (1962). New Testament Theology. Broadman. ISBN 0805416137.

Stenhouse, John (2000). "Genesis and Science". In Gary B. Ferngren. The History of Science and Religion in the Western Tradition: An Encyclopedia. New York, London: Garland Publishing, Inc. p. 76. ISBN 0-8153-1656-9. Tigay, Jeffrey (1986). Empirical Models for Biblical Criticism. Philadelphia, PA, USA: University of Pennsylvania Press. Thompson, J. A. (1980). Jeremiah. New International Commentary on the Old Testament (2nd ed.). Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company. pp. 831. ISBN 0802825303. "it's as if the earth had been uncreated." Tsumura, David Toshio (2005). "The Earth in Genesis 1; The Waters in Genesis 1; The Earth in Genesis 2; The Waters in Genesis 2". Creation and destruction: a reappraisal of the Chaoskampf theory in the Old Testament (Revised and expanded ed.). Eisenbrauns. ISBN 9781575061061. Walton, John H. (Nov 2006). Ancient Near Eastern Thought and the Old Testament: Introducing the Conceptual World of the Hebrew Bible. Baker Academic. ISBN 0801027500. Wenham, Gordon (2008). Exploring the Old Testament: A Guide to the Pentateuch. Exploring the Bible Series. 1. IVP Academic. pp. 223. Wenham, Gordon (1987). Genesis 1-15. 1 and 2. Texas: Word Books. ISBN 0849902002. White, Ellen G. (1958) [1910]. "The Creation". Patriarchs and Prophets. The Conflict of the Ages. 1. Boise, Idaho: Pacific Press Publishing Association. pp. 803. ISBN 1883012503. Wylen, Stephen M. (2005). "Chapter 6 Midrash". The seventy faces of Torah: the Jewish way of reading the Sacred Scriptures. Paulist Press. pp. 256. ISBN 0809141795. Yonge, Charles Duke (1854). "Appendices A Treatise Concerning the World (1), On the Creation (16-19, 26-30), Special Laws IV (187), On the Unchangeableness of God (23-32)". The Works of Philo Judaeus: the contemporary of Josephus. London: H. G. Bohn.

Journals

Carr, David (Winter 1993). "The Politics of Textual Subversion: A Diachronic Perspective on the Garden of Eden Story". Journal of Biblical Literature 112 (4): 577 595. JSTOR 3267398. Copan, Paul (1996). Is Creatio Ex Nihilo A Post-Biblical Invention?: An Examination Of Gerhard May's Proposal. 17. Trinity Journal. pp. 7793. Reis, Pamela Tamarkin (2001). Genesis as "Rashomon": The creation as told by God and man. 17. Bible Review. Reisenberger, Azila Talit (22 Sept 1993). "The creation of Adam as hermaphrodite and its implications for feminist theology.". Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought. Retrieved 08 Dec 2010. Seeley, Paul H. (1991). "The Firmament and the Water Above: The Meaning of Raqia in Genesis 1:68". Westminster Theological Journal (Westminster Theological Seminary) 53: 227240. Seeley, Paul H. (1997). "The Geographical Meaning of 'Earth' and 'Seas' in Genesis 1:10". Westminster Theological Journal (Westminster Theological Seminary) 59: 23155.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Creation according to Genesis

[edit] Sources for the biblical text

Chapter 1 Chapter 2 (Hebrew-English text, translated according to the JPS 1917 Edition) Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 (Hebrew-English text, with Rashi's commentary. The translation is the authoritative Judaica Press version, edited by Rabbi A.J. Rosenberg.) Chapter 1 Chapter 2 (King James Version) Chapter 1 Chapter 2 (Revised Standard Version) Chapter 1 Chapter 2 (New Living Translation) Chapter 1 Chapter 2 (New American Standard Bible) Chapter 1 Chapter 2 (New International Version (UK))

[edit] Sources for earlier related Mesopotamian texts

"Enuma Elish", at Encyclopedia of the Orient Summary of Enuma Elish with links to full text. ETCSLText and translation of the Eridu Genesis (alternate site) (The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford) "Epic of Gilgamesh" (summary) British Museum: Cuneiform tablet from Sippar with the story of Atra-Hasis

Bereishit (parsha)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Bereishit, Bereshit, Bereishis, B'reshith, Beresheet, or Bereshees ( Hebrew for "in beginning, the first word in the parshah) is the first weekly Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. The parshah consists of Genesis 1:16:8. Jews read it on the first Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in October. Jews also read the beginning part of the parshah, Genesis 1:12:3, as the second Torah reading for Simchat Torah, after reading the last parts of the book of Deuteronomy, parshah V'Zot HaBerachah, Deuteronomy 33:134:12 In the parshah, God creates the world, and Adam and Eve. They commit the first sin, however, and God expels them from the Garden of Eden. One of their sons, Cain, becomes the first murderer by killing his brother Abel out of jealousy. Adam and Eve also have other children, whose descendants populate the Earth, but each generation becomes more and more degenerate until God, despairing, decides to destroy humanity. Only one man, Noah, finds favor in the eyes of God.

The first chapter of Genesis written on an egg in the Israel Museum.

Contents
[hide]

1 Summary o 1.1 Creation o 1.2 The Garden of Eden o 1.3 Adam and Eve o 1.4 Cain and Abel o 1.5 Lamech followed Cain o 1.6 Adams line o 1.7 Wickedness among men 2 Key words 3 In early nonrabbinic interpretation o 3.1 Genesis chapter 2 4 In classical rabbinic interpretation o 4.1 Genesis chapter 1 o 4.2 Genesis chapter 2 o 4.3 Genesis chapter 3 o 4.4 Genesis chapter 4 o 4.5 Genesis chapter 5 o 4.6 Genesis chapter 6

5 Commandments 6 Haftarah 7 In the liturgy 8 The Weekly Maqam 9 See also 10 Further reading o 10.1 Ancient o 10.2 Biblical o 10.3 Early nonrabbinic o 10.4 Classical rabbinic o 10.5 Medieval o 10.6 Modern 11 External links o 11.1 Texts
o

11.2 Commentaries

[edit] Summary

Creation of Light (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

[edit] Creation
When God began creation, the earth was unformed and void, darkness was over the surface of the deep, and Gods wind swept over the water. (Genesis 1:1:2) God spoke and created in six days:

First day: God separated light from darkness. (Genesis 1:35) Second day: God separated the waters, creating sky. (Genesis 1:68) Third day: God gathered the water below the sky, creating land and sea, and God caused vegetation to sprout from the land. (Genesis 1:913) Fourth day: God set lights in the sky to separate days and years, creating the sun, the moon, and the stars. (Genesis 1:1419)

Fifth day: God had the waters bring forth living creatures, and blessed them to be fruitful and multiply. (Genesis 1:2023) Sixth day: God had the earth bring forth living creatures, and made man in Gods image, male and female, giving man dominion over the animals and the earth, and blessed man to be fruitful and multiply. (Genesis 1:2428) God gave vegetation to man and to the animals for food. (Genesis 1:2930) Seventh day: God ceased work and blessed the seventh day, declaring it holy. (Genesis 2:13)

The Creation of Adam (fresco circa 1509 by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel)

[edit] The Garden of Eden

Before any shrub or grass had yet sprouted on earth, and before God had sent rain for the earth, a flow would well up from the ground to water the earth. (Genesis 2:46) God formed man from the dust, blew the breath of life into his nostrils, and made him a living being. (Genesis 2:7) God planted a garden in the east in Eden, caused to grow there every good and pleasing tree, and placed the tree of life and the tree of knowledge of good and bad in the middle of the garden. (Genesis 2:89) A river issued from Eden to water the garden, and then divided into four branches: the Pishon, which winds through Havilah, where the gold is; the Gihon, which winds through Cush; the Tigris, which flows east of Asshur; and the Euphrates. (Genesis 2:1014) God placed the man in the garden of Eden to till and tend it, and freed him to eat from every tree of the garden, except for the tree of knowledge of good and bad, warning that if the man ate of it, he would die. (Genesis 2:1517)

The Garden of Eden (1828 painting by Thomas Cole) Announcing that it was not good for man to be alone and that God would make for him a fitting helper, God formed out of the earth all the beasts and birds and brought them to the man to name. (Genesis 2:1819) The man Adam named all the animals, but found no fitting helper. (Genesis 2:20) So God cast a deep sleep upon the man and took one of his ribs and

fashioned it into a woman and brought her to the man. (Genesis 2:2122) The man declared her bone of his bones and flesh of his flesh, and called her woman. (Genesis 2:23) Thus a man leaves his parents and clings to his wife, so that they become one flesh. (Genesis 2:24) The man and the woman were naked, but felt no shame. (Genesis 2:25)

The Fall of Man (16th Century painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder)

[edit] Adam and Eve

The serpent, the shrewdest of the beasts, asked the woman whether God had really forbidden her to eat any of the fruit in the garden. (Genesis 3:1) The woman replied that they could eat any fruit other than that of the tree in the middle of the garden, which God had warned them neither to eat nor to touch, on pain of death. (Genesis 3:23) The serpent told the woman that she would not die, but that as soon as she ate the fruit, her eyes would be opened and she would be like divine beings who knew good and bad. (Genesis 3:44) When the woman saw that the tree was good for food, pleasing in appearance, and desirable as a source of wisdom, she ate some of its fruit and gave some to her husband to eat. (Genesis 3:6) Then their eyes were opened and they saw that they were naked; and they sewed themselves loincloths out of fig leaves. (Genesis 3:7)

Adam and Eve Driven out of Eden (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible) Hearing God move in the garden, they hid in the trees. (Genesis 3:8) God asked the man where he was. (Genesis 3:9) The man replied that he grew afraid when he heard God, and he hid because he was naked. (Genesis 3:10) God asked him who told him that he was naked and whether he had eaten the forbidden fruit. (Genesis 3:11) The man replied that the woman whom God put at his side gave him the fruit, and he ate. (Genesis 3:12) When God asked the woman what she had done, she replied that the serpent duped her, and she ate. (Genesis 3:13) God cursed the serpent to crawl on its belly, to eat dirt, and to live in enmity with the woman and her offspring. (Genesis 3:1415) God cursed the woman to bear children in pain, to desire her husband, and to be ruled by him. (Genesis 3:16) And God cursed Adam to toil to earn his food from the ground, which would sprout thorns and thistles, until he returned to the ground from which he was taken. (Genesis 3:1719) Adam named his wife Eve, because she was the mother to all. (Genesis 3:20) And God made skin garments to clothe Adam and Eve. (Genesis 3:21) Remarking that the man had become like God, knowing good and bad, God became concerned that he should also eat from the tree of life and live forever, so God banished him from the garden of Eden, to till the soil. (Genesis 3:2223) God drove the man out, and stationed cherubim and a fiery ever-turning sword east of the garden to guard the tree of life. (Genesis 3:24)

Death of Abel (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

[edit] Cain and Abel

Eve bore Cain and Abel, who became a farmer and a shepherd respectively. (Genesis 4:12) Cain brought God an offering from the fruit of the soil, and Abel brought the choicest of the firstlings of his flock. (Genesis 4:34) God paid heed to Abel and his offering, but not to Cain and his, distressing Cain. (Genesis 4:45) God asked Cain why he was distressed, because he had free will, and if he acted righteously, he would be happy, but if he didn't, sin crouched at the door. (Genesis 4:67) Cain spoke to Abel, and when they were in the field, Cain killed Abel. (Genesis 4:8) When God asked Cain where his brother was, Cain replied that he did not know, asking if he was his brothers keeper. (Genesis 4:9) God asked Cain what he had done, as his brothers blood cried out to God from the ground. (Genesis 4:10) God cursed Cain to fail at farming and to become a ceaseless wanderer. (Genesis 4:1112) Cain complained to God that his punishment was too great to bear, as anyone who met him might kill him. (Genesis 4:14) So God put a mark on Cain and promised to take sevenfold vengeance on anyone who would kill him. (Genesis 4:15) Cain left Gods presence and settled in the land of Nod, east of Eden. (Genesis 4:16)

[edit] Lamech followed Cain

Cain had a son, Enoch, and founded a city, and naming it after Enoch. (Genesis 4:16) Enochs great-great-grandson Lamech took two wives: Adah and Zillah. (Genesis 4:1719) Adah bore Jabal, the ancestor of those who dwell in tents and amidst herds, and Jubal, the ancestor of all who play the lyre and the pipe. (Genesis 4:2021) And Zillah bore Tubal-cain, who forged implements of copper and iron. (Genesis 4:22) Lamech told his wives that he had slain a lad for bruising him, and that if Cain was avenged sevenfold, then Lamech should be avenged seventy-sevenfold. (Genesis 4:2324)

The Death of Adam (painting circa 14521466 by Piero della Francesca)

[edit] Adams line

Adam and Eve had a third son and named him Seth, meaning God has provided me with another offspring in place of Abel. (Genesis 4:25) Seth had a son named Enosh, and then men began to invoke the Lord by name. (Genesis 4:26) After the birth of Seth, Adam had more sons and daughters, and lived a total of 930 years before he died. (Genesis 5:45) Adams descendants and their lifespans were: Seth, 912 years; Enosh, 905 years; Kenan, 910 years; Mahalalel, 895 years; and Jared, 962 years. (Genesis 5:620) Jareds son Enoch walked with God 300 years, and when he reached age 365, God took him. (Genesis 5:2224) Enochs son Methuselah lived 969 years and his son Lamech lived 777 years. (Genesis 5:2131) Lamech had a son Noah, saying that Noah would provide relief from their work and toil on the soil that God had cursed. (Genesis 5:2829) When Noah had lived 500 years, he had three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth. (Genesis 5:32)

[edit] Wickedness among men

Divine beings admired and took wives from among the daughters of men, who bore the Nephilim, heroes of old, men of renown. (Genesis 6:24) God set the days allowed to man at 120 years. (Genesis 6:3) God saw how great mans wickedness was and how mans every plan was evil, and God regretted making man and became saddened. (Genesis 6:56) God expressed an intention to blot men and animals from the earth, but Noah found Gods favor. (Genesis 6:78)

[edit] Key words

Words used frequently in the parshah include:

God, gods 67 times (Genesis 1:1, 2, 3, 4 (2 times), 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 (2 times), 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 20, 21 (2 times), 22, 24, 25 (2 times), 26, 27 (2 times), 28 (2 times), 29, 31; 2:2, 3 (2 times), 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22; 3:1 (2 times), 3, 5 (2 times), 8 (2 times), 9, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23; 4:25; 5:1 (2 times), 22, 24 (2 times); 6:2, 4.)

Ancient of Days (1794 etching and watercolor by William Blake)

man, men 41 times (Genesis 1:26, 27; 2:5, 7 (2 times), 8, 15, 16, 18, 19 (2 times), 20, 21, 22 (2 times), 23 (2 times), 24, 25; 3:8, 9, 12, 20, 22, 24; 4:1 (2 times), 23 (2 times), 26; 5:1; 6:1, 2, 3, 4 (3 times), 5, 6, 7 (2 times).) said 37 times (Genesis 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 20, 24, 26, 28, 29; 2:18, 23; 3:1 (2 times), 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 (2 times), 14, 16, 17, 22; 4:1, 6, 9 (2 times), 10, 13, 15, 23; 6:3, 7.) Lord (the Name of God) 36 times (Genesis 2:4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22; 3:1, 8 (2 times), 9, 13, 14, 21, 22, 23; 4:1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 13, 15 (2 times), 16, 26; 5:29; 6:3, 5, 6, 7, 8.) day, days 35 times (Genesis 1:5 (2 times), 8, 13, 14 (2 times), 16, 18, 19, 23, 31; 2:2 (2 times), 3, 4, 17; 3:5, 8, 14, 17; 4:14; 5:1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20, 23, 27, 31; 6:3, 4.) begot 31 times (Genesis 4:18 (3 times); 5:3, 4 (2 times), 6, 7 (2 times), 9, 10 (2 times), 12, 13 (2 times), 15, 16 (2 times), 18, 19 (2 times), 21, 22 (2 times), 25, 26 (2 times), 28, 30 (2 times), 32.) years 30 times (Genesis 1:14; 5:3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32; 6:3) live, lived, living 26 times (Genesis 1:20, 21, 24, 28, 30; 2:7, 19, 20, 22; 5:3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 25, 26, 28, 30.) hundred 25 times (Genesis 5:3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30, 31, 32; 6:3) eat, eaten 20 times (Genesis 2:16, 17 (2 times); 3:1, 2, 3, 5, 6 (2 times), 11 (2 times), 12, 13, 14, 17 (3 times), 18, 19, 22.) tree, trees 20 times (Genesis 1:11, 12, 29 (2 times); 2:9 (3 times), 16, 17; 3:1, 2, 3, 6 (2 times), 8, 11, 12, 17, 22, 24.) call, called 17 times (Genesis 1:5 (2 times), 8, 10 (2 times); 2:19 (2 times), 23; 3:9, 20; 4:17, 25, 26 (2 times); 5:2, 3, 29.) name, names 17 times (Genesis 2:11, 13, 14, 19, 20; 3:20; 4:17 (2 times), 19 (2 times), 21, 25, 26 (2 times); 5:2, 3, 29.)

The Body of Abel Found by Adam and Eve (watercolor by William Blake)

Cain 16 times (Genesis 4:1, 2, 3, 5 (2 times), 6, 8 (2 times), 9, 13, 15 (2 times), 16, 17, 24, 25.) made 16 times (Genesis 1:7, 16, 25, 31; 2:2 (2 times), 3, 4, 9, 22; 3:1, 7, 21; 5:1; 6:6, 7.) good 15 times (Genesis 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25, 31; 2:9 (2 times), 12, 17, 18; 3:5, 6, 22.) ground 15 times (Genesis 1:25; 2:5, 6, 7, 9, 19; 3:17, 19, 23; 4:2, 3, 10, 11, 12; 5:29) let 15 times (Genesis 1:3, 6 (2 times), 9 (2 times), 11, 14 (2 times), 15, 20 (2 times), 22, 24, 26 (2 times).) garden 13 times (Genesis 2:8, 9, 10, 15, 16; 3:1, 2, 3, 8 (2 times), 10, 23, 24.) light, lights 13 times (Genesis 1:3 (2 times), 4 (2 times), 5, 14, 15 (2 times), 16 (3 times), 17, 18.) water, waters, watered 13 times (Genesis 1:2, 6 (3 times), 7 (2 times), 9, 10, 20, 21, 22; 2:6, 10.) daughters 12 times (Genesis 5:4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 22, 26, 30; 6:1, 2, 4.) created 11 times (Genesis 1:1, 21, 27 (3 times); 2:3, 4; 5:1, 2 (2 times); 6:7) see, saw 11 times (Genesis 1:4, 10, 12, 18, 21, 25, 31; 2:19; 3:6; 6:2, 5.) woman 11 times (Genesis 2:22, 23; 3:1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 13 (2 times), 15, 16.) fruit, fruitful 10 times (Genesis 1:11 (2 times), 12, 22, 28, 29; 3:2, 3, 6; 4:3) Lamech 10 times (Genesis 4:18, 19, 23 (2 times), 24; 5:25, 26, 28, 30, 31.) Adam 9 times (Genesis 2:20; 3:17, 21; 4:25; 5:1, 2, 3, 4, 5.)

The Expulsion from Eden (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern)

[edit] In early nonrabbinic interpretation

[edit] Genesis chapter 2

The Book of Jubilees interpreted Gods warning to Adam in Genesis 2:17 that on the day that you eat of it you shall die in the light of the words of Psalm 90:4 that a thousand years in [Gods] sight are but as yesterday, noting that Adam died 70 years short of the 1000 years that would constitute one day in the testimony of the heavens. (Jubilees 4:2931; see also Justin Martyr Dialogue with Trypho 81.) And the Books of 4 Ezra (or 2 Esdras) and 2 Baruch interpreted Genesis 2:17 to teach that because Adam transgressed Gods commandment, God decreed death to Adam and his descendents for all time. (4 Ezra 3:7; 2 Baruch 23:4.)

Rabbi Jonah taught not to investigate what was before (illustration from Camille Flammarion's 1888 L'atmosphre: mtorologie populaire)

[edit] In classical rabbinic interpretation

[edit] Genesis chapter 1

the Hebrew letter bet Rabbi Jonah taught in the name of Rabbi Levi that the world was created with a letter bet (the first letter in Genesis 1:1, which begins ,, Bereishit bara Elohim, In the beginning God created) because just as the letter bet is closed at the sides but open in front, so one is not permitted to investigate what is above and what is below, what is before and what is behind. Similarly, Bar Kappara reinterpreted the words of Deuteronomy 4:32 to say, ask not of the days past, which were before you, since the day that God created man upon the earth, teaching that one may speculate from the day that days were created, but one should not speculate on what was before that. And one may investigate from one end of heaven to the other, but one should not investigate what was before this world. (Genesis Rabbah 1:10.) Both Rabbi Johanan and Resh Lakish compared this to a human king who instructed his servants to build a great palace upon a dunghill. They built it for him. Thereafter, the king did not wish to hear mention of the dunghill. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 16a.)

The First Day of Creation (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) A midrash (rabbinic commentary) explained that six things preceded the creation of the world: the Torah and the Throne of Glory were created, the creation of the Patriarchs was contemplated, the creation of Israel was contemplated, the creation of the Temple in Jerusalem was contemplated, and the name of the Messiah was contemplated, as well as repentance. (Genesis Rabbah 1:4.)

First Day of Creation (illustration from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle) Rab Zulra bar Tobiah said in the name of Rab that the world was created with ten things: (1) wisdom, (2) understanding, (3) reason, (4) strength, (5) rebuke, (6) might, (7) righteousness, (8) judgment, (9) loving-kindness, and (10) compassion. The Gemara cited verses to support Rab Zulras proposition: wisdom and understanding, as Proverbs 3:19 says, The Lord by wisdom founded the earth; and by understanding established the heavens; reason, as Proverbs 3:20 says, By His reason the depths were broken up; strength and might, as Psalm 65:7 says, Who by Your strength sets fast the mountains, Who is girded about with might; rebuke, as Job 26:11 says, The pillars of heaven were trembling, but they became astonished at His rebuke; righteousness and judgment, as Psalm 89:15 says, Righteousness and judgment are the foundation of Your throne; and loving-kindness and compassion, as Psalm 25:6 says, Remember, O Lord, Your compassions and Your mercies; for they have been from of old. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 12a.) Rav Assi of Hozna'ah deduced from the words, And it came to pass in the first month of the second year, on the first day of the month, in Exodus 40:17 that the Tabernacle was erected on the first of Nisan. With reference to this, a Tanna taught that the first of Nisan took ten

crowns of distinction by virtue of the ten momentous events that occurred on that day. The first of Nisan was: (1) the first day of the Creation (as reported in Genesis 1:15), (2) the first day of the princes offerings (as reported in Numbers 7:1017), (3) the first day for the priesthood to make the sacrificial offerings (as reported in Leviticus 9:121), (4) the first day for public sacrifice, (5) the first day for the descent of fire from Heaven (as reported in Leviticus 9:24), (6) the first for the priests eating of sacred food in the sacred area, (7) the first for the dwelling of the Shechinah in Israel (as implied by Exodus 25:8), (8) the first for the Priestly Blessing of Israel (as reported in Leviticus 9:22, employing the blessing prescribed by Numbers 6:2227), (9) the first for the prohibition of the high places (as stated in Leviticus 17:34), and (10) the first of the months of the year (as instructed in Exodus 12:2). (Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 87b.)

Second Day of Creation (illustration from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle) The Mishnah taught that God created the world with ten Divine utterances. Noting that surely God could have created the world with one utterance, the Mishnah asks what we are meant to learn from this, replying, if God had created the world by a single utterance, men would think less of the world, and have less compunction about undoing Gods creation. (Mishnah Avot 5:1.) Rabbi Johanan taught that the ten utterances with which God created the world account for the rule taught in a Baraita cited by Rabbi Shimi that no fewer than ten verses of the Torah should be read in the synagogue. The ten verses represent Gods ten utterances. The Gemara explained that the ten utterances are indicated by the ten uses of And [God] said in Genesis 1. To the objection that these words appear only nine times in Genesis 1, the Gemara responded that the words In the beginning also count as a creative utterance. For Psalm 33:6 says, By the word of the Lord the heavens were made, and all the host of them by the breath of his mouth (and thus one may learn that the heavens and earth were created by Divine utterance before the action of Genesis 1:1 takes place). (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 21b.)

The Second Day of Creation (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) Rab Judah said in Rabs name that ten things were created on the first day: (1) heaven, (2) earth, (3) chaos ( ,tohu), (4) desolation ( ,bohu), (5) light, (6) darkness, (7) wind, (8) water, (9) the length of a day, and (10) the length of a night. The Gemara cited verses to support Rab Judahs proposition: heaven and earth, as Genesis 1:1 says, In the beginning God created heaven and earth; tohu and bohu, as Genesis 1:2 says, and the earth was tohu and bohu; darkness, as Genesis 1:2 says, and darkness was upon the face of the deep; light, as Genesis 1:3 says, And God said, Let there be light; wind and water, as Genesis 1:2 says, and the wind of God hovered over the face of the waters; and the length of a day and the length of a night, as Genesis 1:5 says, And there was evening and there was morning, one day. A Baraita taught that tohu (chaos) is a green line that encompasses the world, out of which darkness proceeds, as Psalm 18:12 says, He made darkness His hiding-place round about Him; and bohu (desolation) means the slimy stones in the deep out of which the waters proceed, as Isaiah 34:11 says, He shall stretch over it the line of confusion (tohu) and the plummet of emptiness (bohu). The Gemara questioned Rab Judahs assertion that light was created on the first day, as Genesis 1:1617 reports that God made the two great lights . . . and God set them in the firmament of the heaven, and Genesis 1:19 reports that God did so on the fourth day. The Gemara explained that the light of which Rab Judah taught was the light of which Rabbi Eleazar spoke when he said that by the light that God created on the first day, one could see from one end of the world to the other; but as soon as God saw the corrupt generations of the Flood and the Dispersion, God hid the light from them, as Job 38:15 says, But from the wicked their light is withheld. Rather, God reserved the light of the first day for the righteous in the time to come, as Genesis 1:4 says, And God saw the light, that it was good. The Gemara noted a dispute among the Tannaim over this interpretation. Rabbi Jacob agreed with the view that by the light that God created on the first day one could see from one end of the world to the other. But the Sages equated the light created on the first day with the lights of which Genesis 1:14 speaks, which God created on the first day, but placed in the heavens on the fourth day. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 12a.)

The Third Day of Creation (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) Rab Judah taught that when God created the world, it went on expanding like two unraveling balls of thread, until God rebuked it and brought it to a standstill, as Job 26:21 says, "The pillars of heaven were trembling, but they became astonished at His rebuke." Similarly, Resh Lakish taught that the words "I am God Almighty" ( , El Shaddai) in Genesis 35:11 mean, "I am He Who said to the world: Enough!" ( ,Dai). Resh Lakish taught that when God created the sea, it went on expanding, until God rebuked it and caused it to dry up, as Nahum 1:4 says, "He rebukes the sea and makes it dry, and dries up all the rivers." (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 12a.)

Third Day of Creation (illustration from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle) The Rabbis reported in a Baraita that the House of Shammai taught that heaven was created first and the earth was created afterwards, as Genesis 1:1 says, In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. But the House of Hillel taught that the earth was created first and heaven was created afterwards, as Genesis 2:4 says, In the day that the Lord God made earth and heaven. The House of Hillel faulted the House of Shammai for believing that one can build a houses upper stories and afterwards builds the house, as Amos 9:6 calls heaven Gods upper chambers, saying, It is He Who builds His upper chambers in the heaven, and has founded His vault upon the earth. The House of Shammai, in turn, faulted the House of Hillel for believing that a person builds a footstool first, and afterwards builds the throne, as Isaiah 66:1 calls heaven Gods throne and the earth Gods footstool. But the Sages said that God created both heaven and earth at the same time, as Isaiah 48:13 says, My hand has laid the foundation of the earth, and My right hand has spread out the heavens: When I call to them, they stand up together. The House of Shammai and the House of Hillel, however,

interpreted the word together in Isaiah 48:13 to mean only that heaven and earth cannot be separated from each another. Resh Lakish reconciled the differing verses by positing that God created heaven first, and afterwards created the earth; but when God put them in place, God put the earth in place first, and afterwards put heaven in place. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 12a.) Rabbi Jose bar Hanina taught that heaven ( ,shamayim) means there is water (sham mayim). A Baraita taught that it means fire and water (eish umayim), teaching that God brought fire and water together and mixed them to make the firmament. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 12a.)

Fourth Day of Creation (illustration from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle)

The Fourth Day of Creation (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) Interpreting the words God called the light ( ,or) day in Genesis 1:5, the Gemara hypothesized that or ( )might thus be read to mean "daytime." The Gemara further hypothesized from its use in Genesis 1:5 that or ( )might be read to mean the time when light begins to appear that is, daybreak. If so, then one would need to interpret the continuation of Genesis 1:5, "and the darkness He called night," to teach that "night" (, lailah) similarly must mean the advancing of darkness. But it is established (in Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 2b) that day continues until stars appear. The Gemara therefore concluded that when God called the light" in Genesis 1:5, God summoned the light and appointed it for duty by day, and similarly God summoned the darkness and appointed it for duty by night. (Babylonian Talmud Pesachim 2a.)

The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that once Rabbi Joshua ben Hananiah was standing on a step on the Temple Mount, and Ben Zoma (who was younger than Rabbi Joshua) saw him but did not stand up before him in respect. So Rabbi Joshua asked Ben Zoma what was up. Ben Zoma replied that he was staring at the space between the upper and the lower waters (described in Genesis 1:67). Ben Zoma said that there is only a bare three fingers space between the upper and the lower waters. Ben Zoma reasoned that Genesis 1:2 says, And the spirit of God hovered over the face of the waters, implying a distance similar to that of a mother dove that hovers over her young without touching them. But Rabbi Joshua told his disciples that Ben Zoma was still outside the realm of understanding. Rabbi Joshua noted that Genesis 1:2 says that the spirit of God hovered over the face of the water on the first day of Creation, but God divided the waters on the second day, as Genesis 1:67 reports. (And thus the distance that God hovered above the waters need not be the distance between the upper and lower waters). The Gemara presented various views of how great the distance is between the upper and the lower waters. Rav Aha bar Jacob said that the distance was a hair's breadth. The Rabbis said that the distance was like that between the planks of a bridge. Mar Zutra (or some say Rav Assi) said that the distance was like that between two cloaks spread one over another. And others said that the distance was like that between two cups nested one inside the other. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 15a.)

The Fifth Day of Creation (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) Rabbi Judah ben Pazi noted that a similar word appears in both Genesis 1:6 where , rakya is translated as firmament and Exodus 39:3 where ,vayraku is translated as and they flattened. He thus deduced from the usage in Exodus 39:3 that Genesis 1:6 taught that on the second day of creation, God spread the heavens flat like a cloth. (Jerusalem Talmud Berakhot 6a.) Or Rabbi Judah ben Simon deduced from Exodus 39:3 that Genesis 1:6 meant let a lining be made for the firmament. (Genesis Rabbah 4:2.)

Behemoth and Levaithan (watercolor by William Blake from his 1826 Illustrations of the Book of Job) A Baraita taught that the upper waters created in Genesis 1:67 remain suspended by Divine command, and their fruit is the rainwater, and thus Psalm 104:13 says: "The earth is full of the fruit of Your works." This view accords with that of Rabbi Joshua. Rabbi Eliezer, however, interpreted Psalm 104:13 to refer to other handiwork of God. (Babylonian Talmud Taanit 10a.) Rabbi Johanan taught that the words and God created the great sea-monsters in Genesis 1:21 referred to Leviathan the slant serpent and Leviathan the tortuous serpent, also referred to in Isaiah 27:1 Rab Judah taught in the name of Rab that God created all living things in this world male and female, including Leviathan the slant serpent and Leviathan the tortuous serpent. Had they mated with one another, they would have destroyed the world, so God castrated the male and killed the female, preserving it in salt for the righteous in the world to come, as reported in Isaiah 27:1 when it says: And he will slay the dragon that is in the sea. Similarly, God also created male and female the Behemoth upon a thousand hills referred to in Psalm 50:10 Had they mated, they also would have destroyed the world, so God castrated the male and cooled the female and preserved it for the righteous for the world to come. Rab Judah taught further in the name of Rab that when God wanted to create the world, God told the angel of the sea to open the angels mouth and swallow all the waters of the world. When the angel protested, God struck the angel dead, as reported in Job 26:12, when it says: He stirs up the sea with his power and by his understanding he smites through Rahab. Rabbi Isaac deduced from this that the name of the angel of the sea was Rahab, and had the waters not covered Rahab, no creature could have stood the smell. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Batra 74b.)

The Sixth Day of Creation (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) Rabbi Johanan explained that Genesis 1:26 uses the plural pronoun when God says, Let us make man, to teach that God does nothing without consulting Gods Heavenly Court of angels (thus instructing us in the proper conduct of humility among subordinates). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 38b.) Rabbi Eleazar read the words "since the day that God created man upon the earth, and ask from the one side of heaven" in Deuteronomy 4:32 to read, "from the day that God created Adam on earth and to the end of heaven." Thus Rabbi Eleazar read Deuteronomy 4:32 to intimate that when God created Adam in Genesis 1:2627, Adam extended from the earth to the firmament. But as soon as Adam sinned, God placed God's hand upon Adam and diminished him, as Psalm 139:5 says: "You have fashioned me after and before, and laid Your hand upon me." Similarly, Rab Judah in the name of Rab taught that when God created Adam in Genesis 1:2627, Adam extended from one end of the world to the other, reading Deuteronomy 4:32 to read, "Since the day that God created man upon the earth, and from one end of heaven to the other." (And Rab Judah in the name of Rab also taught that as soon as Adam sinned, God placed God's hand upon Adam and diminished him.) The Gemara reconciled the interpretations of Rabbi Eleazar and Rab Judah in the name of Rab by concluding that the distance from the earth to the firmament must equal the distance from one end of heaven to the other. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 12a.)

Seventh Day of Creation (illustration from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle)

The Mishnah taught that in Second Temple times, Jews would acknowledge Gods creation and read the verses of the creation story when representatives of the people would assemble (as what were called maamadot) to participate in sacrifices made in Jerusalem on their behalf. (Mishnah Megillah 3:6; Babylonian Talmud Megillah 30b.) The people of the delegation would fast four days during the week that they assembled. On the first day (Sunday), they would read Genesis 1:18 On the second day, they would read Genesis 1:613 On the third day, they would read Genesis 1:919 On the fourth day, they would read Genesis 1:1423 On the fifth day, they would read Genesis 1:2031 And on the sixth day, they would read Genesis 1:242:3 (Mishnah Taanit 4:3; Babylonian Talmud Taanit 26b.) Rabbi Ammi taught that if had not been for the worship of these delegations, heaven and earth would not be firmly established, reading Jeremiah 33:25 to say, If it were not for My covenant [observed] day and night, I would not have established the statutes of heaven and earth. And Rabbi Ammi cited Genesis 15:89 to show that when Abraham asked God how Abraham would know that his descendants would inherit the Land notwithstanding their sins, God replied by calling on Abraham to sacrifice several animals. Rabbi Ammi then reported that Abraham asked God what would happen in times to come when there would be no Temple at which to offer sacrifices. Rabbi Ammi reported that God replied to Abraham that whenever Abrahams descendents will read the sections of the Torah dealing with the sacrifices, God will account it as if they had brought the offerings, and forgive all their sins. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 31b.)

The Sabbath (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) It was recorded in Rabbi Joshua ben Levi's notebook that a person born on the first day of the week (Sunday) will lack one thing. The Gemara explained that the person will be either completely virtuous or completely wicked, because on that day (in Genesis 1:35) God created the extremes of light and darkness. A person born on the second day of the week (Monday) will be bad-tempered, because on that day (in Genesis 1:67) God divided the waters (and similarly division will exist between this person and others). A person born on the third day of the week (Tuesday) will be wealthy and promiscuous, because on that day (in Genesis 1:11) God created fast-growing herbs. A person born on the fourth day of the week (Wednesday) will be bright, because on that day (in Genesis 1:1617) God set the luminaries in the sky. A person born on the fifth day of the week (Thursday) will practice kindness, because on that day (in Genesis 1:21) God created the fish and birds (who find their sustenance through God's kindness). A person born on the eve of the Sabbath (Friday) will be a seeker. Rav Nahman bar Isaac explained: a seeker after good deeds. A person born on the Sabbath (Saturday) will die on the Sabbath, because they had to desecrate the great day of the

Sabbath on that person's account to attend to the birth. And Raba son of Rav Shila observed that this person shall be called a great and holy person. (Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 156a.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 2

Raba (or some say Rabbi Joshua ben Levi) taught that even a person who prays on the eve of the Sabbath must recite Genesis 2:13, And the heaven and the earth were finished . . . ( , va-yachulu hashamayim vhaaretz . . .), for Rav Hamnuna taught that whoever prays on the eve of the Sabbath and recites and the heaven and the earth were finished, the Writ treats as though a partner with God in the Creation, for one may read vayachulu ( )and they were finished as va-yekallu and they finished. Rabbi Eleazar taught that we know that speech is like action because Psalm 33:6 says, By the word of the Lord were the heavens made. Rav Hisda said in Mar Ukba's name that when one prays on the eve of the Sabbath and recites and the heaven and the earth were finished, two ministering angels place their hands on the head of the person praying and say (in the words of Isaiah 6:7), Your iniquity is taken away, and your sin purged. (Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 119b.)

The Creation of Eve (1825 drawing by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld) The Mishnah taught that God created humanity from one person in Genesis 2:7 to teach that Providence considers one who destroys a single person as one who has destroyed an entire world, and Providence considers one who saves a single person as one who has saved an entire world. And God created humanity from one person for the sake of peace, so that none can say that their ancestry is greater than anothers. And God created humanity from one person so that heretics cannot say that there are many gods who created several human souls. And God created humanity from one person to demonstrate Gods greatness, for people stamp out many coins with one coin press and they all look alike, but God stamped each person with the seal of Adam, and not one of them is like another. Therefore, every person is obliged to say, For my sake the world was created. (Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5; Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 37a.)

Creation of Eve (marble bas-relief by Lorenzo Maitani on the Orvieto Cathedral) Rav Nahman bar Rav Hisda expounded on the words, Then the Lord God formed ( ,wa yitzer) man, in Genesis 2:7. Rav Nahman bar Rav Hisda taught that the word ,wa-yitzer is written with two yuds ( )to show that God created people with two inclinations (yetzerim), one good and one evil. Rav Nahman bar Isaac demurred, arguing that according to this logic, animals, of which Genesis 2:19 writes ,wa-yitzer with a single yud, should have no evil inclination, but we see that they injure, bite, and kick, plainly evincing an evil inclination. Rather, Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi explained that the two yuds by saying, Woe is me because of my Creator (yotzri), woe is me because of my evil inclination (yitzri)! Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi thus indicated that the two yuds indicate the human condition, where God punishes us for giving in to our evil inclination, but our evil inclination tempts us when we try to resist. Alternatively, Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar explained that the two yuds reflect that God created two countenances in the first man, one man and one woman, back to back, as Psalm 139:5 says, Behind and before have You formed me. (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 61a.) Similarly, a midrash recounts that Rabbi Jeremiah ben Leazar taught that when God created Adam, God created him a hermaphrodite two bodies, male and female, joined together for Genesis 5:2 says, male and female created He them . . . and called their name Adam. Rabbi Samuel ben Nahman taught that when God created Adam, God created Adam doublefaced, then God split Adam and made Adam of two backs, one back on this side and one back on the other side. An objection was raised that Genesis 2:21 says, And He took one of his ribs (implying that God created Eve separately from Adam). Rabbi Samuel ben Nahman replied that the word read as rib ,mi-zalotav actually means one of Adams sides, just as one reads in Exodus 26:20, And for the second side ( ,zela) of the tabernacle. (Genesis Rabbah 8:1.)

Adam and Eve were both naked and were not ashamed (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) The Gemara taught that all agree that there was only one formation of humankind (not a separate creation of man and woman). Rab Judah, however, noted an apparent contradiction: Genesis 1:27 says, And God created man in His own image (in the singular), while Genesis 5:2 says, Male and female created He them (in the plural). Rab Judah reconciled the apparent contradiction by concluding that in the beginning God intended to create two human beings, and in the end God created only one human being. (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 8a.)

The Garden of Eden (illustration from Bible card published 1906 by the Providence Lithograph Company) Rab and Samuel offered different explanations of the words in Genesis 2:22, And the rib which the Lord God had taken from man made He a woman. One said that this rib was a face, the other that it was a tail. In support of the one who said it was a face, Psalm 139:5

says, Behind and before have You formed me. The one who said it was a tail explained the words, Behind and before have You formed me, as Rabbi Ammi said, that humankind was behind, that is, later, in the work of creation, and before in punishment. The Gemara conceded that humankind was last in the work of creation, for God created humankind on the eve of the Sabbath. But if when saying that humankind was first for punishment, one means the punishment in connection with the serpent, Rabbi taught that, in conferring honor the Bible commences with the greatest, in cursing with the least important. Thus, in cursing, God began with the least, cursing first the serpent, then the people. The punishment of the Flood must therefore be meant, as Genesis 7:23 says, And He blotted out every living substance which was upon the face of the ground, both man and cattle, starting with the people. In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a face, in Genesis 2:7, the word , wa-yitzer is written with two yuds. But the one who said Eve was created from a tail explained the word ,wa-yitzer as Rabbi Simeon ben Pazzi said, Woe is me because of my Creator (yotzri), woe is me because of my evil inclination (yitzri)! In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a face, Genesis 5:2 says, male and female created He them. But the one who said Eve was created from a tail explained the words, male and female created He them, as Rabbi Abbahu explained when he contrasted the words, male and female created He them, in Genesis 5:2 with the words, in the image of God made He man, in Genesis 9:6. Rabbi Abbahu reconciled these statements by teaching that at first God intended to create two, but in the end created only one. In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a face, Genesis 2:22 says, He closed up the place with flesh instead thereof. But the one who said Eve was created from a tail explained the words, He closed up the place with flesh instead thereof, as Rabbi Jeremiah (or as some say Rav Zebid, or others say Rav Nahman bar Isaac) said, that these words applied only to the place where God made the cut. In support of the one who said that Eve was created from a tail, Genesis 2:22 says, God built. But the one who said that Eve was created from a face explained the words God built as explained by Rabbi Simeon ben Menasia, who interpreted the words, and the Lord built the rib, to teach that God braided Eve's hair and brought her to Adam, for in the seacoast towns braiding (keli'ata) is called building (binyata). Alternatively, Rav Hisda said (or some say it was taught in a Baraita) that the words, and the Lord built the rib, teach that God built Eve after the fashion of a storehouse, narrow at the top and broad at the bottom so as to hold the produce safely. So Rav Hisda taught that a woman is narrower above and broader below so as better to carry children. (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 61a; see also Eruvin 18a.)

God admonishes Eve regarding the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil (marble bas-relief by Lorenzo Maitani on the Orvieto Cathedral)

The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that if an orphan applied to the community for assistance to marry, the community must rent a house, supply a bed and necessary household furnishings, and put on the wedding, as Deuteronomy 15:8 says, sufficient for his need, whatever is lacking for him. The Rabbis interpreted the words sufficient for his need to refer to the house, whatever is lacking to refer to a bed and a table, and for him ( ,lo) to refer to a wife, as Genesis 2:18 uses the same term, for him ( ,lo), to refer to Adams wife, whom Genesis 2:18 calls a helpmate for him. (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 67b.)

Adam Is Tempted by Eve (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar interpreted the words, and he brought her to the man, in Genesis 2:22 to teach that God acted as best man to Adam, teaching that a man of eminence should not think it amiss to act as best man for a lesser man. (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 61a.) Interpreting the words And the man said: This is now bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called Woman in Genesis 2:23, Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi taught that the first time God created a woman for Adam, he saw her full of discharge and blood. So God removed her from Adam and recreated her a second time. (Genesis Rabbah 18:4.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 3

A midrash explained that because the serpent was the first to speak slander in Genesis 3:45, God punished the Israelites by means of serpents in Numbers 21:6 when they spoke slander. God cursed the serpent, but the Israelites did not learn a lesson from the serpents fate, and nonetheless spoke slander. God therefore sent the serpent, who was the first to introduce slander, to punish those who spoke slander. (Numbers Rabbah 19:22.) Judah ben Padiah noted Adams frailty, for he could not remain loyal even for a single hour to Gods charge that he not eat from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, yet in accordance with Leviticus 19:23, Adams descendants the Israelites waited three years for the fruits of a tree. (Genesis Rabbah 21:7.)

God's Curse (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

Adam and Eve Driven from Paradise (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina taught that Genesis 3:21 demonstrates one of Gods attributes that humans should emulate. Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina asked what Deuteronomy 13:5 means in the text, You shall walk after the Lord your God. How can a human being walk after God, when Deuteronomy 4:24 says, [T]he Lord your God is a devouring fire? Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina explained that the command to walk after God means to walk after the attributes of God. As God clothes the naked for Genesis 3:21 says, And the Lord God made for Adam and for his wife coats of skin, and clothed them so should we also clothe the naked. God visited the sick for Genesis 18:1 says, And the Lord appeared to him by the oaks of Mamre (after Abraham was circumcised in Genesis 17:26) so should we also visit the sick. God comforted mourners for Genesis 25:11 says, And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son so should we also comfort mourners. God buried the dead for Deuteronomy 34:6 says, And He buried him in the valley so should we also bury the dead. (Babylonian Talmud Sotah 14a.) Similarly, the Sifre on Deuteronomy 11:22 taught that to walk in Gods ways means to be (in the words of Exodus 34:6) merciful and gracious. (Sifre to Deuteronomy 49:1.)

Cain leads Abel to death (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

[edit] Genesis chapter 4

The Mishnah taught that court officials admonished witnesses testifying in capital cases to beware that the blood of the defendant and all the defendants offspring to the end of the world depended on the witness, for Genesis 4:10 says concerning Cain that the bloods of your brother cry . . . from the ground, using the plural bloods to signify the victims blood and the blood of the victims offspring. The Mishnah reported that another interpretation of brother's bloods was that Abels blood spattered in several places on the surrounding trees and stones. (Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5; Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 37a.)

God Took Enoch (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible)

[edit] Genesis chapter 5

The Mishnah taught that Genesis 5:131 enumerated ten generations from Adam to Noah to demonstrate how patient God is, for according to the Mishnah, all those generations provoked God, until God brought on them the waters of the flood. (Mishnah Avot 5:2.) Rabbi Tanhuma taught in Rabbi Banayah's name, and Rabbi Berekiah taught in Rabbi Eleazar's name, that God created Adam a shapeless mass, and Adam lay stretching from one end of the world to the other, as Psalm 139:16 says, Your eyes did see my shapeless mass. Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon taught that while Adam lay a shapeless mass before God, God showed Adam every succeeding generation of mankind and its Sages, judges, scribes, interpreters, and leaders. God told Adam, in the words of Psalm 139:16, Your eyes did see unformed substance, Adams potential descendants, and God told Adam that all of those descendants had already been written in the book of Adam, as Genesis 5:1 says: This is the book of the generations of Adam. (Genesis Rabbah 24:2.) Rabbi Eleazar read the words of Genesis 5:2, male and female created He them, and called their name man, and deduced that one cannot be called a complete man unless one is married. (Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 63a.) Noting that Genesis 5:24 says of Enoch not that he died, but that God took him, some sectarians (Judeo-Christians or Christians) challenged Rabbi Abbahu, saying that they did not find that Enoch died, but that God took him, just as 2 Kings 2:1 says that God would take Elijah. Rabbi Abbahu reasoned that one could read the verb took in Genesis 5:24 just as take is used in Ezekiel 24:16, which says, Behold, I take away from you the desire of your eyes, and there definitely refers to death. (Genesis Rabbah 25:1.) Also interpreting Genesis 5:24, Rabbi Aibu taught that Enoch was a hypocrite, acting sometimes righteously and sometimes wickedly. So God removed Enoch while Enoch was acting righteously, judging Enoch on Rosh Hashanah, when God judges the whole world. (Genesis Rabbah 25:1.)

The Deluge (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

[edit] Genesis chapter 6

Rabbi Levi, or some say Rabbi Jonathan, said that a tradition handed down from the Men of the Great Assembly taught that wherever the Bible employs the term and it was or and it came to pass ( ,wa-yehi), as it does in Genesis 6:1, it indicates misfortune, as one can read wa-yehi as wai, hi, woe, sorrow. Thus the words, And it came to pass when man began to multiply, in Genesis 6:1, are followed by the words, God Saw that the wickedness of man was great, in Genesis 6:5. And the Gemara also cited the instances of Genesis 11:2 followed by Genesis 11:4; Genesis 14:1 followed by Genesis 14:2; Joshua 5:13 followed by the rest of Joshua 5:13; Joshua 6:27 followed by Joshua 7:1; 1 Samuel 1:1 followed by 1 Samuel 1:5; 1 Samuel 8:1 followed by 1 Samuel 8:3; 1 Samuel 18:14 close after 1 Samuel 18:9; 2 Samuel 7:1 followed by 1 Kings 8:19; Ruth 1:1 followed by the rest of Ruth 1:1; and Esther 1:1 followed by Haman. But the Gemara also cited as counterexamples the words, And there was evening and there was morning one day, in Genesis 1:5, as well as Genesis 29:10, and 1 Kings 6:1. So Rav Ashi replied that wa-yehi sometimes presages misfortune, and sometimes it does not, but the expression and it came to pass in the days of always presages misfortune. And for that proposition, the Gemara cited Genesis 14:1, Isaiah 7:1 Jeremiah 1:3, Ruth 1:1, and Esther 1:1. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 10b.) Reading the words of Genesis 6:2, the sons of God ( ,-bene elohim) saw the daughters of men, Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai called them the sons of nobles, and Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai cursed all who called them the sons of God. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai taught that all real demoralization proceeds from the leaders, as they are in a position to stop it. Rabbi Haninah and Resh Lakish reasoned that Genesis 6:2 calls them the sons of God because they lived a long time without trouble or suffering. (Genesis Rabbah 26:5.) Rav Huna said in Rav Joseph's name that the generation of the flood were not blotted out from the world until they composed nuptial songs (or others say, wrote marriage contracts) in honor of pederasty and bestiality. (Genesis Rabbah 26:5.)

[edit] Commandments
According to the Sefer ha-Chinuch, a noted authority on the commandments, there is one positive commandment in the parshah:

To "be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 1:28)

(Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, 1: 82 85. Jerusalem: Feldheim Pub., 1991. ISBN 0-87306-515-8.) Maimonides, however, attributes the commandment to Genesis 9:7 (Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Positive Commandment 212. Cairo, Egypt, 11701180. Reprinted in Maimonides. The Commandments: Sefer Ha-Mitzvoth of Maimonides. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, 1:228. London: Soncino Press, 1967. ISBN 0-900689-71-4.) Most rabbis agree, based on the Shulchan Aruch, that one does not have to have children but merely try to. Raising adopted children as your own also fulfils this mitzvah. (Ask the rabbi at Ohr Somayach. Retrieved October 15, 2006.)

Isaiah (1509 fresco by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel)

[edit] Haftarah
The haftarah is a text selected from the books of Nevi'im ("The Prophets") that is read publicly in the synagogue after the reading of the Torah. The haftarah usually has a thematic link to the Torah reading that precedes it. The haftarah for Bereishit is:

for Ashkenazi Jews: Isaiah 42:543:10 for Sephardi Jews, Frankfurt am Main, and Chabad Lubavitch: Isaiah 42:521 for Yemenite Jews: Isaiah 42:116 for Italian Jews: Isaiah 42:121 for Karaite Jews: Isaiah 65:766:13

The parshah and haftarah in Isaiah 42 both report Gods absolute power. Genesis 1:12:4 and Isaiah 42:5 both tell of Gods creation of heaven and earth. The haftarah in Isaiah 42:6 7, 16 echoes the word light (and Gods control of it) from Genesis 1:35, but puts the word to broader use. And the haftarah puts the idea of opening . . . eyes (in Isaiah 42:7) in more favorable light than does the parshah (in Genesis 3:57).

[edit] In the liturgy

The first word of Genesis 1:1, bereishit, and thus Gods role as Creator, is recited in the Aleinu, a prayer near the end of each of the three prayer services. (Reuven Hammer. Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals, 11, 51, 183. New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003. ISBN 0916219208.) Gods creation of heaven and earth in Genesis 1:1 is reflected in Psalm 96:5,11, which is in turn one of the six Psalms recited at the beginning of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service. (Hammer, at 16.)

A page from the Kaufmann Haggadah The waters of creation in Genesis 1:2 may be reflected in Psalm 29:3, which is in turn one of the six Psalms recited at the beginning of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service. (Hammer, at 20.) At the beginning of the Kriat Shma prayer service, following the Barchu, Jews recite a blessing that acknowledges Gods miracle of creation, noting, among other acts, Gods separating day from night, as recounted in Genesis 1:18. (Hammer, at 28.) In the Passover Haggadah, if the Seder takes place on Friday night, then many Jews recite Genesis 1:312:3 or 2:13 at the beginning of the Kiddush section of the Seder. (Menachem Davis. The Interlinear Haggadah: The Passover Haggadah, with an Interlinear Translation, Instructions and Comments, 29. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005. ISBN 1-57819-064-9. Joseph Tabory. JPS Commentary on the Haggadah: Historical Introduction, Translation, and Commentary, 79. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8276-0858-0.) Following the Kabbalat Shabbat service and prior to the Friday evening (Ma'ariv) service, Jews traditionally read rabbinic sources on the observance of the Sabbath, including an excerpt from Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 119b. In Shabbat 119b, Rava instructed that one should recite Genesis 2:13 on the eve of the Sabbath. (Hammer, at 26.) The Lekhah Dodi liturgical poem of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service reflects the role of the Sabbath described in Genesis 2:23, characterizing the Sabbath as the last of the work (of Creation) (sof maaseh). (Hammer, at 21.) Reuven Kimelman found in the awake and arise stanza of the Lekhah Dodi poem a play between the root or, from which stems the word for skin or leather, and the homonym or that means light. In Genesis 3:21, Adam exchanged garments of light for garments of leather; the Lekhah Dodi poem calls on God to exchange our current garments of skin for garments of light. (Hammer, at 21.) The Divine beings or sons of God mentioned in Genesis 6:2 are reflected in Psalm 29:1, which is in turn one of the six Psalms recited at the beginning of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service. (Hammer, at 20.)

[edit] The Weekly Maqam

In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parshah. For parshah Bereshit, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Rast, the maqam that shows a beginning or an initiation of something. In this case it is appropriate, because we are initiating the Book of Genesis.

[edit] See also

Adam in rabbinic literature Curse and mark of Cain Noah in rabbinic literature

[edit] Further reading

The parshah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:

Gilgamesh tablet

[edit] Ancient

Enma Elish. Epic of Gilgamesh: 11:258307. Hesiod. Theogony Greece, circa 700 BCE. (creation story).

[edit] Biblical

Genesis 9:1,7, 35:11 (to be fruitful). Numbers 13:3133 (Nephilim); 22:2135 (talking animal). Deuteronomy 4:19. 2 Samuel 7:1214. Isaiah 42:5; 44:24; 51:910. Jeremiah 4:2328; 18:110; 23:3; 51:1519 (creation). Ezekiel 1:514, 22, 2628 (cherubim; firmament; man in Gods image); 10:122 (cherubim); 28:13 (Eden). Malachi 2:1516. Psalms 8:58; 33:69; 74:1217; 82:67; 89:911; 95:35; 100:3; 104:130. Proverbs 8:2229. Job 26:1213; 37:18; 38:418.

Josephus

[edit] Early nonrabbinic

The Genesis Apocryphon. Dead Sea scroll 1Q20. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE. Reprinted in Gza Vermes. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 44850. New York: Penguin Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7139-9131-3. Josephus. Antiquities of the Jews 1:1:14, 2:13, 3:12, 4. Circa 9394. Reprinted in, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, 2933. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 1987. ISBN 0-913573-86-8. John 1:15 (creation). Revelation 12:117. Qur'an 5:2732. Arabia, 7th century.

[edit] Classical rabbinic

Mishnah: Taanit 4:3; Megillah 3:6; Yevamot 6:6; Sanhedrin 4:5, 10:3; Avot 5:12; Chullin 5:5; Mikvaot 5:4. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4. Tosefta: Peah 4:10; Chagigah 2:6; Ketubot 6:8; Sotah 3:7, 9, 4:11, 1718, 10:2; Sanhedrin 13:6; Keritot 4:15. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 2002. ISBN 1-56563-642-2. Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 6ab, 83b, 84b, 86b, 90a; Peah 8a; Kilayim 4b, 5b6a; Sukkah 7b. Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, vols. 1 3, 5, 22. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 20052009. Genesis Rabbah 1:129:5; 30:78; 31:1; 32:7; 33:3; 34:9, 13; 38:4, 9; 42:3; 44:17; 49:2; 50:7; 51:2; 53:8; 54:1; 61:4; 64:2; 65:13; 73:3; 80:56; 82:14; 85:2; 89:2; 92:6, 8; 97; 100:7. Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Leviticus Rabbah 1:9; 6:6; 9:3, 6, 9; 10:5, 9; 11:1, 2, 7; 13:5; 14:1; 15:1, 9; 18:2; 19:6; 20:2; 22:2; 23:3, 9; 25:3; 27:1, 5; 29:11; 30:4; 31:1, 8; 33:6; 35:6, 8; 36:1, 4. Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.

Talmud

Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 2a, 26a, 34b, 57b, 59b, 61a; Shabbat 88a, 89a, 95a, 109a, 111a, 118b, 119b; Eruvin 18ab, 27b, 100b; Pesachim 2a, 54a, 72b, 88a, 118a; Yoma 20b, 23a, 44b, 52b, 67b, 75a; Sukkah 11b, 49a, 52b; Beitzah 36b; Rosh Hashanah 11a, 24b, 31a; Taanit 8a, 9b, 10a, 22b, 26a, 27b; Megillah 10b, 20b, 22a, 25a, 28a; Moed Katan 7b, 8b, 16a, 17a, 18b, 23a, 24b; Chagigah 2b, 11b12b, 13b, 15a; Yevamot 61a63a, 65b, 121a; Ketubot 5a, 8a, 10b, 61a, 67b; Nedarim 39b, 41a; Sotah 9b, 12a, 14a; Gittin 43b, 60a; Kiddushin 6a, 13b, 30b, 35a, 61b; Bava Kamma 55a; Bava Metzia 18a, 85b; Bava Batra 16ab, 74b, 84a, 113a, 121a; Sanhedrin 29a,

37ab, 38b39a, 46b, 56ab, 58a, 59b, 67b, 70b, 91b, 99a, 101b, 107b108b, 110a, 113b; Makkot 23a; Shevuot 47b; Avodah Zarah 3a, 5a, 11b, 29a, 43b; Zevachim 116a; Menachot 29b; Chullin 26b, 27b, 60ab, 71a, 83a; Bekhorot 8a, 47a, 55ab; Tamid 32a; Niddah 22b, 25a, 30b, 45b. Babylonia, 6th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 vols. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.

[edit] Medieval

Deuteronomy Rabbah 2:13, 25; 4:5; 6:11; 8:1; 9:8; 10:2. Land of Israel, 9th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Sefer Yetzirah. 10th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Aryeh Kaplan. Sefer Yetzirah: The Book of Creation; In Theory and Practice. Boston: Weiser Books, 1997. ISBN 087728-855-0. Exodus Rabbah 1:2, 14, 20, 32; 2:4; 3:13; 5:1; 9:11; 10:12; 12:3; 14:2; 15:7, 22, 30; 21:6, 8; 23:4; 25:6; 29:68; 30:3, 13; 31:17; 32:12; 33:4; 34:2; 35:1; 41:2; 48:2; 50:1; 52:5. 10th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Exodus. Translated by S. M. Lehrman. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.

Ibn Gabirol

Solomon ibn Gabirol. A Crown for the King, 4:5051; 6:63; 10:10715; 12:12425 24:290; 25:29495; 31:37178. Spain, 11th century. Translated by David R. Slavitt, 811, 1417, 3841. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-511962-2. Numbers Rabbah 1:1; 2:21; 3:8; 4:8; 5:34; 7:5, 7; 8:4; 9:7, 18, 24; 10:12, 45, 8; 11:23; 12:4, 6, 13; 13:23, 56, 12, 14; 14:6, 9, 12; 15:7, 9; 16:24; 17:1; 18:7, 22; 19:23, 11, 23; 20:2, 6; 21:18; 23:13. 12th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Numbers. Translated by Judah J. Slotki. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Esther Rabbah: prologue 1011; 3:9; 7:11; 9:23. Song of Songs Rabbah 1:6, 16, 17, 25, 47; 2:41, 47; 3:18, 22; 4:32; 5:1, 13; 6:25; 7:17; 8:1. Ruth Rabbah: prologue 7; 1:4; 2:3; 5:2; 8:1. Lamentations Rabbah: prologue 4, 24, 26; 1:1, 37, 43, 52; 2:10; 3:13; 5:22. Ecclesiastes Rabbah 1:3, 1214, 3537; 2:15, 23, 2627; 3:1, 1315, 1718, 22; 5:7, 11; 6:9; 7:67, 20, 33, 35, 39, 42; 8:2; 9:8; 10:12. Beowulf. Lines 99114, 125568. England, 8th11th Centuries. In, e.g., Beowulf: A New Verse Translation. Translated by Seamus Heaney, 9, 89. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2000. ISBN 0-374-11119-7. (Cain).

Rashi

Rashi. Commentary. Genesis 16. Troyes, France, late 11th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashis Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, 1:163. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-89906-026-9. Judah Halevi. Kuzari. s:Kitab al Khazari/Part Two 2:14, 20; 3:1, 73; 4:3, 25; 5:10. Toledo, Spain, 11301140. Reprinted in, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Intro. by Henry Slonimsky, 8991, 94, 135, 193, 195, 209, 229, 235, 25456. New York: Schocken, 1964. ISBN 0-8052-0075-4. Zohar 1:1a, 3b, 11b, 15a59a, 59b, 60b, 70b71a, 73ab, 76a, 79b80a, 82b, 85a, 95b, 97ab, 102b, 103b, 105b, 115a, 124a, 128b, 130b131a, 138ab, 141b, 143ab, 144b, 148b, 154b155a, 158a, 162b163a, 165ab, 166b, 171a, 177a, 179ab, 184a, 194a, 199b, 208a, 216a, 224a, 227b, 232a, 240a; 2:10ab, 11b12a, 15b, 23a, 24b, 27ab, 28b, 34a, 37ab, 39a, 51a, 54b55a, 63b, 68b, 70a, 75a, 79a, 85b, 88a, 90a, 94b, 99b, 103a, 113b, 127b, 147b, 149b, 167a168a, 171a, 172a, 174b175a, 184a, 192b, 201a, 207b, 210b211b, 219b, 220b, 222b, 224b, 226a, 229b230a, 231ab, 234b235a; 3:7a, 9b, 19ab, 24b, 35b, 39b40a, 44b, 46b, 48ab, 58a, 61b, 83b, 93a, 107a, 117a, 148a, 189a, 261b, 298a. Spain, late 13th century. Reprinted in, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1934.

Hobbes

[edit] Modern

Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 2:20; 3:34, 36, 38; 4:44. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, 259, 430, 432, 440, 453, 479, 486, 63637, 64547. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0140431950. John Milton. Paradise Lost. 1667. Reprint, Penguin Classics, 2003. ISBN 0-14042439-3. Doctrine and Covenants 27:11; 107:54. Missouri, 1835.

Dickinson

Jones Very. Enoch. 1838. In Harold Bloom. American Religious Poems, 95. Library of America, 2006. ISBN 978-1-931082-74-7. Emily Dickinson. Poem 1 (Awake ye muses nine, sing me a strain divine,). 1850. Poem 428 (Taking up the fair Ideal,). Circa 1862. Poem 503 (Better than Music!

For I who heard it ). Circa 1862. Poem 724 (It's easy to invent a Life ). Circa 1863. Poem 1069 (Paradise is of the option.). Circa 1866. Poem 1119 (Paradise is that old mansion). Circa 1868. Poem 1195 (What we see we know somewhat). Circa 1871. Poem 1545 (The Bible is an antique Volume ). Circa 1882. Poem 1657 (Eden is that old-fashioned House). 19th century. In The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Edited by Thomas H. Johnson, 34, 205, 24445, 355, 486, 503, 52829, 644, 677. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1960. ISBN 0-316-18414-4. Mark Twain. The Diaries of Adam and Eve. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books, 2000. ISBN 1-57392-827-5 William Butler Yeats. Adam's Curse. 1902. Reprinted in The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats: Definitive Edition, With the Author's Final Revisions, 7879. New York: Macmillan, 1956. Abraham Isaac Kook. The Lights of Penitence, 6:7, 11:4. 1925. The Lights of Holiness. Early 20th century. Reprinted in Abraham Isaac Kook: the Lights of Penitence, the Moral Principles, Lights of Holiness, Essays, Letters, and Poems. Translated by Ben Zion Bokser, 5960, 81, 195. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press 1978. ISBN 0-8091-2159-X.

Yeats

Thornton Wilder. The Skin of Our Teeth. 1942. Reprinted Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2003. ISBN 0060088931. Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, 3, 1011, 19 20, 2436, 56, 6869, 76, 8586, 88, 10405, 107, 154, 160, 171, 32324, 332, 347 50, 354, 393, 403, 44142, 44649, 457, 459, 463, 487, 524, 530, 72627, 806, 915, 917, 925. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-4001-9. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943. John Steinbeck. East of Eden. Viking Adult, 1952. ISBN 0-670-28738-5 Erich Auerbach. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Translated by Willard R. Trask, 14373. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press, 1953. ISBN 0-691-06078-9. Morris Adler. The World of the Talmud, 2526, 28, 76. Bnai Brith Hillel Foundations, 1958. Reprinted Kessinger Publishing, 2007. ISBN 0548080003. E.A. Speiser. Genesis: Introduction, Translation, and Notes, 151. New York: Anchor Bible, 1964. ISBN 0-385-00854-6.

Steinbeck

Bob Dylan. Gates of Eden. Columbia Records, 1965.

Martin Buber. On the Bible: Eighteen studies, 1421. New York: Schocken Books, 1968. Literary Interpretations of Biblical Narratives. Edited by Kenneth R.R. Gros Louis, with James S. Ackerman & Thayer S. Warshaw, 4158. Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1974. ISBN 0-687-22131-5. Elie Wiesel. Adam, or the Mystery of Being and Cain and Abel: the First Genocide. In Messengers of God: Biblical Portraits & Legends, 368. New York: Random House, 1976. ISBN 0-394-49740-6. Tikva Frymer-Kensky. The Atrahasis Epic and Its Significance for Our Understanding of Genesis 19. Biblical Archaeologist. 40 (4) (1977).

Wiesel

Bruce Springsteen. "Adam Raised a Cain." In Darkness on the Edge of Town. New York: Columbia Records, 1978. Mayer I. Gruber. Was Cain Angry or Depressed? Biblical Archaeology Review 6 (6) (November/December 1980). Harry M. Orlinsky. Enigmatic Bible Passages: The Plain Meaning of Genesis 1:13. Biblical Archaeologist 46 (1983). Michael Blumenthal. Light, at Thirty-Two. In Days We Would Rather Know. Viking, 1984. ISBN 0670776122. Ronald S. Hendel. When the Sons of God Cavorted with the Daughters of Men. Bible Review. 3 (2) (Summer 1987). Victor Hurowitz. When Did God Finish Creation? Bible Review 3 (4) (Winter 1987). Bernard Batto. When God Sleeps. Bible Review. 3 (4) (Winter 1987). Pamela J. Milne. Eve and Adam: Is a Feminist Reading Possible? Bible Review 4 (3) (June 1988). Gunnlaugur A. Jonsson. The Image of God: Genesis 1:2628 in a Century of Old Testament Research. Coronet Books, 1988. ISBN 912201215X. (Coniectanea Biblica Old Testament Series no. 26.) Jon D. Levenson. Creation and the Persistence of Evil: The Jewish Drama of Divine Omnipotence. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1988. ISBN 0-06-254845-X. Marc Gellman. Does God Have a Big Toe? Stories About Stories in the Bible, 117, 2325. New York: HarperCollins, 1989. ISBN 0-06-022432-0. Nahum M. Sarna. The JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: The Traditional Hebrew Text with the New JPS Translation, 347, 37576. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 1989. ISBN 0-8276-0326-6. Creation in the Biblical Traditions. Edited by Richard J. Clifford and John J. Collins. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1992. ISBN 0-91517023-X. Adrien Janis Bledstein. Was Eve Cursed? (Or Did a Woman Write Genesis?) Bible Review 9 (1) (February 1993).

Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, 5. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1993. ISBN 1-56000-081-3. Jacob Milgrom. Sex and Wisdom: What the Garden of Eden Story Is Saying: There is a plain, unambiguous meaning to the story: It is about sexual awareness and the creativity of which that is a part. Bible Review. 10 (6) (December 1994).

Steinsaltz

Phyllis Trible. Eve and Miriam: From the Margins to the Center. In Feminist Approaches to the Bible: Symposium at the Smithsonian Institution September 24, 1994. Biblical Archaeology Society, 1995. ISBN 1880317419. Marc Gellman. Gods Mailbox: More Stories About Stories in the Bible, 323. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996. ISBN 0-688-13169-7. Adin Steinsaltz. Simple Words: Thinking About What Really Matters in Life, 16, 25, 39, 46, 10507. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. ISBN 068484642X. Lawrence E. Stager. Jerusalem as Eden. Biblical Archaeology Review. 26 (3) (May/June 2000): 3647, 66. Jennifer Michael Hecht. History. In The Next Ancient World, 20. Dorset, Vermont: Tupelo Press, 2001. ISBN 0-97103-10-0-2. Pamela Tamarkin Reis. Genesis as Rashomon: The Creation as Told by God and Man. Bible Review 17 (3) (June 2001): 2633, 55.

Hecht

James Tate. Just to Feel Human. In Memoir of the Hawk. The Ecco Press, 2002. ISBN 006093543X. Alan Lew. This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation, 118, 121. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003. ISBN 0316-73908-1. Joseph Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, 3032, 21417, 29295. New York: Bell Tower, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4509-6. Robert Alter. The Five Books of Moses: A Translation with Commentary, xxv, xxxii xxxiii, xxxvxxxvi, xli, 1740. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004. ISBN 0-39301955-1. David Maine. Fallen. St. Martin's Press, 2005. ISBN 0-312-32849-4. Anthony Hecht. Naming the Animals. In Collected Later Poems, 64. New York: Knopf, 2005. ISBN 0375710302. J. Richard Middleton. The Liberating Image: The Imago Dei in Genesis 1. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2005. ISBN 1587431106.

Lawrence Kushner. Kabbalah: A Love Story, 11, 69. New York: Morgan Road Books, 2006. ISBN 0-7679-2412-6. R.W.L. Moberly. The Mark of Cain Revealed at Last? Harvard Theological Review 100 (1) (January 2007): 1128. Suzanne A. Brody. Etz Chaim and Eves Lament. In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, 17, 6162. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. ISBN 1-60047-112-9. Esther Jungreis. Life Is a Test, 50, 62, 13334, 165, 17880, 209. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. ISBN 1-4226-0609-0. James A. Diamond. Nachmanides and Rashi on the One Flesh of Conjugal Union: Lovemaking vs. Duty. Harvard Theological Review. 102 (2) (Apr. 2009): 193224. Elissa Elliott. Eve: A Novel of the First Woman. New York: Delacorte Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-385-34144-8. Jonathan Goldstein. Adam and Eve and Cain and Abel. In Ladies and Gentlemen, the Bible! 1343. New York: Riverhead Books, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59448-367-7.

[edit] External links

[edit] Texts

Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation Hear the parshah chanted

[edit] Commentaries

Academy for Jewish Religion, California Academy for Jewish Religion, New York Aish.com American Jewish University Anshe Emes Synagogue, Los Angeles Bar-Ilan University Chabad.org Department for Jewish Zionist Education eparsha.com Jewish Theological Seminary MyJewishLearning.com Ohr Sameach Orthodox Union OzTorah, Torah from Australia Oz Ve Shalom Netivot Shalom Parshah Parts Pardes from Jerusalem RabbiShimon.com

Rabbi Shlomo Riskin Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld Reconstructionist Judaism Sephardic Institute Shiur.com Tanach Study Center 613.org Jewish Torah Audio Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill Torah from Dixie Torah.org TorahVort.com Union for Reform Judaism United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism Whats Bothering Rashi?

Noach (parsha)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the Torah portion "Noach." For the Biblical figure, see Noah. Noach or Noah ( Hebrew for the name "Noah," the third word, and first distinctive word, of the parshah) is the second weekly Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. It constitutes Genesis 6:911:32. Jews read it on the second Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in October or November. The parshah tells the stories of the Flood and Noahs Ark, of Noahs subsequent drunkenness and cursing of Canaan, and of the Tower of Babel.

Noah's Ark (1846 painting by Edward Hicks)

Contents
[hide]

1 Summary o 1.1 The Flood o 1.2 The curse on Canaan o 1.3 Noahs descendants o 1.4 The Tower of Babel o 1.5 The line of Terah 2 In classical rabbinic interpretation o 2.1 Genesis chapter 6 o 2.2 Genesis chapter 7 o 2.3 Genesis chapter 8 o 2.4 Genesis chapter 9 o 2.5 Genesis chapter 10 o 2.6 Genesis chapter 11 3 Commandments 4 Haftarah o 4.1 Connection to the Parshah 5 In the liturgy 6 Further reading o 6.1 Ancient o 6.2 Biblical o 6.3 Early nonrabbinic o 6.4 Classical rabbinic

6.5 Medieval 6.6 Modern 7 See also 8 External links o 8.1 Texts
o o o

8.2 Commentaries

[edit] Summary

The Building of Noah's Ark (painting by a French master of 1675)

The Deluge (illustration by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

[edit] The Flood

Noah was a righteous man, blameless in his age, who walked with God. (Genesis 6:9) Noah had three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth. (Genesis 6:10) God saw that all flesh on earth had become corrupt and lawless, and God told Noah that God had decided to bring a flood to destroy all flesh. (Genesis 6:1117) God directed Noah to make an ark of gopher wood and cover it with pitch inside and outside. (Genesis 6:14) The Ark was to be 300 cubits long, 50 cubits wide, and 30 cubits high, and have an opening for daylight near the top, an entrance on its side, and three decks. (Genesis 6:1516) God told Noah that God would establish a covenant with Noah, and that he, his sons, his wife, his sons wives, and two of each kind of beast male and female would survive in the Ark. (Genesis 6:1820) Seven days before the Flood, God told Noah to go into the Ark with his household, and to take seven pairs of every clean animal and every bird, and one pair of every other animal, to keep their species alive. (Genesis 7:14) When Noah was 600 years old, the Flood came, and that same day, Noah, his family and the beasts went into the Ark, and God shut him in. (Genesis 7:616) The rains fell 40 days and 40 nights, the waters swelled 15 cubits above the highest mountains, and all flesh with the merest breath of life died, except for Noah and those with him on the Ark. (Genesis 7:1223) When the waters had swelled 150 days, God remembered Noah and the beasts, and God caused a wind to blow and the waters to recede steadily from the earth, and the Ark came to rest on the mountains of Ararat. (Genesis 7:248:4) At the end of 40 days, Noah opened the window and sent out a raven, and it went to and fro. (Genesis 8:67) Then he sent out a dove to see if the waters had decreased from the ground, but the dove could not find a resting place, and returned to the Ark. (Genesis 8:89)

The Return of the Dove (1851 painting by John Everett Millais) He waited another seven days, and again sent out the dove, and the dove came back toward evening with an olive leaf. (Genesis 8:1011) He waited another seven days and sent out the dove, and it did not return. (Genesis 8:12) When Noah removed the covering of the Ark, he saw that the ground was drying. (Genesis 8:13) God told Noah to come out of the Ark with his family and to free the animals. (Genesis 8:16)

Landscape with Noah's Thank Offering (painting circa 1803 by Joseph Anton Koch) Then Noah built an altar to God and offered burnt offerings of every clean animal and of every clean bird. (Genesis 8:20) God smelled the pleasing odor and vowed never again to doom the earth because of man, as mans imaginings are evil from his youth, but God would preserve the seasons so long as the earth endured. (Genesis 8:2122) God blessed Noah and his sons to be fertile and increase, and put the fear of them into all the beasts, which God gave into their hands to eat. (Genesis 9:13) God prohibited eating flesh with its life-blood in it. (Genesis 9:4) God would require a reckoning of every mans and beasts life-blood, and whoever shed the blood of man would have his blood shed by man, for in Gods image did God make man. (Genesis 9:56) God told them to be fertile and increase. (Genesis 9:7) And God made a covenant with Noah, his sons, and every living thing that never again would a flood destroy the earth. (Genesis 9:811) God set the rainbow in the clouds as the sign of Gods covenant with earth, so that when the bow appeared in the clouds, God would remember Gods covenant and the waters would never again flood to destroy all flesh. (Genesis 9:1217)

Noah cursing Canaan (illustration by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

[edit] The curse on Canaan

Noah was the first to plant a vineyard, and he drank himself drunk, and uncovered himself within his tent. (Genesis 9:2021) Ham, the father of Canaan, saw his fathers nakedness and told his two brothers. (Genesis 9:22) Shem and Japheth placed a cloth against both their backs and, walking backward, covered their father, without seeing their fathers nakedness. (Genesis 9:23) When Noah woke up and learned what Ham had done to him, he cursed Hams son Canaan to become the lowest of slaves to Japheth and Shem, prayed that God enlarge Japheth, and blessed the God of Shem. (Genesis 9:2427)

The dispersion of the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japheth (map from the 1854 Historical Textbook and Atlas of Biblical Geography) Noah lived to the age of 950 and then died. (Genesis 9:2829)

[edit] Noahs descendants

Genesis 10 sets forth the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japheth, from whom the nations branched out over the earth after the Flood. Among Japheths descendants were the maritime nations. (Genesis 10:25) Hams son Cush had a son named Nimrod, who became the first man of might on earth, a mighty hunter, king in Babylon and the land of Shinar. (Genesis

10:610) From there Asshur went and built Nineveh. (Genesis 10:1112) Canaans descendants Sidon, Heth, the Jebusites, the Amorites, the Girgashites, the Hivites, the Arkites, the Sinites, the Arvadites, the Zemarites, and the Hamathites spread out from Sidon as far as Gerar, near Gaza, and as far as Sodom and Gomorrah. (Genesis 10:1519) Among Shems descendants was Eber. (Genesis 10:21)

The Tower of Babel (1563 painting by Pieter Bruegel)

[edit] The Tower of Babel

Everyone on earth spoke the same language. (Genesis 11:1) As people migrated from the east, they settled in the land of Shinar. (Genesis 11:2) People there sought to make bricks and build a city and a tower with its top in the sky, to make a name for themselves, so that they not be scattered over the world. (Genesis 11:34) God came down to look at the city and tower, and remarked that as one people with one language, nothing that they sought would be out of their reach. (Genesis 11:56) God went down and confounded their speech, so that they could not understand each another, and scattered them over the face of the earth, and they stopped building the city. (Genesis 11:78) Thus the city was called Babel. (Genesis 11:9)

[edit] The line of Terah

Genesis 11 sets forth the descendants of Shem. Eight generations after Shem came Terah, who had three sons: Abram (who would become Abraham), Nahor, and Haran. (Genesis 11:1026) Haran had a son Lot and two daughters Milcah and Iscah, and then died in Ur during the lifetime of his father Terah. (Genesis 11:2728) Abram married Sarai, and Nahor married Harans daughter Milcah. (Genesis 11:29) Sarai was barren. (Genesis 11:30) Terah took Abram, Sarai, and Lot and set out together from Ur for the land of Canaan, but when they had come as far as Haran, they settled there, and there Terah died. (Genesis 11:3132)

God Appears to Noah (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

[edit] In classical rabbinic interpretation

[edit] Genesis chapter 6
Interpreting the words, "Noah was a just man, and perfect in his generations," in Genesis 6:9, Rabbi Johanan taught that Noah was considered righteous in his generations, but would not have been considered righteous in other generations. Resh Lakish, however, maintained that if even in his generations Noah was able to be righteous, then he certainly would have been righteous in other generations. Rabbi Haninah compared Rabbi Johanan's view of Noah to a barrel of wine lying in a vault of acid. In its place, its aroma is fragrant (compared to that of the acid). Elsewhere, its aroma would not be considered fragrant. Rabbi Oshaia compared Resh Lakish's view of Noah to a vial of spikenard oil lying amidst refuse. If it is fragrant where it is, how much more so would it be among spices! (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.)

The Prophecy of the Flood (engraving by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures) Similarly, Rabbi Judah and Rabbi Nehemiah differed interpreting the words, "Noah was a just man, and perfect in his generations," in Genesis 6:9. Rabbi Judah taught that only "in his generations" was he a righteous man (by comparison). Had he lived in the generation of Moses or Samuel, he would not have been called righteous. Rabbi Judah said that in the street of the totally blind, the one-eyed man is called clear-sighted, and the infant is called a scholar. Rabbi Judah compared it to a man with a wine vault who opened one barrel and found it vinegar, opened another and found it vinegar, and opened a third to find it turning sour. When people told him that it was turning, he asked if the vault contained any better. Similarly, "in his generations" Noah was a righteous man. Rabbi Nehemiah, however, taught that if Noah was righteous even in his generation (in spite of the corrupt environment), how much more so would he have been, had he lived in the age of Moses. Rabbi Nehemiah compared Noah to a tightly closed vial of perfume in a graveyard, which nevertheless gave forth a fragrant aroma. How much more fragrant would it have been outside the graveyard. (Genesis Rabbah 30:9.) Rabbi Judah contrasted the words "Noah walked with God" in Genesis 6:9 with Gods words to Abraham, "walk before Me," in Genesis 17:1. Rabbi Judah compared it to a king who had two sons, one grown up and the other a child. The king asked the child to walk with him. But the king asked the adult to walk before him. Similarly, to Abraham, whose moral strength was great, God said, "Walk before Me." But of Noah, who was feeble, Genesis 6:9 says, "Noah walked with God." (Genesis Rabbah 30:10.) Similarly, Rabbi Abba bar Kahana read Genesis 6:78 together to report God saying, "I repent that I have made them and Noah." Thus even Noah, who was left, was not worthy, save that (in the words of Genesis 6:8) "Noah found grace in the eyes of the Lord." (Genesis Rabbah 31:1.)

The Earth was corrupt before God and filled with violence (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) The Mishnah concluded that the generation of the Flood and the generation of the dispersion after the Tower of Babel were both so evil as to have no share in the world to come. (Mishnah Sanhedrin 10:3; Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 107b08a.) Rabbi Akiba deduced from the words of Genesis 7:23 that the generation of the Flood will have no portion in the world to come; he read the words "and every living substance was destroyed" to refer to this world and the words "that was on the face of the ground" to refer to the next world. Rabbi Judah ben Bathyra deduced from the words "My spirit will not always enter into judgment with man" of Genesis 6:3 that God will neither revive nor judge the generation of the Flood on Judgment Day. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.) The Tosefta taught that the generation of the Flood acted arrogantly before God, thinking that because they had great rivers, they did not need Gods rain, so God punished them using those same waters. (Tosefta Sotah 3:78.) The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the good that God lavished upon the generation of the Flood led them to become arrogant. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.) Interpreting the words, "And the earth was corrupt (,tishachet) before God," in Genesis 6:11, a Baraita of the School of Rabbi Ishmael taught that whenever Scripture uses the word "corruption," it refers to sexual immorality and idolatry. Reference to sexual immorality appears in Genesis 6:12, which says, "for all flesh had corrupted (,hishchit) their way upon the earth" (and the use of the term "their way" (,darko) connotes sexual matters, as Proverbs 30:19 indicates when it says, "the way (,derech) of a man with a young woman"). And Deuteronomy 4:16 shows that "corruption" connotes idolatry when it says, "lest you deal corruptly (,tashchitun), and make a graven image." (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 57a.) Rabbi Johanan deduced from the words "all flesh had corrupted their way upon the earth" in Genesis 6:12 that they mated domesticated animals with wild animals, and animals with humans. Rav Abba bar Kahana taught that after the Flood, they all returned to their own kind, except for the tushlami bird. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.) Interpreting Genesis 6:13, Rabbi Johanan deduced that the consequences of robbery are great. For though the generation of the Flood transgressed all laws, God sealed their decree of punishment only because they robbed. In Genesis 6:13, God told Noah that "the earth is filled with violence (that is, robbery) through them, and, behold, I will destroy them with the earth." And Ezekiel 7:11 also states, "Violence (that is, robbery) is risen up into a rod of wickedness; none of them shall remain, nor of their multitude, nor any of theirs; neither shall there be wailing for them." Rabbi Eleazar interpreted Ezekiel 7:11 to teach that violence stood up before God like a staff, and told God that there was no good in any of the generation of the Flood, and none would bewail them when they were gone. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.) Similarly, midrash interpreted the words, "the earth is filled with violence," in Genesis 6:13 to teach that it was because they were steeped in robbery that they were blotted out from the world. (Genesis Rabbah 31:1; see also 31:24.)

Interpreting Genesis 6:13, Rabbi Haninah told what the people of the age of the Flood used to do. When a person brought out a basket of beans for sale, one would come and seize less than the worth of the smallest coin in circulation, a perutah (and thus there was no redress under the law). And then everyone would come and seize less than a perutah's worth, so that the seller had no redress at law. Seeing this, God said that the people had acted improperly, so God would deal with them improperly (in a way that they would not relish). (Genesis Rabbah 31:5.) Interpreting Genesis 6:13, Rabbi Levi taught that "violence" ( ,chamas) connotes idolatry, sexual immorality, and murder, as well as robbery. Reference to sexual immorality appears in Jeremiah 51:35, which says, "The violence done to me ( ,chamasi) and to my flesh (, she'eri) be upon Babylon" (and ,she'er refers to sexual immorality, for example, in Leviticus 18:6). And reference to murder appears in Joel 4:19, which says, "for the violence ( ,chamas) against the children of Judah, because they have shed innocent blood in their land." (Genesis Rabbah 31:6.) Interpreting Gods words in Genesis 6:13, "I will destroy them with the earth," Rav Huna and Rabbi Jeremiah in Rav Kahana's name taught that the Flood washed away even the three handbreadths of the Earth's surface that a plough turns. It was as if a prince had a tutor, and whenever the prince did wrong, the king punished the tutor. Or it was as if a young prince had a nurse, and whenever the prince did wrong, the king punished the nurse. Similarly, God said that God would destroy the generation of the Flood along with the earth that nurtured them. (Genesis Rabbah 31:7.)

Building the Ark (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Rav Adda taught that the scholars of Rav Shila interpreted "gopher wood" in Genesis 6:14 to mean mabliga (a resinous species of cedar), while others maintained it was golamish (a very hard and stone-like species of cedar). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.) While Genesis 6:14 tells that Noahs Ark had pitch "within and without," Exodus 2:3 tells that Jochebed daubed the Ark of the infant Moses "with slime and with pitch." A Tanna taught that the slime was inside and the pitch outside so that that righteous child would not have to smell the bad odor of the pitch. (Babylonian Talmud Sotah 12a.) Rabbi Johanan interpreted the words, "A light ( ,tzohar) shall you make to the Ark," in Genesis 6:16 to teach that God instructed Noah to set therein luminous precious stones and

jewels, so that they might give light as bright as noon ( ,tzaharayim). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.)

The Building of Noahs Ark (16th Century painting by Jacopo Bassano) The Gemara read the words, "and to a cubit shall you finish it upward," in Genesis 6:16 to ensure that thus would it stand firm (with the sides of the roof sloping, so that the rain would fall off it). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.) A Tanna read the words, "with lower, second, and third stories shall you make it," in Genesis 6:16 to teach that the bottom story was for the dung, the middle for the animals, and the top for Noahs family. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.) A midrash, however, reported that some said that the words, "with lower, second, and third stories shall you make it," meant that the bottom story was for waste, the second for Noahs family and the clean animals, and the third for the unclean animals. And the midrash reported that others said that the bottom story was for the unclean animals, the second for Noahs family and the clean animals, and the top for the garbage. The midrash taught that Noah managed to move the waste by arranging a kind of trapdoor through which he shoveled it sideways. (Genesis Rabbah 31:11.) Noting that Genesis 6:9 calls Noah "a man," a midrash taught that wherever Scripture employs the term "a man," it indicates a righteous man who warned his generation. The midrash taught that for 120 years (deduced from Genesis 6:3), Noah planted cedars and cut them down. When they would ask him what he was doing, he would reply that God had informed him that God was bringing a flood. Noahs contemporaries replied that if a flood did come, it would come only on Noahs fathers house. Rabbi Abba taught that God said that one herald arose for God in the generation of the Flood Noah. But they despised him and called him a contemptible old man. (Genesis Rabbah 30:7.)

Noahs Ark (illustration from the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle) Similarly, Rabbi Jose of Caesarea read the words, "He is swift upon the face of the waters; their portion is cursed in the earth, he turns not by the way of the vineyards," in Job 24:18 to teach that the righteous Noah rebuked his contemporaries. Noah urged them to repent, or God would bring a deluge upon them and cause their bodies to float upon the water like gourds, reading Job 24:18 to say, "He floats lightly upon the face of the waters." Moreover, Noah told them that they would be taken as a curse for all future generations, as Job 24:18 says, "their portion is cursed." And Rabbi Jose of Caesarea taught that the words, "he turns not by the way of the vineyards," indicate that as the people worked in their vineyards, they asked Noah what prevented God from bringing the Flood at that moment. And Noah replied that God had one dear one, one dove, to draw out before God could bring the Flood. (That is, the aged Methuselah had to die first, so that he would not suffer the punishment of the Flood). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.) Similarly, a midrash taught that Noah reproved them, calling them good-for-nothings who forsook the One whose voice breaks cedars, to worship a dry log. But they reacted as in Amos 5:10, which says, "They hate him that reproves in the gate, and they abhor him that speaks uprightly." (Genesis Rabbah 31:3.)

Construction of Noah's Ark (late 16th Century painting by Kaspar Memberger the Elder)

And Raba interpreted the words of Job 12:5, "He that is ready to slip with his feet is as a stone despised in the thought of him that is at ease," to teach that when Noah rebuked them and spoke words as hard as fiery flints, they would deride him. They called Noah "old man," and asked him what the Ark was for. Noah replied that God was bringing a flood upon them. They asked with what God would flood the earth. If God brought a flood of fire, they said, they had a thing called alitha (that would extinguish fire). If God brought a flood of water up from the earth, they said, they had iron plates with which they could cover the earth (to prevent the water from coming up). If God brought a flood of water from heaven, they said, they had a thing called akob (or some say akosh) (that could ward it off). Noah replied that God would bring it from between the heels of their feet, as Job 12:5 says, "He is ready for the steps of your feet." (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.) Similarly, a Baraita interpreted Job 12:5 to teach that the waters of the Flood were as hot and viscous as bodily fluids. And Rav Hisda taught that since it was with hot passion that they sinned, it was with hot water that they were punished. For Genesis 8:1 says, "And the water cooled" ( ,yashoku), and Esther 7:10 says, "Then the king's wrath cooled down" (, shachachah). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b; see also Babylonian Talmud Rosh Hashanah 12a; Zevachim 113b.) Rabbi Hanan said in the name of Rabbi Samuel ben Isaac that as soon as Noah entered the Ark, God prohibited his family from cohabitation, saying in Genesis 6:18: "you shall come into the Ark, you, and your sons," speaking of them apart, and, "your wife, and your sons wives," speaking of them apart. When Noah left the Ark, God permitted cohabitation to him again, saying in Genesis 8:16: "Go forth from the Ark, you and your wife," speaking of them together. (Genesis Rabbah 31:12.) Similarly, Rabbi Johanan deduced from the same sources that God had forbidden cohabitation for all the Arks inhabitants. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that three nonetheless cohabited in the Ark the dog, the raven, and Ham and they were all punished. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.)

Noahs Ark (illustration from the 1897 Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us by Charles Foster)

The Animals Enter the Ark (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

[edit] Genesis chapter 7

Reading in Genesis 7:2 the command that "of every clean beast you shall take seven, man and wife," the Gemara asked whether beasts have marital relationships. Rabbi Samuel bar Nahman said in Rabbi Jonathan's name that the command means of those animals with which no sin had been committed (that is, animals that had not mated with other species). The Gemara asked how Noah would know. Rav Hisda taught that Noah led them past the Ark, and those that the Ark accepted had certainly not been the object of sin, while those that the Ark rejected had certainly been the object of sin. And Rabbi Abbahu taught that Noah took only those animals (fulfilling that condition) that came of their own accord. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b; see also Zevachim 116a.) Similarly, Rav Hisda asked how Noah knew (before the giving of Leviticus 11) which animals were clean and which were unclean. Rav Hisda explained that Noah led them past the Ark, and those that the Ark accepted (in multiples of seven) were certainly clean, and those that the Ark rejected were certainly unclean. Rabbi Abbahu cited Genesis 7:16, "And they that went in, went in male and female," to show that they went in of their own accord (in their respective pairs, seven of the clean and two of the unclean). (Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 116a.) Reading in Genesis 7:3 the command to take into the Ark "of the fowl also of the air, seven each," a midrash hypothesized that the command might have meant seven of each kind of animal (three of one gender and four of the other). But then one of them would lack a mate. Hence the midrash concluded that God meant seven males and seven females. Of course God did not need them, but they were to come (in the words of Genesis 7:3) "to keep seed alive upon the face of all the earth." (Genesis Rabbah 32:4.) Rabbi Simeon ben Yohai taught that because the generation of the Flood transgressed the Torah that God gave humanity after Moses had stayed on the mountain for 40 days and 40 nights (as reported in Exodus 24:18 and 34:28 and Deuteronomy 9:911, 18, 25, and 10:10), God announced in Genesis 7:4 that God would "cause it to rain upon the earth 40 days and 40 nights." Similarly, Rabbi Johanan taught that because the generation of the Flood corrupted the features that take shape after 40 days (in the womb), God announced in Genesis 7:4 that

God would "cause it to rain upon the earth 40 days and 40 nights, and every living substance that I have made will I blot out." (Genesis Rabbah 32:5.)

The Deluge (1869 painting by Wassilij Petrovich Wereschtschagin)

The Deluge (late 19th Century painting by Lon Comerre) Reading in Genesis 7:4 that God said, "every living substance ( ,yekum) that I have made will I blot out," Rabbi Abin taught that this included the one who rose up ( ,yakam) against his brother Cain. Rabbi Levi said in the name of Resh Lakish that God kept Cains judgment in suspense until the Flood and then God swept Cain away. And thus Rabbi Levi read Genesis 7:23 to say, "And He blotted out every one that had arisen." (Genesis Rabbah 32:5.) A midrash read the words "And Noah did all that the Lord commanded him," in Genesis 7:5 narrowly to refer to the taking in of the animals, beasts, and birds. (Genesis Rabbah 32:5.) The Gemara read Genesis 7:8 to employ the euphemistic expression "not clean," instead of the brief, but disparaging expression "unclean," so as not to speak disparagingly of unclean animals. The Gemara reasoned that it was thus likely that Scripture would use euphemisms when speaking of the faults of righteous people, as with the words, "And the eyes of Leah

were weak," in Genesis 29:17. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Batra 123a; see also Genesis Rabbah 32:4 (attributing a similar teaching to Rabbi Judan in Rabbi Johanans name).) Reading in Genesis 7:10 that "it came to pass, after seven days, that the waters of the Flood were upon the earth," the Gemara asked what the nature of these seven days was (that God delayed the Flood on their account). Rab taught that these were the days of mourning for Methuselah, and thus that lamenting the righteous postpones retribution. Another explanation is that during "the seven days" God reversed the order of nature ( ,bereishit) (established at the beginning of creation), and the sun rose in the west and set in the east (so that sinners might be shocked into repentance). Another explanation is that God first appointed for them a long time (the 120 years to which Genesis 6:3 alludes), and then a short time (a seven-day grace period in which to repent). Another explanation is that during "the seven days," God gave them a foretaste of the world to come, so that they might know the nature of the rewards of which they were depriving themselves. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.)

The Flood (1516 painting by Hans Baldung)

Noah's Ark floats in the background while people struggle to escape the rising water of the Flood (fresco circa 15081512 by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel) Rabbi Joshua and Rabbi Eliezer differed about when the events took place in Genesis 7:11, where it says, "In the sixth hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, on the

seventeenth day of the month." Rabbi Joshua taught that the events of Genesis 7:11 took place on the seventeenth day of Iyar, when the constellation of the Pleiades sets at daybreak and the fountains begin to dry up. Because the generation of the Flood perverted its ways (from the way of creation), God changed for them the work of creation and made the constellation of the Pleiades rise at daybreak. God took two stars from the Pleiades and brought the Flood on the world. Rabbi Eliezer, however, taught that the events of Genesis 7:11 took place on the seventeenth of Cheshvan, a day on which the constellation of the Pleiades rises at daybreak, and the season when the fountains begin to fill. Because the generation of the Flood perverted its ways (from the way of creation), God changed for them the work of creation, and caused the constellation of the Pleiades to rise at daybreak. God took away two stars from it and brought the Flood on the world. If one accepts the view of Rabbi Joshua, then one can understand why Genesis 7:11 speaks of the "second month" (to describe Iyar, because Exodus 12:2 describes Nisan as the first month, and Iyar follows Nisan). If one accepts Rabbi Eliezer's view, the "second month" means the month that is second to the Day of Judgment (Rosh Hashanah, which Deuteronomy 11:12 recognizes as the beginning of a year when it says, "The eyes of the Lord are upon it (the Land of Israel) from the beginning of the year"). If one accepts Rabbi Joshua's view, the change in the work of creation was the change in the constellation and the waters. If one accepts Rabbi Eliezer's view, the Gemara asked what change there was in the natural order (as the constellation usually rose at that time and that time of year is usually the rainy season). The Gemara found the answer in the dictum of Rabbi Hisda, when he said that with hot passion they sinned, and with hot waters were they punished. The Rabbis taught in a Baraita that the Sages of Israel follow Rabbi Eliezer in dating the Flood (counting Rosh Hashanah as the beginning of the year) and Rabbi Joshua in dating the annual cycles (holding that God created the world in Nisan). The scholars of other peoples, however, follow Rabbi Joshua in dating the Flood as well. (Babylonian Talmud Rosh Hashanah 11b12a.) Rabbi Johanan taught that because the corruption of the generation of the Flood was great, their punishment was also great. Genesis 6:5 characterizes their corruption as great (, rabbah), saying, "And God saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth." And Genesis 7:11 characterizes their punishment as great ( ,rabbah), saying, "on the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up." Rabbi Johanan reported that three of those great thermal fountains remained open after the Flood the gulf of Gaddor, the hot-springs of Tiberias, and the great well of Biram. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.) The Gemara interpreted the words "every bird ( ,tzippor) of any winged ( ,kanaf) [species]" in Genesis 7:14. The Gemara read the word "bird" ( ,tzippor) here to refer only to clean birds, and "winged" ( ,kanaf) to include both unclean birds and grasshoppers. (Babylonian Talmud Chullin 139b.)

Noahs Ark (illustration from the 1897 Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us by Charles Foster) In a Baraita, Rabbi Eleazar of Modi'im interpreted Genesis 7:22, "Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered." Rabbi Eleazar of Modi'im asked whether waters that measured fifteen cubits high on the mountains could also measure fifteen cubits in the valley. To do so, the waters would have to stand like a series of walls (terraced with the topography). And if so, the ark could not have come to rest on the top of the mountains. Rather, Rabbi Eleazar of Modi'im taught that all the fountains of the great deep came up first until the water was even with the mountains, and then the water rose fifteen more cubits. (Babylonian Talmud Yoma 76a.) Reading in Genesis 7:22 that "all that was on the dry land died," the Gemara deduced that the fish in the sea did not die (apparently not having committed the transgressions that land animals had). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a; see also Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 113b.) The Tosefta taught that the Flood killed people before animals (as seen in the order of Genesis 7:23), because man sinned first (as shown in Genesis 6:5). (Tosefta Sotah 4:11.)

Noah and the Dove (mosaic circa 12th13th century in St Mark's Basilica, Venice) Rabbi taught that, in conferring honor, the Bible commences with the greatest, in cursing with the least important. With regard to cursing, the Gemara reasoned that Rabbi must have meant the punishment of the Flood, as Genesis 7:23 says, "And He blotted out every living substance which was upon the face of the ground, both man and cattle," starting with the people before the cattle. (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 61a.)

Reading in Genesis 7:23 that "every living substance was destroyed that was upon the face of the ground" people and animals alike the Gemara asked how the beasts had sinned (to deserve this punishment). A Baraita on the authority of Rabbi Joshua ben Karha compared this to a father who set up a bridal canopy for his son, and prepared a banquet with every sort of food. But then his son died. So the father broke up the canopy, saying that he had prepared it only for his son. Now that the son was dead, the father had no need for a banquet. Thus God created the animals only for the benefit of people. Now that people had sinned, God had no need for the animals. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108a.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 8

Reading "and he sent forth a raven" in Genesis 8:7, Resh Lakish taught that the raven gave Noah a triumphant retort, arguing that both God and Noah must have hated the raven. It was evident that God hated the raven because God commanded Noah to save seven pairs of the clean creatures on the Ark, but only two of the unclean (among which the raven counted itself under Leviticus 11:15). And it was evident that Noah hated the raven because Noah had left in the Ark the species of which there were seven pairs, and sent one of which there were only two. If the angel of heat or cold had smitten the raven, the world would have been missing the ravens kind. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.)

Noah sends off a dove from the Ark (miniature on vellum by Jean Dreux circa 14501460 at the Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum, The Hague)

The Dove Returns to Noah (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Similarly, interpreting the words, "and it went forth to and fro" in Genesis 8:7, Rabbi Judan said in the name of Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Simon that the raven began arguing with Noah. The raven asked Noah why of all the birds that Noah had in the Ark Noah sent none but the raven. Noah retorted that the world had no need of the raven; the raven was fit neither for food nor for sacrifice. Rabbi Berekiah said in Rabbi Abba's name that God told Noah to take that back, because the world would need ravens in the future. Noah asked God when the world would need ravens. God replied that (in the words of Genesis 8:7) "when the waters dry off from on the earth," a righteous man (Elijah) would arise and dry up the world (threatening drought, and then see the threat fulfilled). And God would cause him to have need of ravens, as 1 Kings 17:6 reports, "And the ravens ( ,orvim) brought him bread and flesh." Rabbi Judah maintained that the word orvim ( )referred to a town within the borders of Bashan called Arbo. But Rabbi Nehemiah insisted that 1 Kings 17:6 literally meant ravens, and the ravens brought Elijah food from King Jehoshaphat's table. (Genesis Rabbah 33:5.) From the discussion of the dove in Genesis 8:8, Rabbi Jeremiah deduced that the clean fowl lived with the righteous people on the Ark. (Of the raven, Genesis 8:7 says, "he sent forth a raven." But of the dove, Genesis 8:8 says, "he sent forth a dove from him" indicating that the dove was with him.) (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.) Reading of the dove in Genesis 8:11, "and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf," a midrash asked where the dove found it. Rabbi Abba taught that the dove brought it from the young shoots of the Land of Israel. Rabbi Levi taught that the dove brought it from the Mount of Olives, for the Flood had not submerged the Land of Israel. Thus God told Ezekiel (in Ezekiel 22:24): "Son of man, say to her: You are a land that is not cleansed, nor rained upon on the day of indignation." Rabbi Birai (or some say Rabbi Berekiah) taught that the gates of the Garden of Eden were opened for the dove, and from there the dove brought the olive leaf. Rabbi Abbahu asked if the dove had brought it from the Garden of Eden, would the dove not have brought something better, like cinnamon or a balsam leaf. But in fact the dove was

giving Noah a hint, saying to him in effect that better is bitterness from God than sweetness from Noahs hand. (Genesis Rabbah 33:6.)

Noahs Ark (1882 painting by Andrei Ryabushkin at the State Russian Museum, Saint Petersburg) Similarly, reading of the dove in Genesis 8:11, "and lo, in her mouth was an olive leaf," Rabbi Eleazar (or others say Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar) taught that the dove prayed to God that God might let the doves sustenance be as bitter as the olive but given by God, rather than sweet as honey and given by flesh and blood (upon whom the dove was therefore dependent). (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b (attributing to Rabbi Eleazar); Eruvin 18b (attributing to Rabbi Jeremiah ben Eleazar).)

The Ark Rests upon Ararat (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) A midrash taught that when Psalm 142:8 says, "Bring my soul out of prison," it refers to Noahs imprisonment 12 months in the Ark, and when Psalm 142:8 says, "for You will deal bountifully with me," it refers to Gods bounty to Noah when God told Noah in Genesis 8:16, "Go forth from the Ark." (Genesis Rabbah 34:1.) Rabbi Johanan interpreted the words, "After their kinds they went forth from the Ark," in Genesis 8:19 to teach that the animals went out by their families, not alone. Rabbi Hana bar Bizna taught that Abraham's servant Eliezer once inquired of Noahs son Shem about these words in Genesis 8:19, asking Shem how his family managed. Shem replied that they had a

difficult time in the Ark. During the day they fed the animals that usually fed by day, and during the night they fed those that normally fed by night. But Noah did not know what the chameleon ate. One day Noah was cutting a pomegranate, when a worm dropped out of it, and the chameleon ate it. From then on, Noah mashed up bran for the chameleon, and when the bran became wormy, the chameleon would eat. A fever struck the lion, so it lived off of its reserves rather than eating other animals. Noah discovered the avarshinah bird (some say the phoenix bird) lying in the hold of the Ark and asked it if it needed food. The bird told Noah that it saw that Noah was busy and decided not to give him any more trouble. Noah replied by asking that it be Gods will that the bird not perish, as Job 19:18 says, "Then I said: I shall die with my nest, and I shall multiply my days as the phoenix." (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 108b.)

The Covenant of the Rainbow (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Die Bibel in Bildern) A midrash recounted that Noah fed and provided for the Arks inhabitants for all of 12 months. But Rav Huna said in Rabbi Liezer's name that when Noah was leaving the Ark, a lion nonetheless set on him and maimed him, so that he was not fit to offer sacrifices, and his son Shem sacrificed in his stead. The midrash took this as an application of the words of Proverbs 11:31: "the righteous shall be requited on earth; how much more the wicked and the sinner." From this, the midrash inferred that if in spite of his comparative righteousness, Noah was punished for his sins, "how much more" was the generation of the Flood. (Genesis Rabbah 30:6.)

Noah's Sacrifice (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

Rav Huna cited the report in Genesis 8:20 that Noah offered burnt offerings from every clean animal and bird to support the proposition in a Baraita that all animals were eligible to be offered, as the words "animal" (behemah) and bird (bear) refer to any animal or bird, and the term "animal" (behemah) includes wild beasts (hayyah). (Babylonian Talmud Zevachim 115b.) Rabbi Haninah cited the report of Genesis 8:21 that "the Lord smelled the sweet savor; and . . . said . . . I will not again curse the ground any more for man's sake," for the proposition that those who allow themselves to be pacified when drinking wine possesses some of the characteristics of the Creator. (Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 65a.) Rav Awira (or some say Rabbi Joshua ben Levi) taught that the Evil Inclination has seven names. God called it "Evil" in Genesis 8:21, saying, "the imagination of mans heart is evil from his youth." Moses called it "the Uncircumcised" in Deuteronomy 10:16, saying, "Circumcise therefore the foreskin of your heart." David called it "Unclean" in Psalm 51:12; Solomon called it "the Enemy" in Proverbs 25:2122; Isaiah called it "the Stumbling-Block" in Isaiah 57:14; Ezekiel called it "Stone" in Ezekiel 36:26; and Joel called it "the Hidden One" in Joel 2:20. (Babylonian Talmud Sukkah 52a.)

Noah Descending from Ararat (1889 painting by Ivan Aivazovsky)

[edit] Genesis chapter 9

Genesis 6:187:8 in a Torah scroll The Rabbis interpreted Genesis 9 to set forth seven Noahide laws binding on all people: (1) to set up courts of justice, (2) not to commit idolatry, (3) not to commit blasphemy, (4) not to commit sexual immorality, (5) not to commit bloodshed (Genesis 9:6), (6) not to commit robbery, and (7) not to eat flesh cut from a living animal (Genesis 9:4). (Tosefta Avodah Zarah 8:46; see also Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 56a; Genesis Rabbah 34:8.) Rabbi Hanina taught that they were also commanded not to consume blood from a living animal. Rabbi Leazar taught that they were also commanded not to cross-breed animals. Rabbi Simeon taught that they were also commanded not to commit witchcraft. Rabbi Johanan taught that they were also commanded not to emasculate animals. And Rabbi Assi taught that the children of Noah were also prohibited to do anything stated in Deuteronomy 18:1011: "There shall not be found among you any one that makes his son or his daughter to pass through the fire, one that uses divination, a soothsayer, or an enchanter, or a sorcerer, or a charmer, or one that consults a ghost or a familiar spirit, or a necromancer." (Genesis Rabbah 34:8.) The Tosefta instructed that Israelites should not tempt anyone to violate a Noahide law. (Tosefta Demai 2:24.) Rabbi Shimon ben Eleazar deduced from Genesis 9:2 that even a one-day-old child scares small animals, but said that the corpse of even the giant Og of Bashan would need to be guarded from weasels and rats. (Tosefta Shabbat 17:19.) Rabbi Tanhum ben Hanilai compared the laws of kashrut to the case of a physician who went to visit two patients, one whom the physician judged would live, and the other whom the physician judged would die. To the one who would live, the physician gave orders about what to eat and what not to eat. On the other hand, the physician told the one who would die to eat whatever the patient wanted. Thus to the nations who were not destined for life in the World to Come, God said in Genesis 9:3, "Every moving thing that lives shall be food for you." But to Israel, whom God intended for life in the World to Come, God said in Leviticus 11:2, "These are the living things which you may eat." (Leviticus Rabbah 13:2.) Rabbi Akiva said that it demonstrated the value of human beings that God created us in Gods image, and that it was an act of still greater love that God let us know (in Genesis 9:6) that

God had created us in Gods image. (Mishnah Avot 3:14.) And Rabbi Akiva also said that whoever spills blood diminishes the Divine image. (Tosefta Yevamot 8:7.) Rabbi Eleazar ben Azariah and Ben Azzai both said that whoever does not have children diminishes the Divine image as demonstrated by proximity of the notice that God created us in Gods image (Genesis 9:6) and the command to be fruitful and multiply (Genesis 9:7). (Tosefta Yevamot 8:7.) Rabbi Meir taught that while it was certain that God would never again flood the world with water (Genesis 9:11), God might bring a flood of fire and brimstone, as God brought upon Sodom and Gomorrah. (Tosefta Taanit 2:13)

Noah's Drunkenness (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

The Drunkenness of Noah (1509 fresco by Michelangelo at the Sistine Chapel) The Mishnah taught that the rainbow (of Genesis 9:13) was one of ten miraculous things that God created on the sixth day of creation at twilight on the eve of the Sabbath. (Avot 5:6) Rabbi Jose and Rabbi Judah disagreed whether verses of remembrance referring to the rainbow (Genesis 9:1516) needed to be said together or individually. (Tosefta Rosh Hashanah 2:14) The Gemara helped explain why (as Genesis 9:13 reports) God chose a rainbow as the symbol of Gods promise. The Mishnah taught with regard to those who take no thought for the honor of their Maker, that it would have been better if they had not been born. (Mishnah Chagigah 2:1; Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 11b.) Rabbi Abba read this Mishnah to refer to those who stare at a rainbow, while Rav Joseph said that it refers to those who commit transgressions in secret. The Gemara explained that those who stare at a rainbow affront Gods honor, as Ezekiel 1:28 compares Gods appearance to that of a rainbow: "As the appearance of the bow that is in the cloud in the day, so was the appearance of the brightness round about. This was

the appearance of the likeness of the glory of the Lord." Thus those who stare at a rainbow behave as if they were staring directly at God. Similarly, Rabbi Judah ben Rabbi Nahmani, the speaker for Resh Lakish, taught that because Ezekiel 1:28 compares Gods appearance to that of a rainbow, staring at the rainbow harms ones eyesight. (Babylonian Talmud Chagigah 16a.)

Noah damning Ham (19th Century painting by Ivan Stepanovitch Ksenofontov)

Noahs curse of Canaan (engraving by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures) The Talmud deduced two possible explanations (attributed to Rav and Rabbi Samuel) for what Ham did to Noah to warrant Noah's curse of Canaan. According to one explanation, Ham castrated Noah, while the other says that Ham sexually abused Noah. The textual argument for castration goes this way: Since Noah cursed Ham by his fourth son Canaan, Ham must have injured Noah with respect to a fourth son, by emasculating him, thus depriving Noah of the possibility of a fourth son. The argument for abuse from the text draws an analogy between "and he saw" written in two places in the Bible: With regard to Ham and Noah, it was written, "And Ham the father of Canaan saw the nakedness of his father (Noah)"; while in Genesis 34:2, it was written, "And when Shechem the son of Hamor saw her (Dinah), he took her and lay with her and defiled her." Thus this explanation deduced that similar abuse must have happened each time that the Bible uses the same language. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 70a. See also Genesis Rabbah 36:7; Leviticus Rabbah 17:5.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 10

A Baraita employed Genesis 10:6 to interpret the words "and Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt" in Numbers 13:22 to mean that Hebron was seven times as fertile as Zoan. The Baraita rejected the plain meaning of "built," reasoning that Ham would not build a house for his younger son Canaan (in whose land was Hebron) before he built one for his elder son Mizraim (in whose land was Zoan, and Genesis 10:6 lists (presumably in order of birth) "the sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Put, and Canaan." The Baraita also taught that among all the nations, there was none more fertile than Egypt, for Genesis 13:10 says, "Like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt." And there was no more fertile spot in Egypt than Zoan, where kings lived, for Isaiah 30:4 says of Pharaoh, "his princes are at Zoan." And in all of Israel, there was no more rocky ground than that at Hebron, which is why the Patriarchs buried their dead there, as reported in Genesis 49:31. But rocky Hebron was still seven times as fertile as lush Zoan. (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 112a.) Rab and Samuel equated the Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 with the Nimrod whom Genesis 10:8 describes as "a mighty warrior on the earth," but the two differed over which was his real name. One held that his name was actually Nimrod, and Genesis 14:1 calls him Amraphel because he ordered Abraham to be cast into a burning furnace (and thus the name Amraphel reflects the words for "he said" (amar) and "he cast" (hipil)). But the other held that his name was actually Amraphel, and Genesis 10:8 calls him Nimrod because he led the world in rebellion against God (and thus the name Nimrod reflects the word for "he led in rebellion" (himrid)). (Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53a.)

Building the Tower of Babel (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

[edit] Genesis chapter 11

The Tosefta taught that the men of the Tower of Babel acted arrogantly before God only because God had been so good to them (in Genesis 11:12) as to give them a single language and allow them to settle in Shinar. And as usage elsewhere indicated that "settle" meant "eat and drink" (see Exodus 32:6), this eating and drinking was what led them to say (in Genesis 11:4) that they wanted to build the Tower. (Tosefta Sotah 3:10.)

The Tower of Babel (1594 painting by Lucas van Valckenborch at the Louvre) Rabbi Levi, or some say Rabbi Jonathan, said that a tradition handed down from the Men of the Great Assembly taught that wherever the Bible employs the term "and it was" or "and it came to pass" ( ,wa-yehi), as it does in Genesis 11:2, it indicates misfortune, as one can read wa-yehi as wai, hi, "woe, sorrow." Thus the words, "And it came to pass," in Genesis 11:2 are followed by the words, "Come, let us build us a city," in Genesis 11:4. And the Gemara also cited the instances of Genesis 6:1 followed by Genesis 6:5; Genesis 14:1 followed by Genesis 14:2; Joshua 5:13 followed by the rest of Joshua 5:13; Joshua 6:27 followed by Joshua 7:1; 1 Samuel 1:1 followed by 1 Samuel 1:5; 1 Samuel 8:1 followed by 1 Samuel 8:3; 1 Samuel 18:14 close after 1 Samuel 18:9; 2 Samuel 7:1 followed by 1 Kings 8:19; Ruth 1:1 followed by the rest of Ruth 1:1; and Esther 1:1 followed by Haman. But the Gemara also cited as counterexamples the words, "And there was evening and there was morning one day," in Genesis 1:5, as well as Genesis 29:10, and 1 Kings 6:1. So Rav Ashi replied that wa-yehi sometimes presages misfortune, and sometimes it does not, but the expression "and it came to pass in the days of" always presages misfortune. And for that proposition, the Gemara cited Genesis 14:1, Isaiah 7:1 Jeremiah 1:3, Ruth 1:1, and Esther 1:1. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 10b.)

The Confusion of Tongues (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible) Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai taught that the report of Genesis 11:5 that "the Lord came down to see the city and the tower" was one of ten instances when the Torah reports that God descended. (Genesis Rabbah 38:9.) The Sages taught that the God who punished the generation of the Flood and the generation of the Dispersion would take vengeance on people who renege on their word after money has been paid. (Mishnah Bava Metzia 4:2; Babylonian Talmud Bava Metzia 44a.)

The Dispersion (engraving by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures) The Gemara taught that Abraham asked God if God would ever punish Israel for its sins as God did to the generation of the Flood or the generation of the Dispersion, and God replied that God would not. God told Abraham that God had provided the order of sacrifices for Israel in the Torah, and whenever Jews read these passages, God would consider it as if they had offered the sacrifices, and God would pardon them for all their iniquities. (Babylonian Talmud Taanit 27b, Megillah 31b.) The Gemara taught that Sarah was one of seven prophetesses who prophesied to Israel and neither took away from nor added anything to what is written in the Torah. (The other prophetesses were Miriam, Deborah, Hannah, Abigail, Huldah, and Esther.) The Gemara derived Sarahs status as a prophetess from the words, "Haran, the father of Milkah and the father of Yiscah," in Genesis 11:29. Rabbi Isaac taught that Yiscah was Sarah. Genesis 11:29 called her Yiscah ( )because she discerned (saketah) by means of Divine inspiration, as Genesis 21:12 reports God instructing Abraham, "In all that Sarah says to you, hearken to her voice." Alternatively, Genesis 11:29 called her Yiscah because all gazed (sakin) at her beauty. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 14a.) Rav Nahman said in the name of Rabbah bar Abbuha that the redundant report, "And Sarai was barren; she had no child," in Genesis 11:30 demonstrated that Sarah was incapable of procreation because she did not have a womb. (Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 64b.)

[edit] Commandments
Maimonides cited the parshah for one positive commandment:

To "be fruitful and multiply" (Genesis 9:7)

(Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Positive Commandment 212. Cairo, Egypt, 11701180. Reprinted in Maimonides. The Commandments: Sefer Ha-Mitzvoth of Maimonides. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, 1:228. London: Soncino Press, 1967. ISBN 0-900689-71-4.) The Sefer ha-Chinuch, however, attributed the commandment to Genesis 1:28. (Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, 1:8285. Jerusalem: Feldheim Pub., 1991. ISBN 0-87306-515-8.)

Isaiah (1509 fresco by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel)

[edit] Haftarah
The haftarah for the parshah is:

for Ashkenazi Jews, Yemenite Jews, and Mizrahi Jews: Isaiah 54:155:5 for Sephardi Jews: Isaiah 55:110 for some Yemenite communities: Isaiah 54:155:3 for Italian Jews: Isaiah 54:155:5 for Karaite Jews: Isaiah 54:955:12 for Frankfurt am Main and Chabad Lubavitch: Isaiah 54:110

[edit] Connection to the Parshah

The parshah and haftarah both tell the power of Gods covenant. The parshah (in Genesis 6:18 and 9:811) and the haftarah (in Isaiah 54:910) both report Gods covenant with Noah never again to destroy the earth by flood. In the parshah (in Genesis 6:13) and the haftarah (in Isaiah 54:78), God confesses to anger at human transgression. In the wake of Gods punishment, Genesis 9:11,15 and Isaiah 54:10 and 55:3 all use the words "no . . . more" (lo od). The "righteousness" of Israels children in Isaiah 54:14 echoes that Noah is "righteous" in his age in Genesis 6:9.

[edit] In the liturgy

Gods dominion over the Flood in Genesis 7:68:14 is reflected in Psalm 29:10, which is in turn one of the six Psalms recited at the beginning of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service and again as the Torah is returned to the Torah ark at the end of the Shabbat morning Torah service. (Reuven Hammer. Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals, 20, 153. New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003. ISBN 0-916219-20-8. Menachem Davis. The Schottenstein Edition Siddur for the Sabbath and Festivals with an Interlinear Translation, 69, 399. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-57819-6973.) Some Jews read the words "for in the image of God made He man" from Genesis 9:6 as they study chapter 3 of Pirkei Avot on a Sabbath between Passover and Rosh Hashanah. (Davis. Siddur for the Sabbath and Festivals, at 553.) And then they encounter the discussion of the ten generations from Adam to the Flood and then the ten generations from Noah to Abraham (enumerated in Genesis 11:1026) as they study chapter 5 of Pirkei Avot thereafter. (Davis, Siddur for the Sabbath and Festivals, at 568.)

[edit] Further reading

The parshah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:

[edit] Ancient

Gilgamesh tablet

Atra-Hasis. Mesopotamia, 18th century BCE. In, e.g., W.G. Lambert and A.R. Millard, Atra-Hasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1999. ISBN 1-57506-039-6 Epic of Gilgamesh tablet 11. Mesopotamia, 14th11th century BCE. In e.g. James B. Pritchard. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament, 9395. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969. ISBN 0-691-03503-2.

[edit] Biblical

Genesis 1:28 (to be fruitful); 19:2329 (Gods destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah); 35:11&src=! 35:11 (to be fruitful). Exodus 12:2930(Gods destruction of Egypts firstborn). Isaiah 54:910. Jeremiah 18:110; 23:3. Ezekiel 9:46 (Gods destruction of Jerusalems sinners); 14:20 (Noah as righteous intercessor).

[edit] Early nonrabbinic

The Book of Noah. Jerusalem, early 2nd century BCE.

The Genesis Apocryphon. Dead Sea scroll 1Q20. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE. Reprinted in Gza Vermes. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 448, 45053. New York: Penguin Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7139-9131-3.

Josephus

Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews 1:3:23, 5, 78, 4:1, 6:1, 35. Circa 9394. Reprinted in, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, 3238. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 1987. ISBN 0-913573-86-8. Qur'an 3:3334; 4:163; 6:84; 7:5964; 9:70; 71:128. Arabia, 7th century.

[edit] Classical rabbinic

Mishnah: Sanhedrin 10:3; Avot 3:14, 5:6. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4. Tosefta: Demai 2:24; Shabbat 17:19; Rosh Hashanah 1:3, 2:14; Taanit 2:13; Yevamot 8:7; Sotah 3:610, 4:11, 10:3; Bava Kamma 9:31; Sanhedrin 13:67; Avodah Zarah 8:46. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 2002. ISBN 1-56563-642-2. Sifra 34:1, 4; 35:2; 93:1; 99:5; 108:2; 109:3; 243:1. Land of Israel, 4th century CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Sifra: An Analytical Translation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 1:211, 21415, 219; 2:87, 134, 173, 178; 3:286. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1988. Vol. 1 ISBN 1-55540-205-4. Vol. 2 ISBN 1-55540-206-2. Vol. 3 ISBN 1-55540-207-0.

Talmud

Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 40a, 45a. Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, vol. 1. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2005. Genesis Rabbah 30:138:14. Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Leviticus Rabbah 17:5. Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Leviticus. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2. Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 25b, 40a; Shabbat 31b, 109a, 113b, 137a, 150a, 151b; Eruvin 18ab, 53a, 65a; Pesachim 3a, 54a; Yoma 9b10a, 52b, 75a, 76a, 85a; Sukkah

52a; Rosh Hashanah 10b, 11b12a; Taanit 19a, 27b; Megillah 9b, 14a, 17a; Moed Katan 25b; Chagigah 12a, 16a; Yevamot 62a, 63b, 64b; Ketubot 8a, 77b, 112a; Sotah 34b, 45b; Kiddushin 13a, 30b; Bava Kamma 91b; Bava Metzia 44a, 106b; Bava Batra 16b, 74a; Sanhedrin 17a, 24a, 38b, 44a, 56a57b, 58b59b, 69b70a, 72b, 84b, 91a, 100b, 108a09a; Makkot 8b, 11a; Shevuot 36a; Avodah Zarah 5a6a, 11b, 19a, 23b, 51a; Horayot 13a; Zevachim 108b, 113b, 115b16a; Chullin 23a, 89a, 102a, 139b; Bekhorot 46b, 57a; Temurah 28b; Keritot 6b; Meilah 16a. Babylonia, 6th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 vols. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006.

Rashi

[edit] Medieval

Rashi. Commentary. Genesis 611. Troyes, France, late 11th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashis Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, 1:65114. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-89906-026-9. Zohar 59b76b. Spain, late 13th century. Reprinted in, e.g., The Zohar. Translated by Harry Sperling and Maurice Simon. 5 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1934.

[edit] Modern

Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 3:34, 38. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, 43031, 486. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0140431950. "Mary Don't You Weep." United States, 19th century.

Dickinson

Emily Dickinson. Poem 48 (Once more, my now bewildered Dove). Circa 1858. Poem 403 (The Winters are so short ). Circa 1862. Poem 1473 (We talked with each other about each other). Circa 1879. In The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. Edited by Thomas H. Johnson, 27, 192, 623. New York: Little, Brown & Co., 1960. ISBN 0316-18414-4. Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, 5, 812, 15 16, 1924, 3536, 64, 68, 71, 73, 8889, 107, 109, 154, 172, 183, 32324, 333, 337, 33941, 347, 355, 44142, 44748, 515, 547, 60405, 715, 783, 806, 926. New York:

Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-4001-9. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943. Jay Macpherson. The Boatman. Oxford Univ. Press Canada, 1957. James Baldwin. The Fire Next Time. 1963. Reprinted Modern Library, 1995. ISBN 0679601511. Lloyd R. Bailey. Noah: The Person and Story in History and Tradition. University of South Carolina Press, 1989. ISBN 087249571X. Marc Gellman. Does God Have a Big Toe? Stories About Stories in the Bible, 2745. New York: HarperCollins, 1989. ISBN 0-06-022432-0. Mario Brelich. Navigator of the Flood. Marlboro, Vermont: Marlboro Press, 1991. ISBN 0-910395-80-2. Elie Wiesel. "Noah." In Sages and Dreamers: Biblical, Talmudic, and Hasidic Portraits and Legends, 1934. New York: Summit Books, 1991. ISBN 0-671-746790.

Wiesel

Robert A. Di Vito. "The Demarcation of Divine and Human Realms in Genesis 211." In Creation in the Biblical Traditions. Edited by Richard J. Clifford and John J. Collins, 3956. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1992. ISBN 0-915170-23-X. Neal Stephenson. Snow Crash. New York: Bantam Spectra, 1992. ISBN 0-553-08853X. Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, 5. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1993. ISBN 1-56000-081-3. Jacob Milgrom. "Bible Versus Babel: Why did God tell Abraham to leave Mesopotamia, the most advanced civilization of its time, for the backwater region of Canaan?" Bible Review. 11 (2) (Apr. 1995). Karen Armstrong. In the Beginning: A New Interpretation of Genesis, 3953. New York: Knopf, 1996. ISBN 0-679-45089-0. Norman Cohn. Noah's Flood: The Genesis Story in Western Thought. New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 1996. ISBN 0-300-06823-9. Marc Gellman. Gods Mailbox: More Stories About Stories in the Bible, 2429, 107 11. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1996. ISBN 0-688-13169-7. Jacob Migrom. "The Blood Taboo: Blood should not be ingested because it contains life. Whoever does so is guilty of murder." Bible Review. 13 (4) (Aug. 1997).

Steinsaltz

Adin Steinsaltz. Simple Words: Thinking About What Really Matters in Life, 49. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. ISBN 068484642X. David M. Goldenberg. The Curse of Ham: Race and Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Princeton University Press, 2003. ISBN 069111465X. Joseph Telushkin. The Ten Commandments of Character: Essential Advice for Living an Honorable, Ethical, Honest Life, 8791, 27578. New York: Bell Tower, 2003. ISBN 1-4000-4509-6. David Maine. The Preservationist. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2004. ISBN 0-31232847-8. Kacy Barnett-Gramckow. The Heavens Before. Chicago: Moody, 2004. ISBN 0-80241363-3. Kacy Barnett-Gramckow. He Who Lifts the Skies. Chicago: Moody, 2004. ISBN 08024-1368-4. Kacy Barnett-Gramckow. A Crown in the Stars. Chicago: Moody, 2005. ISBN 08024-1369-2. Chris Adrian. The Children's Hospital. McSweeney's, 2006. ISBN 1932416609. Esther Jungreis. Life Is a Test, 168, 21819, 22930. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. ISBN 1-4226-0609-0. Suzanne A. Brody. "Coloring." In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, 63. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. ISBN 160047-112-9. Jonathan Goldstein. "Noah and the Ark" and "The Tower of Babel." In Ladies and Gentlemen, the Bible! 4478. New York: Riverhead Books, 2009. ISBN 978-1-59448367-7.

[edit] See also

Curse of Ham Noah in rabbinic literature Seven Laws of Noah

[edit] External links

[edit] Texts

Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation Hear the parshah chanted

[edit] Commentaries

Academy for Jewish Religion, California Academy for Jewish Religion, New York

Aish.com American Jewish University Anshe Emes Synagogue, Los Angeles Bar-Ilan University Chabad.org Department for Jewish Zionist Education eparsha.com Jewish Theological Seminary MyJewishLearning.com Ohr Sameach Orthodox Union OzTorah, Torah from Australia Pardes from Jerusalem Parshah Parts RabbiShimon.com Rabbi Shlomo Riskin Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld Reconstructionist Judaism Sephardic Institute Shiur.com 613.org Jewish Torah Audio Tanach Study Center Teach613.org, Torah Education at Cherry Hill Torah from Dixie Torah.org Union for Reform Judaism United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism Whats Bothering Rashi?

Elohim
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the Hebrew word. For other uses, see Elohim (disambiguation).

"And Elohim created Adam" by William Blake

Elohim ( )is a grammatically singular or plural noun for "god" or "gods" in both modern and ancient Hebrew language. When used with singular verbs and adjectives elohim is usually singular, "god". When used with plural verbs and adjectives elohim is usually plural, "gods".[1][2] It is generally thought that Elohim is a formation from eloah, the latter being an expanded form of the Northwest Semitic noun il ( ,l [3]). It is usually translated as "God" in the Hebrew Bible, referring with singular verbs both to the one God of Israel, and also in a few examples to other singular pagan deities. With plural verbs the word is also used as a true plural with the meaning "gods".[4] The related nouns eloah ( )and el ( )are used as proper names or as generics, in which case they are interchangeable with elohim.[5] The notion of divinity underwent radical changes throughout the period of early Israelite identity. The ambiguity of the term Elohim is the result of such changes, cast in terms of "vertical translatability" by Smith (2008); i.e. the re-interpretation of the gods of the earliest recalled period as the national god of the monolatrism as it emerged in the 7th to 6th century BC in the Kingdom of Judah and during the Babylonian captivity, and further in terms of monotheism by the emergence of Rabbinical Judaism in the 2nd century AD.[6] Despite the -im ending common to many plural nouns in Hebrew, the word when referring to the Name of God is grammatically singular, and takes a singular verb in the Hebrew Bible. The word is identical to the usual plural of el meaning gods or magistrates, and is cognate to the 'l-h-m found in Ugaritic, where it is used for the pantheon of Canaanite Gods, the children of El and conventionally vocalized as "Elohim" although the original Ugaritic vowels are unknown.[citation needed] Most use of the term Elohim in the later Hebrew text imply a view that is at least monolatrist at the time of writing, and such usage (in the singular), as a proper title for the supreme deity, is generally not considered to be synonymous with the term elohim, "gods" (plural, simple noun). Hebrew grammar allows for this plural form to mean "He is the Power (singular) over powers (plural)", or roughly, "god of gods".

Contents
[hide]

1 Etymology 2 Canaanite religion 3 Elohist 4 Hebrew Bible 5 Grammar - singular or plural o 5.1 "gods" plural, with plural verb o 5.2 God of Israel, with singular verb o 5.3 Abraham's "the gods caused me" o 5.4 Angels and judges? o 5.5 Ambiguous readings o 5.6 Other plural-singulars in Biblical Hebrew

6 Related phrases o 6.1 Sons of God 7 Rabbinic Judaism 8 Christian Bible translations 9 See also 10 References

[edit] Etymology
Further information: El (deity), Ilah, Alaha, and Allah The Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible defines "elohim" as a plural of eloah, an expanded form of the common Semitic noun "'il" (l).[7] It contains an added heh as third radical to the biconsonantal root. Discussions of the etymology of elohim essentially concern this expansion. An exact cognate outside of Hebrew is found in Ugaritic lhm, the family of El, the creator god and chief deity of the Canaanite pantheon, in Biblical Aramaic lh and later Syriac Alaha "God", and in Arabic ilh "god, deity" (or Allah as " The [single] God"). "El" (the basis for the extended root lh) is usually derived from a root meaning "to be strong" and/or "to be in front".[8]

[edit] Canaanite religion

Further information: Canaanite religion The word el (singular) is a standard term for "god" in other related Semitic languages including Ugaritic. In the Ugaritic Baal cycle we read of "seventy sons of Asherah" (KTU2 1.4.VI.46).[9]

[edit] Elohist
Further information: Elohist Elohim occurs frequently throughout the received text of the Torah. In some cases (e.g. Exodus 3:4, "... Elohim called unto him out of the midst of the bush ..."), it acts as a singular noun in Hebrew grammar, and is then generally understood to denote the single God of Israel. In other cases, Elohim acts as an ordinary plural of the word Eloah, and refers to the polytheistic notion of multiple gods (for example, Exodus 20:3, "Thou shalt have no other gods before me."). The choice of word or words for God varies in the Hebrew Bible. According to the documentary hypothesis these variations are evidence of different source texts: Elohim is used as the name of God in the Elohist and the Priestly source, while Yahweh is used in the Jahwist source. The difference in names results from the theological point being made in the Elohist and Priestly sources that God did not reveal his name, Yahweh, to any man before the time of Moses.

While the Jahwist presented an anthropomorphic God who could walk through the Garden of Eden looking for Adam and Eve, the Elohist frequently involves angels. For example, it is the Elohist version of the tale of Jacob's ladder in which there is a ladder of angels with God at the top, whereas in the Jahwist tale, it is just a dream in which God is simply above the location, without the ladder or angels. Likewise, the Elohist describes Jacob actually wrestling with God. The classical documentary hypothesis as developed in the late 19th century assumed that the Elohist portions of the Torah were composed in the 9th century BCE (i.e. during the early period of the Kingdom of Judah). This is far from universally accepted today, as there is evidence of a later "Elohist redaction" (post-exilic) during the 5th century BCE which makes it difficult to determine whether a given passage is "Elohist" in origin, or only as a result of late redaction.

[edit] Hebrew Bible

The word Elohim occurs more than 2500 times in the Hebrew Bible, with meanings ranging from "god" in a general sense (as in Exodus 12:12, where it describes "the gods of Egypt"), to a specific god (e.g., 1 Kings 11:33, where it describes Chemosh "the god of Moab", or the frequent references to Yahweh as the "elohim" of Israel), to demons, seraphim, and other supernatural beings, to the spirits of the dead brought up at the behest of King Saul in 1 Samuel 28:13, and even to kings and prophets (e.g., Exodus 4:16).[10] The phrase bene elohim, usually translated "sons of God", has an exact parallel in Ugaritic and Phoenician texts, referring to the council of the gods.[11]

[edit] Grammar - singular or plural

Main article: Hebrew grammar In Hebrew the ending -im, mainly indicates a masculine plural. However with Elohim the construction is grammatically singular, (i.e. it governs a singular verb or adjective) when referring to the Hebrew God, but grammatically plural elohim (i.e. taking a plural verb or adjective) when used of pagan divinities (Psalms 96:5; 97:7).

[edit] "gods" plural, with plural verb

The noun elohim is used with a plural verb in 1 Samuel 28:13. The witch of Endor tells Saul that she sees 'gods' (elohim) coming up (aliym ,plural verb) out of the earth; this seems to indicate that the term was used to mean something like 'divine beings' among spiritists in ancient Israel.

[edit] God of Israel, with singular verb

In the Hebrew Bible Elohim, when meaning the God of Israel, is mostly grammatically singular. Even in Genesis 1:26 "Then God said (singular verb), 'Let us make (plural verb) man in our image, after our likeness'." Elohim is singular. Gesenius and other Hebrew grammarians traditionally described this as the pluralis excellentiae (plural of excellence), which is similar to the pluralis majestatis (plural of majesty, or "Royal we").[12]

Gesenius comments that Elohim singular is to be distinguished from elohim plural gods and remarks that: "the supposition that elohim is to be regarded as merely a remnant of earlier polytheistic views (i.e. as originally only a numerical plural) is at least highly improbable, and, moreover, would not explain the analogous plurals (below). To the same class (and probably formed on the analogy of elohim) belong the plurals kadoshim "the Most Holy" (only of Yahweh, Hosea 12:1, Proverbs 9:10, 30:3 (cf. El hiym kadoshim in Joshua 24:19 and the singular Aramaic "the Most High", Daniel 7:18, 22, 25); and probably teraphim (usually taken in the sense of penates) the image of a god, used especially for obtaining oracles. Certainly in 1 Samuel 19:13, 16 only one image is intended; in most other places a single image may be intended; in Zechariah 10:2 alone is it most naturally taken as a numerical plural.[13] There are a number of notable exceptions to the rule that Elohim is treated as singular when referring to the God of Israel, including Gen. 20:13, 35:7, 2 Sam. 7:23 and Ps. 58:11, and notably the epithet of the "Living God" (Deuteronomy 5:26 etc.), which is constructed with the plural adjective, Elohim Hayiym but still takes singular verbs. In the Septuagint and New Testament translations of Elohim has the singular even in these cases, and modern translations follow suit in giving "God" in the singular. The Samaritan Torah has edited out some of these exceptions.[14]

[edit] Abraham's "the gods caused me"

In Gen 20:13 Abraham before Philistine king Abimelech says that "the gods (elohim) caused (plural verb) me to wander".[15] The Greek Septuagint and most English versions usually translate this "God caused", possibly to avoid the implication of Abraham deferring to Abimelech's polytheistic beliefs.[16]

[edit] Angels and judges?

In a few cases in the Greek Septuagint, Hebrew elohim with a plural verb, or with implied plural context, was rendered either angeloi ("angels") or pros to kriterion tou Theou ("before the judgement of God").[17] These passages then entered first the Latin Vulgate, then the English King James Version as "angels" and "judges", respectively. From this came the result that James Strong, for example, listed "angels" and "judges" as possible meanings for elohim with a plural verb in his Strong's Concordance, and the same is true of many other 17th-20th Century reference works. Both Gesenius' Hebrew Lexicon and the Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon list both angels and judges as possible alternative meanings of elohim with plural verbs and adjectives. However, the reliability of the Septuagint translation in this matter has been questioned by some. In the case of Gesenius, he lists the meaning without agreeing with it.[18] Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg published the conclusion that the Hebrew Bible text never uses elohim to refer to "angels", but that the Septuagint translators refused the references to "gods" in the verses they amended to "angels."[19]

[edit] Ambiguous readings

Sometimes when elohim occurs as the referent or object (i.e. not subject) of a sentence, and without any accompanying verb or adjective to indicate plurality, it may be grammatically unclear whether gods plural or God singular is intended. An example is Psalm 8:5 where "Yet you have made him a little lower than the elohim" is ambiguous as to whether "lower than the gods" or "lower than God" is intended. The Septuagint read this as "gods" and then corrected the translation to "angels", which reading is taken up by the New Testament in Hebrews 2:9 "But we see him who for a little while was made lower than the angels, namely Jesus".

[edit] Other plural-singulars in Biblical Hebrew

Main article: Pluralis excellentiae The Hebrew language has several nouns with -im (masculine plural) and -oth (feminine plural) endings which nevertheless take singular verbs, adjectives and pronouns. For example Ba'alim "owner": "He is lord (singular) even over any of those things that he owns that are lordly (plural)."[citation needed] Alternately, Elohim is sometimes regarded as a plural of excellence rather than number.[20]

[edit] Related phrases

[edit] Sons of God
Main article: Sons of God The Hebrew word for sons bene occurs with various nouns such as a collective, such as Psa. xlix, 3, bene adam "sons of men," "sons of Adam"; bene Yisrael "sons of Israel, Israelites. The Hebrew term bene elohim ("sons of God" or "sons of the gods") in, e.g., Genesis 6:2[21] compares to the use of "sons of gods" (Ugaritic bn il) sons of El in Ugaritic mythology.[22] Karel van der Toorn states that Gods can be referred to collectively as bene elim, bene elyon, or bene elohim.[23]

[edit] Rabbinic Judaism

Further information: Names of God in Judaism Elohim occupy the seventh rank of ten in the famous medieval Rabbinic scholar Maimonides' Jewish angelic hierarchy. Also Maimonides told that: I must premise that every Hebrew knows that the term Elohim is a homonym, and denotes God, angels, judges, and the rulers of countries, ...[24]

[edit] Christian Bible translations

Hebrew elohim in English translations of the Bible is usually rendered as gods when referring to pagan deities, and as God when referring to the God of Israel, echoing use of theos in the Greek LXX.

In some Sacred name Bibles, like The Scriptures 98, the word "Elohim" is used in many places in the New Testament where the word theos is found in the Greek text (such as John 1:1 and John 10:36). Though there are no attested early Biblical manuscripts of the New Testament with "Elohim", the editors of such translations appeal to the fact that the Syriac word Aloha, the source of Hebrew Eloah, is found in the Syriac bible text.

[edit] See also

El (god) Elohist Elyon Genesis creation narrative Ilah Names of God Names of God in Judaism

[edit] References
1. ^ Glinert Modern Hebrew: An Essential Grammar Routledge 2. '^ Gesenius A Grammar of the Hebrew Language 3. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) p.274, 352-3 4. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) p.274, 352-3 5. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) p.274, 352-3 6. ^ Mark S. Smith, God in translation: deities in cross-cultural discourse in the biblical world, vol. 57 of Forschungen zum Alten Testament, Mohr Siebeck, 2008, ISBN 9783161495434, p. 19.; Smith, Mark S. (2002), "The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel" (Biblical Resource Series) 7. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) p.274, 352 8. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) p.274 9. ^ John Day Yahweh and the gods and goddesses of Canaan p23 10. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) pp.352-3 11. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) pp.353 12. ^ Gesenius Hebrew Grammar "124g, without article 125f, with article 126e, with the singular 145h, with plural 132h,145i" 13. ^ Wikisource

14. ^ Richard N. Soulen, R. Kendall Soulen, Handbook of biblical criticism, Westminster John Knox Press, 2001, ISBN 9780664223144, p. 166. 15. ^ e.g. Gen. 20:13 ( where is from " to err, wander, go astray, stagger", the causative plural "they caused to wander") 16. ^ LXX: ; KJV: "when God caused me to wander from my father's house" 17. ^ Brenton Septuagint Exodus 21:6 18. ^ The Biblical repositor p360 ed. Edward Robinson - 1838 "Gesenius denies that elohim ever means angels ; and he refers in this denial particularly to Ps. 8: 5, and Ps. 97: 7 ; but he observes, that the term is so translated in the ancient versions." 19. ^ Samuel Davidsohn An Introduction to the New Testament 3 1848 p282 "Hengstenberg, for example, affirms, that the usus loquendi is decisive against the direct reference to angels, because Elohim never signifies angels. He thinks that the Septuagint translator could not understand the representation ..." 20. ^ Gesenius Hebrew Grammar 21. ^ (e.g. Genesis 6:2, "... the sons of the Elohim (e-aleim) saw the daughters of men (e-adam, the adam) that they were fair; and they took them for wives... ," 22. ^ Marvin H. Pope El in the Ugaritic texts Supplements to Vetus Testamentum Vol. II Leiden, Brill, 1955. Pp. xl-116, p49 23. ^ K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds), "Dictionary of deities and demons in the Bible" (revised 2nd edition, Brill, 1999) p.274, 352-3 24. ^ Moses Maimonides(1904)"Guide for the Perplexed"

Horst Dietrich Preuss, Old Testament theology, vol. 1, Continuum International Publishing Group, 1995, ISBN 9780567097354, 147-149.

Flood myth
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia "Great Flood" redirects here. For other uses, see Great Flood (disambiguation).

"The Deluge", frontispiece to Gustave Dor's illustrated edition of the Bible. Based on the story of Noah's Ark, this shows humans and a tiger doomed by the flood futilely attempting to save their children and cubs.

Nanabozho in Ojibwe flood story from an illustration by R.C. Armour, in his book North American Indian Fairy Tales, Folklore and Legends, (1905). A flood myth or deluge myth is a mythical or religious story of a great flood sent by a deity or deities to destroy civilization as an act of divine retribution. It is a theme widespread among many cultures, though it is perhaps best known in modern times through the biblical and Quranic account of Noah's Ark, the Hindu puranic story of Manu, through Deucalion in Greek mythology or Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh. Parallels are often drawn between the flood waters of these myths and the primeval waters found in some creation myths since the flood waters are seen to cleanse humanity in preparation for rebirth. Most flood myths also contain a culture hero who strives to ensure this rebirth.[1]

Contents
[hide]

1 Origin of flood myths 2 See also 3 References o 3.1 Other 4 External links

[edit] Origin of flood myths

Adrienne Mayor's The First Fossil Hunters and Fossil Legends of the First Americans promoted the hypothesis that flood stories were inspired by ancient observations of seashells and fish fossils inland and on mountains. The ancient Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and Chinese all wrote about finding such remains in these locations, and the Greeks hypothesized that Earth had been covered by water several times, noting seashells and fish fossils found on mountain tops as evidence. Native Americans also expressed this belief in their early encounters with Europeans, though they had not written it down previously.[citation needed] However, Leonardo da Vinci postulated that an immediate deluge could not have caused the neatly ordered strata he found in the Italian Apennines.

"The Deluge", by John Martin, 1834. Oil on canvas. Yale University Some geologists believe that quite dramatic, unusually great flooding of rivers in the distant past might have influenced the legends. Also episodes of massive flooding of short duration of ocean coastal areas have been caused by tsunamis. One of the latest, and quite controversial, hypotheses of long term flooding is the Ryan-Pitman Theory, which argues for a catastrophic deluge about 5600 BC from the Mediterranean Sea into the Black Sea. This has been the subject of considerable discussion, and a news article from National Geographic News in February 2009 reported that the flooding might have been "quite mild".[2] There also has been speculation that a large tsunami in the Mediterranean Sea caused by the Thera eruption, dated about 16301600 BC geologically, was the historical basis for folklore that evolved into the Deucalion myth. Although the tsunami hit the South Aegean Sea and Crete it did not affect cities in the mainland of Greece, such as Mycenae, Athens, and Thebes, which continued to prosper, indicating that it had a local rather than a regionwide effect.[3]

Another theory is that a meteor or comet crashed into the Indian Ocean around 30002800 BC, created the 30 kilometres (19 mi) undersea Burckle Crater, and generated a giant tsunami that flooded coastal lands.[4] It has been postulated that the deluge myth may be based on a sudden rise in sea levels caused by the rapid draining of prehistoric Lake Agassiz at the end of the last Ice Age, about 8,400 years ago.[5] [6] [7] The great deluge finds mention in Hindu mythology texts like the Satapatha Brahmana [8], where in the Matsya Avatar (Fish incarnation) of Lord Vishnu takes place to save the pious and the first man, Manu.[9][10][11]

[edit] See also

Mythology portal Religion portal

Antediluvian Atlantis Atrahasis Aztln Black Sea deluge theory Cantref Gwaelod Deluge (prehistoric) Gilgamesh flood myth Great Flood (of China) Immanuel Velikovsky Lemuria List of flood myths Matsya Noah's Ark Viracocha Ys Ziusudra

[edit] References
1. ^ "Flood" The Oxford Companion to World mythology. David Leeming. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 17 September 2010 http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html? subview=Main&entry=t208.e567 2. ^ "'Noah's Flood' Not Rooted in Reality, After All?" National Geographic News, February 6, 2009. 3. ^ Castleden, Rodney (2001) "Atlantis Destroyed" (Routledge). 4. ^ Scott Carney (November 7, 2007). "Did a comet cause the great flood?". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 17 September 2010. 5. ^ Sarah Hoyle (November 18, 2007). "Noah's flood kick-started European farming". University of Exeter. Retrieved 17 September 2010.

6. ^ Early days among the Cheyanne & Arapahoe Indians by John H. Seger, page 135 ISBN:0-8061-1533-5 7. ^ Book of the Hopi by Frank Waters, page 18 ISBN:0-14-004527-9 8. ^ The great flood -- Hindu style (Satapatha Brahmana) 9. ^ Matsya Britannica.com 10. ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier (2007). A Survey of Hinduism. SUNY Press. p. 97. ISBN 0791470822. 11. ^ Sunil Sehgal (1999). Encyclopaedia of Hinduism: T-Z, Volume 5. Sarup & Sons. p. 401. ISBN 8176250643.

[edit] Other

Alan Dundes (editor), The Flood Myth, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1988. ISBN 0-520-05973-5 / 0520059735 Lloyd R. Bailey. Noah, the Person and the Story, University of South Carolina Press, 1989, ISBN 0-87249-637-6 John Greenway (editor), The Primitive Reader, Folkways, 1965 G. Grey, Polynesian Mythology, Illustrated edition, reprinted 1976. (Whitcombe and Tombs: Christchurch), 1956. A.W. Reed, Treasury of Maori Folklore (A.H. & A.W. Reed:Wellington), 1963. Anaru Reedy (translator), Nga Korero a Pita Kapiti: The Teachings of Pita Kapiti. Canterbury University Press: Christchurch, 1997. W. G. Lambert and A. R. Millard, Atrahasis: The Babylonian Story of the Flood, Eisenbrauns, 1999, ISBN 1-57506-039-6. Faulkes, Anthony (transl.) (1987). Edda (Snorri Sturluson). Everyman. ISBN 0-46087616-3.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Deluge (mythology)

The Great Flood All texts (Eridu Genesis, Atrahasis, Gilgamesh, Bible, Berossus), commentary, and a table with parallels Mark Isaak (1996-2002). "Flood stories from around the world". Retrieved 2007-0627. "Mirror from September 2002". Retrieved 2007-06-27.

Ballard & The Black Sea National Geographic Flood Legends from Around the World The Flood myth as preserved by the Uru-Muratos of Bolivia's Altiplano on YouTube Talkorigins.org

Noah
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the biblical Noah. For other uses, see Noah (disambiguation).

Noah

Noah's sacrifice by Daniel Maclise Antediluvian Patriarch, Prophet, Holy Forefather, Constructor of the Ark, 'Grateful Servant of God', 'Preacher of Righteousness' approx. 2900 BC[citation needed] Born Mesopotamia (?) Died approx. 2000 BC[citation needed] Judaism Christianity Honored in Islam Mandaeism Baha'i Faith Influenced Many Jews, Christians and Muslims Noah (or Noe, Noach; Hebrew: ,, Modern Noa Tiberian N; Arabic: N; Greek: ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the tenth and last of the antediluvian Patriarchs. The biblical story of Noah is contained in chapters 69 of the book of Genesis, where he saves his family and representatives of all animals from the flood by constructing an ark.[1] He is also mentioned as the "first husbandman" and in the story of the Curse of Ham. Noah is the subject of much elaboration in later Abrahamic traditions.

Contents
[hide]

1 Noah in Genesis 2 World views o 2.1 Jewish views o 2.2 Christian views o 2.3 Islamic views

2.4 Latter-day Saint views 2.5 Gnostic views 2.6 Baha'i views 2.7 Scholarly views 3 See also 4 References 5 Further reading
o o o o

6 External links

[edit] Noah in Genesis

See also: Great flood

Mosaic depiction of Noah sending the dove. The following section is a summary of the Book of Genesis, chapters 69. Noah was the son of Lamech who named him Noah, saying, "This same shall comfort us in our work and in the toil of our hands, which cometh from the ground which the LORD hath cursed."[2] In his five hundredth year Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth. In his six hundredth year God, saddened at the wickedness of mankind, sent a great deluge to destroy all life, but instructed Noah, a man "righteous in his generation," to build an ark and save a remnant of life from the Flood. After the Flood, "Noah was the first tiller of the soil. He planted a vineyard; and he drank of the wine." Noah's son Ham saw his father naked in his father's tent, and told his brothers, and so Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan, giving his land to Shem.[3] Noah died 350 years after the Flood, at the age of 950,[4] the last of the immensely long-lived antediluvian Patriarchs. The maximum human lifespan, as depicted by the Bible, diminishes rapidly thereafter, from as much as 900 years to the 120 years of Moses.

[edit] World views

[edit] Jewish views

See also: Noah in rabbinic literature and Noach (parsha)

A Jewish depiction of Noah The righteousness of Noah is the subject of much discussion among the rabbis.[5] The description of Noah as "righteous in his generation" implied to some that his perfection was only relative: In his generation of wicked people, he could be considered righteous, but in the generation of a tzadik like Abraham, he would not be considered so righteous. They point out that Noah did not pray to God on behalf of those about to be destroyed, as Abraham prayed for the wicked of Sodom and Gomorrah. In fact, Noah is never seen to speak; he simply listens to God and acts on his orders. This led such commentators to offer the figure of Noah as "the man in a fur coat," who ensured his own comfort while ignoring his neighbour. Others, such as the medieval commentator Rashi, held on the contrary that the building of the Ark was stretched over 120 years, deliberately in order to give sinners time to repent. Rashi interprets his father's statement of the naming of Noah (in Hebrew )This one will comfort (in Hebrew yeNaHamainu )from our work and our hands sore from the land that the Lord had cursed,[6] by saying Noah heralded a new era of prosperity, when there was easing (in Hebrew nahah - )from the curse from the time of Adam when the Earth produced thorns and thistles even where men sowed wheat and that Noah then introduced the plow.

[edit] Christian views

An early Christian depiction showing Noah giving the gesture of orant as the dove returns. The Gospel of Luke, (Luke17:26), compares Noah's Flood with the coming Day of Judgement: Just as it was in the days of Noah, so too it will be in the days of the coming of the Son of Man. Noah is called a "preacher of righteousness" in 2 Peter 2:5, and the First Epistle of Peter compares the saving power of baptism with the Ark saving those who were in it. In later Christian thought, the Ark came to be compared to the Church: salvation was to be found only within Christ and his Lordship, as in Noah's time it had been found only within the Ark. St Augustine of Hippo (354-430), demonstrated in The City of God that the dimensions of the Ark corresponded to the dimensions of the human body, which corresponds to the body of Christ; the equation of Ark and Church is still found in the Anglican rite of baptism, which asks God, "who of thy great mercy didst save Noah," to receive into the Church the infant about to be baptised. Noah's three sons were generally interpreted in medieval Christianity as the founders of the populations of the three known continents, Japheth/Europe, Shem/Asia, and Ham/Africa, although a rarer variation held that they represented the three classes of medieval society - the priests (Shem), the warriors (Japheth), and the peasants (Ham). In the 18th and 19th centuries the view that Ham's sons in general had been literally "blackened" by the curse of Noah was cited as justification for black slavery.

[edit] Islamic views

Main article: Islamic view of Noah

An Islamic depiction of Noah. Noah is a highly important figure in Islam, and is seen as one of the most significant prophets of all. The Qur'an contains 43 references to Noah in 28 chapters and the seventy-first chapter, Chapter Noah, is named after him. Noah's narratives largely consist around his preaching as well the story of the Deluge. Noah is also the first prophet in the Qur'an whose narrative lays the prototype for many of the subsequent prophetic stories, which begin with the prophet warning his people and then the community rejecting the message and facing a punishment.

Noah has several titles in Islam, based primarily on praise for him in the Qur'an, including True Messenger of God (XXVI: 107) and Grateful Servant of God (XVII: 3). The Qur'an further states that God chose Adam, Noah, the family of Abraham and the family of Amram above all mankind (III: 33). The Qur'an focuses on several instances from Noah's life more than others, and one of the most significant events is the Deluge. God makes a covenant with Noah just as with Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Muhammad later on (XXXIII: 7). Noah is later reviled by his people and reproached by them for being a mere human messenger and not an angel (X: 7274). Moreover, the people of Noah mock Noah's words and call him a liar (VII: 62) and even suggest that Noah is possessed by a devil when the prophet ceases to preach (LIV: 9). Only the lowest in the community join Noah in believing in God's message (XI: 29), and Noah's narrative further describes him preaching both in private and public. The Qur'an narrates that Noah received a revelation to build an Ark, after his people refused to believe in his message and hear the warning. The narrative goes onto describe that waters poured forth from the Heavens, destroying all the sinners, including one of Noah's own sons, who refused to believe his father. After the Great Flood ceased, the Ark rested atop Mount Judi (XI: 27-51).

[edit] Latter-day Saint views

In Latter-day Saint theology, the angel Gabriel lived in his mortal life as the patriarch Noah. Gabriel and Noah are regarded as the same individual; Noah being his mortal name and Gabriel being his heavenly name.[7]

[edit] Gnostic views

Gnosticism was an important development of (and departure from) early Christianity, blending Jewish scriptures and Christian teachings with traditional pagan religion and esoteric Greek philosophical concepts. An important Gnostic text, the Apocryphon of John, reports that the chief archon caused the flood because he desired to destroy the world he had made, but the First Thought informed Noah of the chief archon's plans, and Noah informed the remainder of humanity. Unlike the account of Genesis, not only are Noah's family saved, but many others also heed Noah's call. There is no ark in this account; instead Noah and the others hide in a "luminous cloud".

[edit] Baha'i views

The Bah' Faith regards the Ark and the Flood as symbolic.[8] In Bah' belief, only Noah's followers were spiritually alive, preserved in the ark of his teachings, as others were spiritually dead.[9][10] The Bah' scripture Kitb-i-qn endorses the Islamic belief that Noah had a large number of companions, either 40 or 72, besides his family on the Ark, and that he taught for 950 (symbolic) years before the flood.[11]

[edit] Scholarly views

According to the documentary hypothesis, the first five books of the Bible (Pentateuch/Torah), including Genesis, were collated during the 5th century BC from four main sources, which themselves date from no earlier than the 10th century BC. Two of these, the Jahwist, composed in the 10th century BC, and the Priestly source, from the late 7th century BC, make up the chapters of Genesis which concern Noah. The attempt by the 5th

century editor to accommodate two independent and sometimes conflicting sources accounts for the confusion over such matters as how many pairs of animals Noah took, and how long the flood lasted. More broadly, Genesis seems to contain two accounts concerning Noah, the first making him the hero of the Flood, the second representing him as a husbandman who planted a vineyard. This has led some scholars to believe that Noah was believed by the ancients to be the inventor of wine, in keeping with the statement at Genesis 5:29 that Lamech "called his name Noah, saying, 'Out of the ground which the Lord has cursed this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil of our hands.'"[12]

Noah's first burnt offering after the Flood - relief in Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc. Noah's great grandfather Enoch, according to Genesis 5:24, at the end of his 365 years, "walked with God, and was not, for God took him." The prevalent Hebrew understanding of the text meaning that he was taken to heaven to be with God.[who?] Of Enoch, the only of the ten pre-Flood Patriarchs not reported to have died, it is not explicitly stated where he is taken in Genesis. However, Hebrews 11:5 states that "by faith Enoch was taken from this life, so that he did not experience death; he could not be found, because God had taken him away. For before he was taken, he was commended as one who pleased God." Enoch and Elijah (in 2Kings 2:1: "the LORD was about to take Elijah up to heaven in a whirlwind") are two people described as experiencing assumption (not seeing death). In a late Apocryphal tradition, Methuselah is reported to have visited Enoch at the end of the Earth, where he dwelt with the angels, immortal. The details bring to mind Utnapishtim, a figure from the Mesopotamian Epic of Gilgamesh - the hero Gilgamesh, after long and arduous travel, finds Utnapishtim living in the paradise of Dilmun / Bahrain at the end of the Earth, where he has been granted eternal life by the gods. (Gilgamesh's reason for seeking out Utnapishtim, incidentally, is to learn the secret of immortality - like Methuselah, he comes close to the gift but fails to achieve it). Utnapishtim then tells how he survived a great flood, and how he was afterwards

granted immortality by the gods. It has been suggested that the Flood story may originally have belonged to Enoch.[12] Lamech's statement that Noah will be named "rest" because "out of the ground which the Lord has cursed this one shall bring us relief from our work and from the toil of our hands," has another faint parallel in Babylonian mythology: the gods grew tired of working, digging the channels of the rivers, and so the god Enki created man from clay and blood and spit to do the work for them. Enki fell in love with his creation, and later warned Utnapishtim that the other gods planned to send a flood to destroy all life, and advised him on how to construct his ark. Noah is also often compared to Deucalion, the son of Prometheus and Pronoia in Greek mythology. Like Noah, Deucalion is a wine maker or wine seller; he is forewarned of the flood (this time by Zeus); he builds an ark and staffs it with creatures - and when he completes his voyage, gives thanks and takes advice from the gods on how to repopulate the Earth. Deucalion also sends a pigeon to find out about the situation of the world and the bird return with an olive branch. This and some other examples of apparent comparison between Greek myths and the "key characters" in the Old Testament/Torah have led recent Biblical scholars to suggest a Hellenistic influence in the composition of the earlier portions of the Hebrew Bible.[citation needed]

[edit] See also

Flood myth Gilgamesh flood myth Nagual Noahide Laws Patriarchal Age Sons of Noah Ziusudra Atra-Hasis

[edit] References
1. ^ Noah's Ark - Jewish Encyclopedia 2. ^ Genesis 5:29 3. ^ Genesis 9:20-27 4. ^ Genesis 9:28-29 5. ^ "JewishEncyclopedia.com - Noah". 6. ^ Genesis 5:28 7. ^ "Encyclopedia of Mormonism - NOAH". 8. ^ From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi, October 28, 1949: Bah' News, No. 228, February 1950, p. 4. Republished in Compilation 1983, p. 508 9. ^ Poirier, Brent. "The Kitab-i-Iqan: The key to unsealing the mysteries of the Holy Bible". Retrieved 2007-06-25. 10. ^ Shoghi Effendi 1971, p. 104 11. ^ From a letter written on behalf of Shoghi Effendi to an individual believer, November 25, 1950. Published in Compilation 1983, p. 494 12. ^ a b "NOAH". JewishEncyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2010-03-15.

[edit] Further reading

Michael E. Stone, Aryeh Amihay, and Vered Hillel, eds. Noah and His Book(s) (Society of Biblical Literature; 2010) 380 pages. Scholarly essays on debate over the existence of a lost "book of Noah," a text referred to in other texts. Bailey, Lloyd R. (1989). Noah, the Person and the Story. South Carolina: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-637-6. Young, Davis A. (1995). The Biblical Flood: A Case Study of the Church's Response to Extrabiblical Evidence. Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 085364-678-3. Ryan, William (1998). Noah's Flood. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0684-81052-2.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Noah

Jewish Encyclopedia: Noah from the 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia Catholic Encyclopedia: Noah MuslimWiki: Nuh

Prophets in the Hebrew Bible

[show]v d eAdam to David according to the Hebrew

Bible
[show]v d eProphets in the

Qur'an
Categories: Prophets of the Hebrew Bible | Abrahamic mythology | Legendary progenitors | Longevity traditions | Noahides | Old Testament saints | People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar | Torah people | Noah's Ark | Noah

Abraham
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the biblical Abraham. For other uses, see Abraham (disambiguation).

Abraham

Rembrandt, Sacrifice of Isaac, 1635 Prophet, Father of the Multitude, First Hebrew Patriarch, Holy Forefather, anf, Friend of God Constructor of the Kaaba 1948 Anno Mundi Born (early second millennium BCE) Mesopotamia 2123? AM (age: 175)[1] Died Canaan/Promised land[citation needed] Judaism Christianity Honored in Islam Mandaeism Baha'i Faith Many Influenced Jews, Christians and Muslims Abraham (Hebrew: ( helpinfo), Modern: Avraham, Tiberian: Arhm, Arabic: ,Ibrhm, Abrham, Greek: A), whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. According to both the Hebrew Bible[2] and the Qur'an, Abraham is the forefather of many tribes, including the Ishmaelites, Israelites, Midianites, Edomites, and others.[2] Abraham was a descendant of Noah's son, Shem.[3][4] Among Abraham's descendants are counted Moses and Jesus, through Isaac, while Muhammad was a descendant through Ishmael.[5] The Book of Genesis narrative that records the life of Abraham presents his role as one that could only be fulfilled through a monotheistic covenant established between him and the God. [6] The Qur'an has stories about Abraham and his offspring that are similar to the Bible's.[7] In Islam, Abraham is recognized as a prophet, patriarch, and messenger, archetype of the perfect Muslim, and reformer[8][9] of the Kaaba.[10]

There is a growing consensus among biblical scholars that the Genesis story of Abraham originated from literary circles of the 6th and 5th centuries BCE,[11] where it served to assure the Israelites in exile that despite the destruction of Jerusalem, the Temple and the Davidic kingship, God's dealings with their ancestors provided a historical foundation on which hope for the future could be built.[12] Abraham's association with Mamre and Hebron, in the south, in the territory of Jerusalem and Judah, suggest that this region was the original home of his cult.[13]

Contents
[hide]

1 About Abraham o 1.1 Etymology o 1.2 Chronology o 1.3 Historicity and origins 2 Narrative in Genesis o 2.1 Abram's nativity o 2.2 Abram's calling o 2.3 Abram and Sarai o 2.4 Abram and Lot separate o 2.5 Abram and Chedorlaomer o 2.6 Abrahamic covenant o 2.7 Abram and Hagar o 2.8 Abraham and Sarah o 2.9 Abraham's three visitors o 2.10 Abraham's plea o 2.11 Abraham and Abimelech o 2.12 Abraham and Ishmael o 2.13 Abraham and Isaac o 2.14 Later years 3 Narrative in the Qur'an 4 Abraham in religious traditions o 4.1 Judaism 4.1.1 Abraham in the Writings of Second Temple Judaism 4.1.2 Abrams birthplace disputed o 4.2 Christianity 4.2.1 Abraham in the Writings of the Church Fathers o 4.3 Islam o 4.4 Baha'i 5 Abraham in the Arts o 5.1 Paintings o 5.2 Sculpture o 5.3 Literature o 5.4 Music 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References

9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit] About Abraham

[edit] Etymology
Abraham first appears as Abram in the book of Genesis until he is renamed by Yahweh (YHWH) in Genesis 17:5. The narrative indicates that abraham means the father of a multitude" (Hebrew: a-hmn goyim).[14] However, scholars do not accept the narrative's definition to be the etymology of Abraham because, though "ab-" means "father", "-hamon" is not the second element, and "-Raham" is not a word in Hebrew. The word in Hebrew for "multitude" is rabim. Johann Friedrich Karl Keil suggested that there was once a word raham ( )in Hebrew that meant "multitude", on analogy with the Arabic ruhm which does have this meaning, but there is no evidence to support this;[15] another possibility is that the first element should be abr-, which means "chief", but this yields a meaningless second element, "aham". David Rohl suggests the name comes from the Akkadian "the father loves",[16] but scholars would prefer an origin based on Hebrew.

[edit] Chronology
The standard Masoretic text of the Hebrew Bible places Abraham's birth 1,948 years after the Creation, or 1948 AM (Anno Mundi, "Year of the World"). The two other major textual traditions have different dates, the translated Greek Septuagint putting it at 3312 AM and the Samaritan version of the Torah at 2247 AM. All three agree that he died at the age of 175.[17] There have been over two hundred attempts to match the biblical chronology to dates in history, two of the more influential being the traditional Jewish dates (Abraham lived 1812 BCE to 1637 BCE), and those of the 17th century Archbishop James Ussher (1976 BCE to 1801 BCE); but the most that can be said with some degree of certainty is that the standard Hebrew text of Genesis places Abraham in the earlier part of the second millennium BCE.[18]

[edit] Historicity and origins

It is generally recognised by scholars that there is nothing in the Genesis stories that can be related to the history of Canaan of the early 2nd millennium: none of the kings mentioned is known, Abimelech could not be a Philistine (they did not arrive till centuries later), Ur could not become known as "Ur of the Chaldeans" until the early 1st millennium, and Laban could not have been an Aramean, as the Arameans did not become an identifiable political entity until the 12th century.[19] Joseph Blenkinsopp, Emeritus Professor of Biblical Studies at the University of Notre Dame, notes that the past four or five decades have seen a growing consensus that the Genesis narrative of Abraham originated from literary circles of the 6th and 5th centuries BCE as a mirror of the situation facing the Jewish community under the Babylonian and early Persian empires.[11] Blenkinsopp describes two conclusions about Abraham that are widely held in biblical scholarship: the first is that, except in the triad "Abraham, Isaac and Jacob," he is not clearly and unambiguously attested in the Bible earlier than the Babylonian exile (he does not, for example, appear in prophetic texts earlier than that time); the second is that he became, in the Persian period, a model for those who would return from Babylon to Judah.[20] Beyond this the Abraham story (and those of Isaac and

Jacob/Israel) served a theological purpose following the destruction of Jerusalem, the Temple and the Davidic kingship: despite the loss of these things, Yahweh's dealings with the ancestors provided a historical foundation on which hope for the future could be built.[12] There is basic agreement that his connection with Haran, Shechem and Bethel is secondary and originated when he became identified as the father of Jacob and ancestor of the northern tribes; his association with Mamre and Hebron, on the other hand (in the south, in the territory of Jerusalem and Judah), suggest that this region was the original home of his cult.[13]

[edit] Narrative in Genesis

The life of Abraham is recorded in Genesis 11:26-25:10 of the Hebrew Bible.

Abraham's Departure, by Jzsef Molnr

[edit] Abram's nativity

Terah, the tenth in descent from Noah, fathered Abram, Nahor and Haran, and Haran fathered Lot. Haran died in his native Ur of the Chaldees (which is perhaps Ur), and Abram married Sarai, who was barren. Terah, with Abram, Sarai and Lot, then departed for Canaan, but settled in a place named Haran (which may be Harran), where Terah died at the age of 205. (Genesis 11:27-11:32)

Abram Journeying into the Land of Canaan (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible)

[edit] Abram's calling

God told Abram to leave his native land and his fathers house for a land that God would show him, promising to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless those who blessed him, and curse those who cursed him. (Genesis 12:13) Following Gods command, at age 75, Abram took his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the wealth and persons that they had acquired in Haran, and traveled to the terebinth (KJV: plain) of Moreh, at Shechem in Canaan. (Genesis 12:46) God appeared to Abram to tell him that God would give the land to his heirs, and Abram built an altar to God. (Genesis 12:7) Abram then moved to the hill country east of Bethel and built an altar to God there and invoked God by name. (Genesis 12:8) Then Abram journeyed toward the Negeb (the south.) (Genesis 12:9)

Abrams Counsel to Sarai (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

[edit] Abram and Sarai

There was a sore famine in the land of Canaan, so that Abram and Lot and their households, travelled south to Egypt. En route, Abram told his wife Sarai, to say that she was his sister, so that the Egyptians would not kill him. (Genesis 12:1013) When they entered Egypt, the princes of Pharaoh praised Sarai's beauty to the Pharaoh, and she was taken into his palace, and Abram was given provisions: "oxen, and he asses, and menservants, and maidservants, and she asses, and camels." However, God afflicted the Pharaoh and his household with great plagues, (Genesis 12:1417) and after discovering that Sarai was really Abram's wife, the Pharaoh wanted nothing to do with them. He demanded that he and his household leave immediately, along with all their goods. (Genesis 12:1820)

[edit] Abram and Lot separate

When they came back to the Bethel and Hai area, Abram's and Lot's sizeable numbers of livestock occupied the same pastures, ("and the Canaanite and the Perizzite dwelled then in the land.") This became a problem for the herdsmen who were assigned to each familys cattle. The conflicts between herdsmen had become so troublesome that Abram graciously suggested that Lot choose a separate area, either on the left hand or on the right hand, that there be no conflict amongst "brethren". But Lot chose to go east to the plain of Jordan where the land was well watered everywhere as far as Zoar, and he dwelled in the cities of the plain toward Sodom. Abram went south to Hebron and settled in the plain of Mamre, where he built another altar unto the LORD. (Genesis 13:1-18)

[edit] Abram and Chedorlaomer

Main article: Battle of the Vale of Siddim

Meeting of Abram and Melchizedek (painting circa 14641467 by Dieric Bouts the Elder) During the rebellion of the Jordan River cities against Elam, (Genesis 14:19) Abrams nephew, Lot, was taken prisoner along with his entire household by the invading Elamite forces. The Elamite army came to collect booty from the spoils of war, after having just defeated the King of Sodoms armies. (Genesis 14:812) Lot and his family, at the time, were settled on the outskirts of the Kingdom of Sodom which made them a visible target. (Genesis 13:12) One person that escaped capture came and told Abram what happened. Once Abram received this news, he immediately assembled 318 trained servants. Abrams elite force headed north in pursuit of the Elamite army, who were already worn down from the Battle of Siddim. When they caught up with them at Dan, Abram devised a battle strategy plan by splitting his group into more than one unit, and launched a night raid. Not only were they able to free the captives, Abrams unit chased and slaughtered the Elamite King Chedorlaomer at Hobah, just north of Damascus. They freed Lot, his household, possessions, and recovered all of the goods from Sodom that were taken. (Genesis 14:1316) Upon Abrams return, King Bera of Sodom came out to meet with him in the Valley of Shaveh, the "king's dale." Also, Melchizedek king of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest of God Most High, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God. Abram then gave Melchizedek a tenth of everything. The king of Sodom then offered to let Abram keep all the possessions if he would merely return his people. Though he released the captives, Abram refused any reward from the King of Sodom, other than the share his allies were entitled to. (Genesis 14:1724)

[edit] Abrahamic covenant

The Vision of the Lord Directing Abram to Count the Stars (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures) After ten years, since the time Abraham left Haran,[21] In Genesis 15:1-4 Abrams most important encounter is recorded when the LORD made a covenant with him. The day started with a vision where Abram expressed his concerns about being childless. God then reminds him of his original promise to make him a father of a great nation and then revealed that he would have a son born to him. (Genesis 15:1-4) Later that day, at the drawing of the evening, Abram fell into a deep sleep where he encountered God again. God then prophesied to Abram that the nation born to him would be removed to another land where they must be trialed for four hundred years and afterward, they would be greatly blessed with many possessions and occupy their own land. This prophecy was that of the Israelites in subjection to Egypt, for four hundred years, before returning to Canaan to claim it as their own. (Genesis 15:12-18) It was at this drawing of the night hour that Abram entered into a covenant with Yahweh who declared all of the regions of land that his offspring would claim: "To your descendants I give this land, from the river of Egypt to the great river, the Euphrates, the land of the Kenites, Kenizzites, Kadmonites, Hittites, Perizzites, Rephaites, Amorites, Canaanites, Girgashites and Jebusites." Genesis 15:1821 According to the majority viewpoint, the religion of Abraham was monolatry (worship of one god among many) rather than monotheism.[22] His god, known as El, was a personal, family, and tribal god.[22]

[edit] Abram and Hagar

See also: Hagar (Bible)

Sarah Presenting Hagar to Abraham (1699 painting by Adriaen van der Werff) Abram and Sarai were trying to make sense of how he will become a progenitor of nations since it has already been 10 years of living in Canaan, and still no child has been born from Abram's seed. Sarai then offered her Egyptian handmaid, Hagar, for Abram to consort with her so that she may have a child by her, as a wife. Abram consented and had intercourse with

Hagar. The result of these actions created a hostile relationship between Hagar and her mistress, Sarai. (Genesis 16:1-6) After a harsh encounter with Sarai, Hagar fled toward Shur. In route, an angel of Yahweh appeared to Hagar at the well of a spring. He instructed her to return to Sarai for she will bear a son who shall be a wild ass of a man, his hand against everyone and everyone's hand against him, and he shall dwell over against all his kinsmen. She was told to call her son: Ishmael. Hagar then referred to God as El-roi, meaning that she had gone on seeing after God saw her. From that day, the well was called Beer-lahai-roi. She then did as she was instructed by returning to Abram in order to have her child. Abram was eighty-six years of age when Ishmael was born.(Genesis 16:7-16)

[edit] Abraham and Sarah

Genesis 17 records the inauguration of Abram into Yahwehs covenant that was initiated thirteen years ago, as was stated in Genesis 15. Abram is now ninety-nine when Yahweh declares Abrams new name: Abraham, a father of many nations. Abram then received the instructions for the inauguration rite into Gods covenant because the time was approaching for him to have a son by his wife, Sarai. The initiation rite was that in order to be part of this great nation, whether by bloodline or inducted, every male must be circumcised otherwise it was a breach of contract. Then Yahweh declared Sarais new name: Sarah and blessed her. Immediately after Abrams encounter with his God, he had his entire household of men, including himself and Ishmael, circumcised. (Genesis 17:1-27)

[edit] Abraham's three visitors

Abraham and the Three Angels (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Not long afterward, during the heat of the day, Abraham had been sitting at the entrance of his tent by the terebinths of Mamre. He looked up and saw three men in the presence of God. Then he ran and bowed to the ground to welcome them. Abraham then offered to wash their feet and fetch them a morsel of bread of which they assented. Abraham rushed to Sarahs tent to order cakes made from choice flour, then he ordered a servant-boy to prepare a choice calf. When all was prepared, he set curds, milk and the calf before them waiting on them, under a tree, as they ate. (Genesis 18:18) One of the visitors told Abraham that upon his return next year, Sarah would have a son. While at the tent entrance, Sarah overheard what was said and she laughed to herself about the

prospect of having child at their ages. The visitor inquired to Abraham why Sarah laughed at bearing a child for her age as nothing is too hard for God. Frightened, Sarah denied laughing.

[edit] Abraham's plea

Main articles: Sodom and Gomorrah and Lot (Biblical)

Abraham Sees Sodom in Flames (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) After eating, Abraham and the three visitors got up. They walked over to the peak that overlooked the Cities of the Plain to discusses the fate of Sodom and Gomorrah for their detestable sins that were so great, it moved Yahweh to action. Because Abrahams nephew was living in Sodom, God revealed plans to confirm and judge these cities. At this point, the two other visitors leave for Sodom. Then Abraham turned to the Lord and pleaded with him that 'if there were at least ten righteous men found in the city, would not God spare the city?' For the sake of ten righteous people, God declared that he would not destroy the city. (Genesis 18:17-33) When the two visitors got to Sodom to conduct their report, they planned on staying in the city square, more than likely to see how they would be received by the locals. However, Abrahams nephew, Lot, met with them and strongly insisted that these two men stay at his house for the night. This is the first subtle indication that it would be unsafe for anyone, especially outsiders, to be in the public eye. As it turns out, a rally of men stood outside of Lots home and demanded that they bring out his guests so that they may know them. However, Lot objected and offered his virgin daughters to be known by the rally of men instead. They rejected that notion and sought to break Lots doors down to get to his male guests,[23] thus confirming the outcry against Sodom and Gomorrah and sealing their doom. (Genesis 19:12-13) Early the next morning, Abraham awoke and went to the elevation that looked over the River Jordan plain, at the very spot where he stood before God, the day prior. From his vantage point, he saw what became of the cities of the plain as dense smoke rising from the land, like smoke from a furnace. (Genesis 19:27-29) This meant that there was not even ten righteous people in any of those cities. (Genesis 18:32) This was the last recorded event that Abraham had anything to do with his nephew, Lot.

[edit] Abraham and Abimelech

Abraham settled between Kadesh and Shur in the land of the Philistines. While he was living in Gerar, Abraham openly mentioned that Sarah was his sister. Upon discovering this news, King Abimelech had her brought to him. Later, God came to Abimelech in a dream and

declared that taking her would result in death because she was a married woman to a prophet of Yahweh. Abimelech had not laid hands on her, so he inquired if he this God would slay an innocent man, especially since it was told to him that Abraham and Sarah were siblings. In response, God told Abimelech that he did indeed have a blameless heart and that is why he continues to exist. However, should he not return the wife of Abraham back to him, God would surely destroy Abimelech and his entire household. (Genesis 20:1-7) Early next morning, Abimelech informed his servants of his dream and approached Abraham inquiring as to why he had brought such great guilt upon his kingdom. Abraham stated that Gerar of Philistia had no fear of God in them and the only way for this kingdom to recognize the fear of God was to do what he had done. Then Abraham justified what was said as not being a lie at all: "And moreover she is indeed my sister, the daughter of my father, but not the daughter of my mother; and so she became my wife." (Genesis 20:12) Abimelech returned Sarah to Abraham, then gave him sheep, oxen, and slaves, and invited him to settle wherever he pleased in Abimelechs lands. Further, Abimelech gave Abraham a thousand pieces of silver to serve as Sarah's vindication before all. Abraham then prayed in behalf of Abimelech and the women in his household, so that they bore children, since God had stricken the women with infertility because of the taking of Sarah. (Genesis 20:818) After living for some time in the land of the Philistines, Abimelech and Phicol, the chief of his troops, approached Abraham because of a dispute that resulted in a violent confrontation at a well. Abraham then reproached Abimelech due to his Philistine servant's aggressive attacks and the seizing of Abrahams well. Abimelech, however, acted in ignorance. Then Abraham offered a pact by providing sheep and oxen to Abimelech. Further, to attest that Abraham was the one who dug the well, he also gave Abimelech seven ewes for proof. Because of this sworn oath, they called the place of this well: Beersheba. After Abimelech and Phicol headed back to Philistia, Abraham planted a tamarisk tree to invoke Gods name. (Genesis 21:22-34)

[edit] Abraham and Ishmael

Abraham was fond of his son Ishmael who had grown up to be fourteen years old when Isaac was born. However, with Sarah, things were never the same with Ishmael's mother, Hagar, back in her life. Now that Sarah has finally bore her own child, she could no longer stand the sight of either Hagar or Ishmael. When the teenager was jesting around, Sarah told Abraham to send the two of them away. She declared that Ishmael would not share in Isaac's inheritance. Abraham was greatly distressed by his wife's words and sought the advice of his God. The Lord told Abraham not to be distressed but to do as his wife commanded. The LORD reassured Abraham that "Isaac shall seed be called to thee." (Genesis 21:12) He also said that Ishmael would make a nation, "because he is thy seed", too. (Genesis 21:9-13) Early the next morning, Abraham brought Hagar and Ishmael out together. He gave her bread and water and sent them away. The two wandered the wilderness of Beersheba until her bottle of water was completely consumed. In a moment of despair, she burst in tears. The boy then called to God and upon hearing him, an angel of Yahweh confirmed to Hagar that he would become a great nation. A well of water then appeared so that it saved their lives. As the boy grew, he became a skilled archer living in the wilderness of Paran. Eventually his mother found a wife for Ishmael from her native country, the land of Egypt. (Genesis 21:14-21)

Abraham Sacrificing Isaac, by Laurent de La Hire, 1650 (Muse des Beaux-Arts d'Orlans)

[edit] Abraham and Isaac

Main article: Binding of Isaac See also: Isaac#Binding of Isaac At some point in Isaac's youth, Abraham was commanded by God to offer his son up as a sacrifice in the land of Moriah. The patriarch traveled three days until he came to the mount that God taught him. He commanded the servant to remain while he and Isaac proceeded alone to the mountain, Isaac carrying the wood upon which he would be sacrificed. Along the way, Isaac repeatedly asked Abraham where the animal for the burnt offering was. Abraham then replied that God would provide one. Just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, he was prevented by an angel, and given on that spot a ram which he sacrificed in place of his son. As a reward for his obedience he received another promise of numerous descendants and abundant prosperity. After this event, Abraham did not return to Hebron, Sarah's encampment, but instead went to Beersheba, Keturah's encampment, and it is to Beersheba that Abraham's servant brought Rebecca, Isaac's patrilineal parallel cousin who became his wife.[24]

[edit] Later years

Sarah is said to have died at the age of 127, and Abraham buried her in the Cave of the Patriarchs (also called the Cave of Machpelah), near Hebron which he had purchased, along with the adjoining field, from Ephron the Hittite. After the death of Sarah, he took another wife, or concubine, named Keturah, who bore Abraham six sons: Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah.[25] Abraham is said to have died at the age of 175 years. Jewish legend says that he was meant to live to 180 years, but God purposely took his life because he felt that Abraham did not need to go through the pain of seeing Esau's wicked deeds.[citation needed] The Bible says he was buried by his sons Isaac and Ishmael in the Cave of the Patriarchs.[26] Sons of Abraham by wife in order of birth Ishmael (1) Isaac Sarah (2) Keturah Zimran Jokshan Medan Midian Ishbak Shuah Hagar

[edit] Narrative in the Qur'an

This is a summary of all the references to Abraham in the Qur'an There are numerous references to Abraham in the Qur'an, including, twice, to the Scrolls of Abraham (LXXXVII: 18; LIII: 36); in the latter passage, it is mentioned that Abraham "fulfilled his commandments" (LIII: 36), a reference to all the trials that Abraham had succeeded in. In a whole series of chapters, the Qur'an relates how Abraham preached to his community as a youth and how he specifically told his father, named Azar in VI:74, to leave idol-worship and come to the worship of God (XXXVII: 83-98; XXVI: 69-89).[27] Some passages of the Qur'an, meanwhile, deal with the story of how God sent angels to Abraham with the announcement of the punishment to be imposed upon Lot's people in Sodom and Gomorrah (LI: 24-34; XV: 51-60).[28] Other verses mention the near-sacrifice of Abraham's son (XXXVII: 100-111), whose name is not given but is presumed to be Ishmael as the following verses mention the birth of Isaac.[29] The Qur'an also repeatedly establishes Abraham's role as patriarch and mentions numerous important descendants who came through his lineage, including Isaac (XV: 53),Jacob (XIX: 49)[30] and Ishmael (II: 132-133). In the later chapters of the Qur'an, Abraham's role becomes yet more prominent. The Qur'an mentions that Abraham and Ishmael were the reformers who set up the Kaaba in Mecca as a center of pilgrimage formonotheism (II: 124:141; III: 65-68, 95-97).[31] The Qur'an consistently refers to Islam as the "religion of Abraham" (millat Ibrahim) (II: 135) and Abraham is given a title as Hanif (The Pure; III: 67). The Qur'an also mentions Abraham as one whom God took as a friend (Khalil; IV: 125), hence Abraham's title in Islam, KhalilUllah (Friend of God). Other instances in the Qur'an which are described in a concise manner are the rescue of Abraham from the fire into which he was thrown by his people (XXXVII: 97; XXI: 68-70); his pleading for his father (XIX: 47); his quarrel with an unrighteous and powerful king (II: 58) and the miracle of the dead birds (II: 260). All these events and more have been embellished upon in Muslim tradition, and especially in the Stories of the Prophets and works of universal Islamic theology.[32] Certain episodes from the life of Abraham have been more heavily detailed in Muslim literature, such as the arguments between Abraham and the evil king Nimrod, the near-sacrifice of his son, and the story of Hagar and Ishmael, which Muslims commemorate when performing pilgrimage in Mecca. In some cases, these legends in Muslim literature have influenced later Jewish tradition.[33]

[edit] Abraham in religious traditions

In Islamic and Jewish traditions, Abraham is referred to as "our Father", (Hebrew: Avraham Avinu, Arabic: abeena Ibraheem[34]). In Islamic tradition, Abraham is considered a prophet of Islam, the ancestor of Muhammad, through his firstborn son, Ishmael whose mothers name is nowhere mentioned in the Qu'ran. In Jewish tradition, Abraham is also the father of the Israelites through his second born child, Isaac whose mother was Sarah. Accordingly, the mother of his firstborn son, Ishmael is identified as Hagar, Sarahs Egyptian handmaiden.

In Christian tradition, God's promise to Abraham would be fulfilled, in its entirety, through Jesus Christ who provides the opportunity for all mankind to be under the same covenant that was offered to Abraham and all of his people. Just as Israelite men were circumcised to identify themselves as part of the Abrahamic covenant, Christians today are identified through baptism.

Jews praying in front of the Tomb of Abraham on the Cave of the Patriarchs in Hebron

[edit] Judaism
Abrahams life can be read in the weekly Torah reading portions, predominantly in the Parashot: Lech-Lecha ( ,) -Vayeira ( ,) Chayei Sarah ( ,) and Toledot ( ) [edit] Abraham in the Writings of Second Temple Judaism Second Temple Judaism refers to the religion of Judaism during the period between the construction of the second Jewish temple in Jerusalem in 515 BCE, and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE This period witnessed major historical upheavals and significant religious changes. The origins of the authority of scripture, of the centrality of law and morality in religion, of the synagogue and of apocalyptic expectations for the future all developed in the Judaism of this period. The primary literary sources for information about late Second Temple Judaism are the Apocrypha, Old Testament pseudepigrapha, the Dead Sea Scrolls, and the works of Josephus and Philo. Philo In the Works of Philo, chapters 16-22 focus on the life of Abraham and his family.[35] The titles of the chapters are: 16 On the Migration of Abraham 17 Who is the Heir of Divine Things? 18 On Mating with the Preliminary Studies 19 On Flight and 21 On Dreams, That They are Finding God-Sent 20 On the Change of 22 On Abraham Names

[edit] Abrams birthplace disputed

See also: Noach (parsha) 11th and 12th century Rabbis Rashi and Abraham ibn Ezra agree that Abrams native homeland was Ur Kadim, better known as Ur of the Chaldees, a Mesopotamian location settled by the descendants of Ham (son of Noah).[36] Some modern Jewish studies identify this location to be the same as the Sumerian city-state of Ur.[37][38] However, this Persian Gulf city in Iraq is only a candidate among others to be the actual Ur Kadim, as well as the most popularly debated one since 1927.[39] Rabbi Nahmanides, known as the Ramban, was a medieval Jewish scholar of the 13th century who disagreed with Rashi and Ibn Ezra concerning Abrams birthplace. The Ramban states that because Ur Kadim was settled by Hams descendants, this could not be Abrams birthplace as he was a descendant of Shem. However, everyone does agree that Abrams family under the headship of his father, Terach, had all lived in Ur Kadim before being called to move to Canaan.[36] The three Rabbis also agree that Terachs native homeland was Charan, the biblical place known as Haran in Genesis 11:31,32, where the House of Terach was located.[Gen.12:1] [36] Since this settlement was established by Shems descendants, only Ramban assumed that Charan had to be Abrams birthplace. He further concluded that Terach and his three sons eventually moved from Charan to Ur Kadim, then later by Yahwehs command, they headed to Canaan. Of course, they stopped back at Terachs hometown of Charan, where the father stayed there rather than going to Canaan after all.[36]

[edit] Christianity

The Abraham stained glass window at St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina

In the New Testament Abraham is mentioned prominently as a man of faith (see e.g. Hebrews 11), and the apostle Paul uses him as an example of salvation by faith, as the progenitor of the Christ (or Messiah) (see Galatians 3:16). The New Testament also sees Abraham as an obedient man of God, and Abraham's interrupted attempt to offer up Isaac is seen as the supreme act of perfect faith in God. "By faith Abraham, when he was tested, offered up Isaac, and he who had received the promises offered up his only begotten son, of whom it was said, 'In Isaac your seed shall be called', concluding that God was able to raise him up, even from the dead, from which he also received him in a figurative sense." (Hebrews 11:17-19) The imagery of a father sacrificing his son is seen as a type of God the Father offering his Son on Golgatha. The traditional view in Christianity is that the chief promise made to Abraham in Genesis 12 is that through Abraham's seed all the people of earth would be blessed. Notwithstanding this, John the Baptist specifically taught that merely being of Abraham's seed was no guarantee of salvation.[40] The promise in Genesis is considered to have been fulfilled through Abraham's seed, Jesus. It is also a consequence of this promise that Christianity is open to people of all races and not limited to Jews. The Roman Catholic Church calls Abraham "our father in Faith", in the Eucharistic prayer of the Roman Canon, recited during the Mass (see Abraham in the Catholic liturgy). He is also commemorated in the calendars of saints of several denominations: on August 20 by the Maronite Church, August 28 in the Coptic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East (with the full office for the latter), and on October 9 by the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod. He is also regarded as the patron saint of those in the hospitality industry.[41] The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as the "Righteous Forefather Abraham", with two feast days in its liturgical calendar. The first time is on October 9 (for those churches which follow the traditional Julian Calendar, October 9 falls on October 22 of the modern Gregorian Calendar), where he is commemorated together with his nephew "Righteous Lot". The other is on the "Sunday of the Forefathers" (two Sundays before Christmas), when he is commemorated together with other ancestors of Jesus. Abraham is also mentioned in the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great, just before the Anaphora. Abraham and Sarah are invoked in the prayers said by the priest over a newly married couple at the Sacred Mystery of Crowning (i.e., the Sacrament of Marriage). [edit] Abraham in the Writings of the Church Fathers Sextus Julius Africanus (c.160 c.240) was a Christian traveller and historian of the late 2nd and early 3rd century AD. He is important chiefly because of his influence on Eusebius, on all the later writers of Church history among the Fathers, and on the whole Greek school of chroniclers. He wrote a history of the world (Chronographiai, in five books) from Creation to the year AD 221. According Julius Africanus,[42] Abraham entered the promised land of Canaan in the year of the world 3277.[42] He mentions the accounts of Abram's pretending to be the brother of Sarai, of Lot separating from Abram and living near Sodom, of the war of the kings by the Dead Sea. His list of the kings agrees with the Septuagint rather than the Masoretic text.[43] He writes at length of the foul nature of the Dead Sea; a place he saw in person.[42]

[edit] Islam
Main article: Islamic view of Abraham Abraham is supremely important in Islam and is recognized as a prophet, patriarch and messenger by all Muslims. He is the archetype of the perfect Muslim and is revered as the reformer of the Kaaba, in Mecca.[10] Abraham is mentioned collectively in around 25 chapters of the Qur'an, at times briefly and at times in detail.[44]

[edit] Baha'i
Bah'u'llh, the founder, affirms the highest religious station for Abraham and generally for prophets mentioned among the other Abrahamic religions,[45] and has claimed a lineage of descent from Abraham through Keturah and Sarah.[46][47][48] Additionally Bah'u'llh actually did lose a son, Mrz Mihd.[49] Bahullh, then in prison, eulogized his son and connected the subsequent easing of restrictions to his dying prayer and also compared it to the intended sacrifice of Abrahams son.[50]

[edit] Abraham in the Arts

[edit] Paintings
Paintings on the life of Abraham tend to focus on only a few incidents: The sacrifice of Isaac; Meeting Melchizedek; Entertaining the three angels; Hagar in the desert; and a few others.[51] Many artists have been inspired by the life of Abraham: Albrecht Drer (14711528), Caravaggio (15731610), Rembrandt van Rijn (Dutch, 16061669) created at least seven works on Abraham, Petrus-Paulus Rubens (15771640) did several, Donatello, Raphael, Philip van Dyck (Dutch painter, 16801753), Marc Chagall did at least five on Abraham, Gustave Dor (French illustrator, 18321883) did six, Claude Lorrain (French painter, 1600 1682), James Jacques Joseph Tissot (French painter and illustrator, 18361902) did over twenty works on the subject.[51]

[edit] Sculpture

Cast of the Sacrifice of Isaac. The hand of God originally came down to hold Abraham's knife (both are now missing). Plaster cast of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus The Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus depicts a set of biblical stories, including Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. These sculpted scenes are on the outside of a marble Early Christian sarcophagus used for the burial of Junius Bassus. He died in 359. This sarcophagus has been described as "probably the single most famous piece of early Christian relief sculpture."[52] The sarcophagus was originally placed in or under Old St. Peter's Basilica, was rediscovered in 1597,[53] and is now below the modern basilica in the Museo Storico del Tesoro della Basilica di San Pietro (Museum of Saint Peter's Basilica) in the Vatican. The base is approximately 4 8 4 feet. The Old Testament scenes depicted were chosen as precursors of Christ's sacrifice in the New Testament, in an early form of typology. Just to the right of the middle is Daniel in the lion's den and on the left is Abraham about to sacrifice Isaac. Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael by George Segal. The artist created figural sculptures by molding plastered gauze strips over live models. The human condition was central to his concerns. On several occasions, Segal turned to the Old Testament as a source for his imagery. This sculture depicts the dilemma faced by Abraham when Sarah demanded that he expel Hagar and Ishmael. In the sculpture, the father's tenderness, Sarah's rage, and Hagar's resigned acceptance portray a range of human emotions. The sculpture was donated to the Miami Art Museum after the artist's death in 2000. This footnote provides a link to a picture of the sculpture.[54]

[edit] Literature
Fear and Trembling (original Danish title: Frygt og Bven) is an influential philosophical work by Sren Kierkegaard, published in 1843 under the pseudonym Johannes de silentio (John the Silent). Kierkegaard wanted to understand the anxiety [55] that must have been present in Abraham when God asked him to sacrifice his son.[56]

[edit] Music
Bob Dylan's "Highway 61 Revisited" [57] is the title track for his 1965 album Highway 61 Revisited. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song as number 364 in their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time[58] The song has five stanzas. In each stanza, someone describes an unusual problem that is ultimately resolved on Highway 61. In Stanza 1, God tells Abraham to "kill me a son". God wants the killing done on Highway 61. Abram, the original name of the biblical Abraham, is also the name of Dylan's own father.

[edit] See also

Abraham in History and Tradition Bosom of Abraham Gathering of Israel Genealogies of Genesis Islamic view of Abraham Jewish Kabbalah

List of founders of major religions The Pearl of Great Price, Book of Abraham Abraham's Gate at Tel Dan Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions

[edit] Notes
1. ^ Genesis 25:5-8 2. ^ a b Genesis chapters 11-25 3. ^ Genesis 11:10-32 & 14:13 4. ^ Wilson, M. Our Father Abraham: Jewish roots of the Christian Faith (ISBN 0802804233, ISBN 9780802804235), 1989, p. 3, 4 "[page 3] God's sovereign plan in history was to establish his covenant through a man called Abraham (or Abram, as he was originally known). Abraham was a Semite, a descendant of Noah's son Shem (Gen. 11:10-32). The patriarch Abraham was the first person in the Bible to be called a 'He- [page 4] brew' (Gen. 14:13)." 5. ^ "About Islam, in BibleInfo.com". Retrieved Jun 1, 2011. 6. ^ Ferguson, Duncan S. (2010). Exploring the Spirituality of the World Religions: The Quest for Personal, Spiritual and Social Transformation. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 137. ISBN 1441146458. 7. ^ Dibble, J. Birney (2006). The Same God?: Comparing the Bible with the Koran. Vantage Press, Inc. p. 111. ISBN 053315281X. 8. ^ al-Bukhari, Muhammad. Sahih al-Bukhari. pp. Volume 4, Book 55, Number 583. Retrieved 31 May 2011. 9. ^ Qur'an 2:125127 10. ^ a b Mecca, Martin Lings, c. 2004 11. ^ a b Joseph Blenkinsopp, "Judaism, the first phase" p.39 12. ^ a b Albertz, R, "Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century B.C.E." (Society of Biblical Literature, 2003) p.246 13. ^ a b "Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible", K. van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter Willem van der Horst (eds) (Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing), pp.3-4 14. ^ Freedman, Meyers & Beck. Eerdmans dictionary of the Bible (ISBN 0802824005, ISBN 9780802824004), 2000, p.9 15. ^ K.F. Keil. Biblical commentary on the Old Testament., Vol. 1, 1869, p. 224 16. ^ David Rohl. The Lost Testament (ISBN 0712669930), 2002 17. ^ "G.F. Hasel, "Chronogenealogies in the Biblical History of Beginnings"". Grisda.org. Retrieved 2010-03-02. 18. ^ ""Biblical Chronology", Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)". Newadvent.org. 1908-11-01. Retrieved 2010-03-02. 19. ^ Paula McNutt, Reconstructing the Society of Ancient Israel", p.41 20. ^ Joseph Blenkinsopp, "Judaism, the first phase" p.38 21. ^ Compare Genesis 12:4 with Genesis 16:16 noting that Ishmael was born one year after the covenant in Genesis 15:18 22. ^ a b "Abraham." Encyclopdia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica, 2011. Web. 30 May. 2011. 23. ^ (Genesis 19:1-9) 24. ^ Genesis 22 25. ^ Genesis 25:1-6 26. ^ Genesis 25:9 and Genesis 23:19

27. ^ Other verses dealing with Abraham's early preaching include XIX: 41-50, XLIII: 26-28, XXI: 51-73, XXIX: 16-27 and VI: 74-84 28. ^ Other verses dealing with the announcement include XI: 69-76 and XXIX: 31f. 29. ^ Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, C. Glasse, Ishmael 30. ^ Other verses mentioning Jacob as a "gift" to Abraham include XXI: 72, XXIX: 27, VI: 84, XI: 71, XXXVIII: 45-47 31. ^ Other verses dealing with the raising of the holy house include IV: 125, XXII: 26-29, 78 32. ^ Stories of the Prophets, Ibn Kathir, Ibrahim; Tales of the Prophets, Kisa'i, Ibrahim 33. ^ J. Eisenberg, EI, Ibrahim 34. ^ Qu'ran 22:78 35. ^ The Works of Philo Judaeus, The contemporary of Josephus. Translated from the Greek by Charles Duke Yonge. London, H. G. Bohn, 1854-1890. 36. ^ a b c d Singer, Binyamin. "Ramban: Bereishis & Shemos", Vol. 1: Ramban: Classic Themes in Nachmanides' Chumash Commentary, 2005 (ISBN 1568713428, ISBN 9781568713427), p. 89-91 37. ^ Keene, Michael. This is Judaism, 1996, p. 8 38. ^ Scharfstein, Sol. Jewish History and You, 2002, p. 10 39. ^ Dundes, Alan. The Flood Myth, 1988, p. 89 40. ^ Matthew 3:1-9 41. ^ *Holweck, F. G., A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co. 1924. 42. ^ a b c Roberts, Alexander & Donaldson, James. (Ed.) (1885). Julius Africanus: Subsections: Of Abraham followed by Of Abraham and Lot. Ante-Nicene Fathers: Vol. 6. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. A CCEL Webpage. Accessed March 24, 2011 43. ^ Brenton, C. L. (1851). Genesis 14. English Translation of the Greek Septuagint. Online edition prepared by Ernest C. Marsh Accessed March 24, 2011. 44. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam, Ibrahim 45. ^ May, Dann J (December 1993). "Web Published". The Bah' Principle of Religious Unity and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism. University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. p. 102. Retrieved 2010-01-02. 46. ^ Hatcher, W.S.; Martin, J.D. (1998). The Bah' Faith: The Emerging Global Religion. Wilmette, IL: Bah' Publishing Trust. ISBN 0-87743-264-3. 47. ^ "Abrahamic Religion". Christianity: Details about. Christianity Guide. Retrieved September 19, 2009. 48. ^ Flow, Christian B.; Nolan, Rachel B. (November 16, 2006). "Go Forth From Your Country". The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved September 19, 2009. 49. ^ Ma'ani, Baharieh Rouhani (2008). Leaves of the Twin Divine Trees. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. p. 150. ISBN 0853985332. 50. ^ Taherzadeh, A. (1984). "The Death of The Purest Branch". The Revelation of Bah'u'llh, Volume 3: `Akka, The Early Years 1868-77. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. pp. 204220. ISBN 0853981442. 51. ^ a b For a very thorough online collection of links to artwork about Abraham see: Artwork Depicting Scenes from Abraham's Life Accessed March 25, 2011 52. ^ Journal of Early Christian Studies, Leonard Victor Rutgers, The Iconography of the Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus (review of Malbon book), Volume 1, Number 1, Spring 1993, pp. 9496; for Janson it is also the "finest Early Christian sarcophagus".

53. ^ or 1595, see Elsner, p. 86n. 54. ^ Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. George Segal. Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions. Accessed April 10, 2011. 55. ^ "Whoever has learned to be anxious in the right way has learned the ultimate. Anxiety is freedoms possibility, and only such anxiety is through faith absolutely educative, because it consumes all finite ends and discovers all their deceptiveness. And no Grand Inquisitor has such dreadful torments in readiness as anxiety has, and no secret agent knows as cunningly as anxiety to attack his suspect in his weakest moment or to make alluring the trap in which he will be caught, and no discerning judge understands how to interrogate and examine the accused as does anxiety, which never lets the accused escape, neither through amusement, nor by noise, nor during work, neither by day nor by night."Vigilius Haufniensis (Pseudonym), The Concept of Anxiety by Soren Kierkegaard p. 155156, Reidar Thomte, 1980 56. ^ Gen 22: 12 57. ^ Highway 61 Revisited Accessed March 25, 2011 58. ^ "Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Retrieved 2008-08-08.

[edit] References

This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed (1911). "Abraham". Encyclopdia Britannica (Eleventh ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[edit] Further reading

ALEXANDER, DAVID; PAT ALEXANDER (1973). Eerdmans' Handbook to the Bible. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8028-3436-1. BOADT, LAWRENCE (1984). Reading the Old Testament: An Introduction. New York: Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-2631-1. GINZBERG, LOUIS (2003). Harriet Szold tr. ed. Legends of the Jews, Volume 1. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 0-8276-0709-1. GUNKEL, HERMANN (1997) [1901]. Biddle, Mark E. tr. ed. Genesis. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press. ISBN 0-86554-517-0. HARRISON, R. K. (1969). An Introduction to the Old Testament. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. ISBN 0-8778-4881-5. KIDNER, DEREK (1967). Genesis. Downers Grover, IL: Inter-Varsity Press. KITCHEN, K.A. (1966). Ancient Orient and Old Testament. Chicago: Inter-Varsity Press. LEVENSON, JON D. (2004). "The Conversion of Abraham to Judaism, Christianity and Islam". In Hindy Najman, Judith Newman (eds). The Idea of Biblical Interpretation: Essays in Honor of James L. Kugel. Leiden: Koningklijke Brill. ISBN 90-04-13630-4. ROSENBERG, DAVID M. (2006). Abraham: the first historical biography. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-07094-9. SCHULTZ, SAMUEL J. (1990). The Old Testament Speaks (4th ed.). San Francisco: Harper. ISBN 0-0625-0767-2. SILBERMAN, NEIL ASHER; FINKELSTEIN, ISRAEL (2001). The Bible unearthed: archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its sacred texts. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-684-86912-8.

THOMPSON, J.A. (1986). Handbook to Life in Bible Times. Downers Grove, IL: Inter-Varsity Press. ISBN 0-8778-4949-8. THOMPSON, THOMAS (2002). The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham. Valley Forge, Pa: Trinity Press International. ISBN 1-56338389-6. VAN SETERS, JOHN (1975). Abraham in history and tradition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01792-8. VERMES, GEZA (1973). Scripture and tradition in Judaism. Haggadic studies. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 90-04-07096-6. WHYBRAY, ROGER NORMAN (1987). The making of the Pentateuch: a methodological study. Sheffield: JSOT Press. ISBN 1-85075-063-7.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Abraham Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Abraham

"Abraham." Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 29 May 2011. "Abraham" in Christian Iconography Abraham smashes the idols Accessed March 24, 2011 Abraham's Farewell to Ishmael. George Segal. Miami Art Museum. Collections: Recent Acquisitions. Accessed April 10, 2011. Abraham, Hagar and Sarah Paintings portrayed at Bible Art. Accessed April 10, 2011
Leader of Israel Abraham Succeeded by Isaac

Preceded by Terah

[show]v d eAdam to David according to the Hebrew

Bible
[show]v d eProphets in the Hebrew

Bible
[show]v d eProphets in the

Qur'an
Categories: Prophets of the Hebrew Bible | Abraham | Babylonian people | Biblical patriarchs | Book of Genesis | Burials in Hebron | Fertile Crescent | Founders of religions | History of Iraq | Jewish religious leaders | Old Testament saints | People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar

Lech-Lecha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lech-Lecha, Lekh-Lekha, or Lech-L'cha ( -Hebrew for "go!" or "leave!" or "go for you" the fifth and sixth words in the parshah) is the third weekly Torah portion (parshah) in the annual Jewish cycle of Torah reading. It constitutes Genesis 12:117:27. Jews read it on the third Sabbath after Simchat Torah, generally in October or November.

Abram and Melchizedek (painting circa 1625 by Peter Paul Rubens)

Contents
[hide]

1 Summary o 1.1 The calling of Abram o 1.2 Wife as sister o 1.3 Abram and Lot divide the land o 1.4 War between the four kings and the five o 1.5 The covenant between the pieces o 1.6 Hagar and Ishmael o 1.7 The covenant of circumcision 2 In inner-biblical interpretation o 2.1 Genesis chapter 12 3 In early nonrabbinic interpretation o 3.1 Genesis chapter 12 4 In classical rabbinic interpretation o 4.1 Genesis chapter 12 o 4.2 Genesis chapter 13 o 4.3 Genesis chapter 14 o 4.4 Genesis chapter 15 o 4.5 Genesis chapter 16 o 4.6 Genesis chapter 17 5 Commandments 6 Haftarah 7 In the liturgy 8 The Weekly Maqam

9 See also 10 Further reading o 10.1 Ancient o 10.2 Biblical o 10.3 Early nonrabbinic o 10.4 Classical rabbinic o 10.5 Medieval o 10.6 Modern 11 External links o 11.1 Texts
o

11.2 Commentaries

[edit] Summary
[edit] The calling of Abram

Abram Journeying into the Land of Canaan (engraving by Gustave Dor from the 1865 La Sainte Bible) God told Abram to leave his native land and his fathers house for a land that God would show him, promising to make of him a great nation, bless him, make his name great, bless those who blessed him, and curse those who cursed him. (Genesis 12:13) Following Gods command, at age 75, Abram took his wife Sarai, his nephew Lot, and the wealth and persons that they had acquired in Haran, and traveled to the terebinth of Moreh, at Shechem in Canaan. (Genesis 12:46)

Abrams Counsel to Sarai (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) God appeared to Abram to tell him that God would assign the land to his heirs, and Abram built an altar to God. (Genesis 12:7) Abram then moved to the hill country east of Bethel and built an altar to God there and invoked God by name. (Genesis 12:8) Then Abram journeyed toward the Negeb. (Genesis 12:9)

[edit] Wife as sister

Famine struck the land, so Abram went down to Egypt, asking Sarai to say that she was his sister so that the Egyptians would not kill him. (Genesis 12:1013) When they entered Egypt, Pharaohs courtiers praised her beauty to Pharaoh, and she was taken into Pharaohs palace. Pharaoh took Sarai as his wife. (Genesis 12:1415) Because of her, Abram acquired sheep, oxen, donkeys, slaves, and camels, but God afflicted Pharaoh and his household with mighty plagues. (Genesis 12:1617) Pharaoh questioned Abram why he had not told Pharaoh that Sarai was Abrams wife, but had said that she was his sister. (Genesis 12:1819) Pharaoh returned Sarai to Abram and had his men take them away with all their possessions. (Genesis 12:1920)

[edit] Abram and Lot divide the land

Abraham and Lot Divided the Land (illustration from the 1897 Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us by Charles Foster) Abram, Sarai, and Lot returned to the altar near Bethel. (Genesis 13:14) Abram and Lot now had so many sheep and cattle that the land could not support them both, and their herdsmen quarreled. (Genesis 13:57) Abram proposed to Lot that they separate, inviting Lot to choose which land he would take. (Genesis 13:89) Lot saw how well watered the plain of the Jordan was, so he chose it for himself, and journeyed eastward, settling near Sodom, a city of very wicked sinners, while Abram remained in Canaan. (Genesis 13:1013) God promised to give all the land that Abram could see to him and his offspring forever, and to make his offspring as numerous as the dust of the earth. (Genesis 13:1417) Abram moved to the terebinths of Mamre in Hebron, and built an altar there to God. (Genesis 13:18)

[edit] War between the four kings and the five

Meeting of Abram and Melchizedek (painting circa 14641467 by Dieric Bouts the Elder) The Mesopotamian Kings Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer of Elam, and Tidal of Goiim made war on the Canaanite kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar, who joined forces at the Valley of Siddim, now the Dead Sea. (Genesis 14:13) The Canaanite kings had served Chedorlaomer for twelve years, but rebelled in the thirteenth year. (Genesis 14:4) In the fourteenth year, Chedorlaomer and the Mesopotamian kings with him went on a military campaign and defeated several peoples in and around Canaan: the Rephaim, the Zuzim, the Emim, the Horites, the Amalekites, and the Amorites. (Genesis 14:57) Then the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboiim, and Zoar engaged the four Mesopotamian kings in battle in the Valley of Siddim. (Genesis 14:89) The Mesopotamians routed the Canaanites, and the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah fled into bitumen pits in the valley, while the rest escaped to the hill country. (Genesis 14:10) The Mesopotamians seized all the wealth of Sodom and Gomorrah, as well as Lot and his possessions, and departed. (Genesis 14:1112) A fugitive brought the news to Abram, who mustered his 318 retainers, and pursued the invaders north to Dan. (Genesis 14:1314) Abram and his servants defeated them at night, chased them north of Damascus, and brought back all the people and possessions, including Lot and his possessions. (Genesis 14:1516) When Abram returned, the king of Sodom came out to meet him in the Valley of Shaveh, the Valley of the King. (Genesis 14:17) King Melchizedek of Salem (Jerusalem), a priest of God Most High, brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram and God Most High, and Abram gave him a tenth of everything. (Genesis 14:1820) The king of Sodom offered Abram to keep all the possessions if he would merely return the people, but Abram swore to God Most High not to take so much as a thread or a sandal strap from Sodom, but would take only shares for the men who went with him. (Genesis 14:2124)

[edit] The covenant between the pieces

The Vision of the Lord Directing Abram to Count the Stars (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures) Some time later, the word of God appeared to Abram, saying not to fear, for his reward would be very great, but Abram questioned what God could give him, as he was destined to die childless, and his steward Eliezer of Damascus would be his heir. (Genesis 15:13) The word of God replied that Eliezer would not be his heir, Abrams own son would. (Genesis 15:4) God took Abram outside and bade him to count the stars, for so numerous would his offspring be, and because Abram put his trust in God, God reckoned it to his merit. (Genesis 15:56) God directed Abram to bring three heifers, three goats, three rams, a turtledove, and a bird, to cut the non-birds in two, and to place each half opposite the other. (Genesis 15:910) Abram drove away birds of prey that came down upon the carcasses, and as the sun was about to set, he fell into a deep sleep. (Genesis 15:1112) God told Abram that his offspring would be strangers in a land not theirs, and be enslaved 400 years, but God would execute judgment on the nation they were to serve, and in the end they would go free with great wealth and return in the fourth generation, after the iniquity of the Amorites was complete. (Genesis 15:1316) And there appeared a smoking oven, and a flaming torch, which passed between the pieces. (Genesis 15:17) And God made a covenant with Abram to assign to his offspring the land from the river of Egypt to the Euphrates: the land of the Kenites, the Kenizzites, the Kadmonites, the Hittites, the Perizzites, the Rephaim, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Girgashites, and the Jebusites. (Genesis 15:1821)

[edit] Hagar and Ishmael

Sarah Presenting Hagar to Abraham (1699 painting by Adriaen van der Werff)

Having borne no children after 10 years in Canaan, Sarai bade Abram to consort with her Egyptian maidservant Hagar, so that Sarai might have a son through her, and Abram did as Sarai requested. (Genesis 16:13) When Hagar saw that she had conceived, Sarai was lowered in her esteem, and Sarai complained to Abram. (Genesis 16:45) Abram told Sarai that her maid was in her hands, and Sarai treated her harshly, so Hagar ran away. (Genesis 16:6)

Hagar and the Angel in the Desert (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) An angel of God found Hagar by a spring of water in the wilderness, and asked her where she came from and where she was going, and she replied that she was running away from her mistress. (Genesis 16:78) The angel told her to go back to her mistress and submit to her harsh treatment, for God would make Hagars offspring too numerous to count; she would bear a son whom she should name Ishmael, for God had paid heed to her suffering. (Genesis 16:911) Ishmael would be a wild donkey of a man, with his hand against everyone, and everyones hand against him, but he would dwell alongside his kinsmen. (Genesis 16:12) Hagar called God El-roi, meaning that she had gone on seeing after God saw her, and the well was called Beer-lahai-roi. (Genesis 16:1314) And when Abram was 86 years old, Hagar bore him a son, and Abram gave him the name Ishmael. (Genesis 16:1516)

[edit] The covenant of circumcision

When Abram was 99 years old, God appeared to Abram as El Shaddai and asked him to walk in Gods ways and be blameless, for God would establish a covenant with him and make him exceedingly numerous. (Genesis 17:12) Abram threw himself on his face, and God changed his name from Abram to Abraham, promising to make him the father of a multitude of nations and kings. (Genesis 17:36) God promised to maintain the covenant with Abraham and his offspring as an everlasting covenant throughout the ages, and assigned all the land of Canaan to him and his offspring as an everlasting holding. (Genesis 17:78) God further told Abraham that he and his offspring throughout the ages were to keep Gods covenant and every male (including every slave) was to be circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin at the age of eight days as a sign of the covenant with God. (Genesis 17:913) If any male failed to circumcise the flesh of his foreskin, that person was to be cut off from his kin for having broken Gods covenant. (Genesis 17:14)

And God renamed Sarai as Sarah, and told Abraham that God would bless her and give Abraham a son by her so that she would give rise to nations and rulers. (Genesis 17:1516) Abraham threw himself on his face and laughed at the thought that a child could be born to a man of a hundred and a woman of ninety, and Abraham asked God to bless Ishmael. (Genesis 17:1718) But God told him that Sarah would bear Abraham a son, and Abraham was to name him Isaac, and God would maintain the everlasting covenant with him and his offspring. (Genesis 17:19) In response to Abrahams prayer, God blessed Ishmael as well and promised to make him exceedingly numerous, the father of twelve chieftains and a great nation. (Genesis 17:20) But God would maintain the covenant with Isaac, whom Sarah would bear at the same season the next year. (Genesis 17:21) And when God finished speaking, God disappeared. (Genesis 17:22) That very day, Abraham circumcised himself at the age of 99, Ishmael at the age of 13, and every male in his household, as God had directed. (Genesis 17:2327)

God's Promise to Abram (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures)

The Caravan of Abram (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

[edit] In inner-biblical interpretation

[edit] Genesis chapter 12
While Genesis 11:31 reports that Abrams father Terah took Abram, Lot, and Sarai from Ur of the Chaldees to Haran, and Genesis 12:1 subsequently reports Gods call to Abram to leave his country and his fathers house, Nehemiah 9:7 reports that God chose Abram and brought him out of Ur of the Chaldees.

[edit] In early nonrabbinic interpretation

[edit] Genesis chapter 12
Acts 7:24 reported that God appeared to Abram while he was still in Mesopotamia, before he lived in Haran, and told him to leave his country and his people, and then he left the land of the Chaldeans to settle in Haran. And then after Terahs death, God sent Abraham to Canaan. Philo interpreted Abrams migration allegorically as the story of a soul devoted to virtue and searching for the true God. (On the Migration of Abraham 15:68.)

[edit] In classical rabbinic interpretation

[edit] Genesis chapter 12

God's Promises to Abram (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) A midrash asked why God chose Abram. Rabbi Hiyya said that Abram's father Terah manufactured idols and once went away and left Abram to mind the store. A woman came with a plateful of flour and asked Abram to offer it to the idols. Abram took a stick, broke the idols, and put the stick in the largest idols hand. When Terah returned, he demanded that Abram explain what he had done. Abram told Terah that the idols fought among themselves and the largest broke the others with the stick. Why do you make sport of me? Terah cried, Do they have any knowledge? Abram replied, Listen to what you are saying! (Genesis Rabbah 38:13.) The Mishnah taught that Abraham suffered ten trials starting at Genesis 12:1 and withstood them all. (Avot 5:3.) The Babylonian Talmud reported that some deduced from Genesis 12:12 that change of place can cancel a mans doom, but another argued that it was the merit of the land of Israel that availed Abraham. (Babylonian Talmud Rosh Hashanah 16b.)

Abram's Journey from Ur to Canaan (1850 painting by Jzsef Molnr) Rabbi Berekiah noted that in Genesis 12:2, God had already said, I will bless you, and so asked what God added by then saying, and you be a blessing. Rabbi Berekiah explained that God was thereby conveying to Abraham that up until that point, God had to bless Gods world, but thereafter, God entrusted the ability to bless to Abraham, and Abraham could thenceforth bless whomever it pleased him to bless. (Genesis Rabbah 39:11.)

Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the words, And in you shall the families of the earth be blessed ( ,venivrechu) in Genesis 12:3 to teach that God told Abram that God had two good shoots to graft (lihavrich) onto Abrams family tree: Ruth the Moabitess (whom Ruth 4:1322 reports was the ancestor of David) and Naamah the Ammonitess (whom 1 Kings 14:21 reports was the mother of Rehoboam and thus the ancestor or good kings like Hezekiah). And Rabbi Eleazar interpreted the words, All the families of the earth, in Genesis 12:3 to teach that even the other families who live on the earth are blessed only for Israels sake. (Babylonian Talmud Yevamot 63a.)

Abram and Lot Depart Out of Haran (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) Rab Judah deduced from Genesis 12:3 that to refuse to say grace when given a cup to bless is one of three things that shorten a mans life. (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 55a.) And Rabbi Joshua ben Levi deduced from Genesis 12:3 that every kohen who pronounces the benediction is himself blessed. (Babylonian Talmud Sotah 38b.) Resh Lakish deduced from Genesis 12:5 that the Torah regards the man who teaches Torah to his neighbors son as though he had fashioned him. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 99b.) Similarly, Rabbi Leazar in the name of Rabbi Jose ben Zimra observed that if all the nations assembled to create one insect they could not bring it to life, yet Genesis 12:5 says, the souls whom they had made in Haran. Rabbi Leazar in the name of Rabbi Jose ben Zimra interpreted the words the souls whom they had made to refer to the proselytes whom Abram and Sarai had converted. The midrash asked why then Genesis 12:5 did not simply say, whom they had converted, and instead says, whom they had made. The midrash answered that Genesis 12:5 thus teaches that one who brings a nonbeliever near to God is like one who created a life. Noting that Genesis 12:5 does not say, whom he had made, but instead says whom they had made, Rabbi Hunia taught that Abraham converted the men, and Sarah converted the women. (Genesis Rabbah 39:14.)

Abram Called To Be a Blessing (illustration from a Bible card published 1906 by the Providence Lithograph Company) The Mishnah equated the terebinth of Moreh to which Abram journeyed in Genesis 12:6 with the terebinths of Moreh to which Moses directed the Israelites to journey in Deuteronomy 11:30 to hear the blessings and curses at Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal (Mishnah Sotah 7:5; Babylonian Talmud Sotah 32a), and the Talmud equated both with Shechem. (Babylonian Talmud Sotah 33b.) Rabbi Elazar said that one should always anticipate misfortune with prayer; for it was only by virtue of Abrams prayer between Beth-el and Ai reported in Genesis 12:8 that Israels troops survived at the Battle of Ai in the days of Joshua. (Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 44b.) The Rabbis deduced from Genesis 12:10 that when there is a famine in town, one should emigrate. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Kamma 60b.) Rab deduced from Genesis 12:11 that Abram had not even looked at his own wife before that point. (Babylonian Talmud Bava Batra 16a.) Reading the words, And it came to pass, that, when Abram came into Egypt, in Genesis 12:14, a midrash asked why the text at that point mentioned Abraham but not Sarai. The midrash taught that Abram had put Sarai in a box and locked her in. The midrash told that when Abram came to the Egyptian customs house, the customs officer demanded that Abram pay the custom duty on the box and its contents, and Abram agreed to pay. The customs officer proposed that Abram must have been carrying garments in the box, and Abram agreed to pay the duty for garments. The customs officer then proposed that Abram must have been carrying silks in the box, and Abram agreed to pay the duty for silks. The customs officer then proposed that Abram must have been carrying precious stones in the box, and Abram agreed to pay the duty for precious stones. But then the customs officer insisted that Abram open the box so that the customs officers could see what it contained. As soon as Abram opened the box, Sarais beauty illuminated the land of Egypt. (Genesis Rabbah 40:5.)

The Egyptians Admire Sarai's Beauty (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

Sarai Is Taken to Pharaoh's Palace (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Rabbi Azariah and Rabbi Jonathan in Rabbi Isaac's name taught that Eve's image was transmitted to the reigning beauties of each generation (setting the standard of beauty). 1 Kings 1:4 says of Davids comforter Abishag, And the damsel was very fair - ,yafah ad me'od which the midrash interpreted to mean that she attained to Eve's beauty (as ,-ad me'od, implies ,Adam, and thus Eve). And Genesis 12:14 says, the Egyptians beheld the woman that she was very fair ,me'od which the midrash interpreted to mean that Sarai was even more beautiful than Eve. Reading the words, And the princes of Pharaoh saw her, and praised her to Pharaoh, in Genesis 12:15, Rabbi Johanan told that they tried to outbid each other for the right to enter Pharaoh's palace with Sarai. One prince said that he would give a hundred dinars for the right to enter the palace with Sarai, whereupon another bid two hundred dinars. (Genesis Rabbah 40:5.) Rabbi Helbo deduced from Genesis 12:16 that a man must always observe the honor due to his wife, because blessings rest on a mans home only on account of her. (Babylonian Talmud Baba Metzia 59a.) Rabbi Samuel bar Nahmani said in the name of Rabbi Johanan that leprosy resulted from seven things: slander, bloodshed, vain oath, incest, arrogance, robbery, and envy. The Gemara cited Gods striking Pharaoh with plagues in Genesis 12:17 to show that incest had led to leprosy. (Babylonian Talmud Arachin 16a.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 13

Lot and Abram (mosaic circa 432440 in the nave of the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome)

The Oak of Hebron (illustration from the 1865 The Land of Israel, a Journal of Travels in Palestine by H.B. Tristram) A Baraita deduced from the words, like the garden of the Lord, like the land of Egypt, in Genesis 13:10 that among all the nations, there was none more fertile than Egypt. And the Baraita taught that there was no more fertile spot in Egypt than Zoan, where kings lived, for Isaiah 30:4 says of Pharaoh, his princes are at Zoan. And in all of Israel, there was no more rocky ground than that at Hebron, which is why the Patriarchs buried their dead there, as reported in Genesis 49:31. But rocky Hebron was still seven times as fertile as lush Zoan, as the Baraita interpreted the words and Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt in Numbers 13:22 to mean that Hebron was seven times as fertile as Zoan. The Baraita rejected the plain meaning of built, reasoning that Ham would not build a house for his younger son Canaan (in whose land was Hebron) before he built one for his elder son Mizraim (in whose land was Zoan, and Genesis 10:6 lists (presumably in order of birth) the sons of Ham: Cush, and Mizraim, and Put, and Canaan. (Babylonian Talmud Ketubot 112a.) Rabbi Issi taught that there was no city in the plain better than Sodom, for Lot had searched through all the cities of the plain and found none like Sodom. Thus the people of Sodom were the best of all, yet as Genesis 13:13 reports, the men of Sodom were wicked and sinners. They were wicked to each other, sinners in adultery, against the Lord in idolatry, and exceedingly engaged in bloodshed. (Genesis Rabbah 41:7.)

The Mishnah deduced from Genesis 13:13 that the men of Sodom would have no place in the world to come. (Mishnah Sanhedrin 10:3; Babylonian Talmud Sanhedrin 107b, 109a.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 14

Abraham Makes the Enemies Flee Who Hold His Nephew (1613 etching by Antonio Tempesta at the National Gallery of Art)

Abram Rescues Lot, the Women, and Goods (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) Rabbi Levi, or some say Rabbi Jonathan, said that a tradition handed down from the Men of the Great Assembly taught that wherever the Bible employs the term and it was or and it came to pass ( ,wa-yehi), as it does in Genesis 14:1, it indicates misfortune, as one can read wa-yehi as wai, hi, woe, sorrow. Thus the words, And it came to pass in the days of Amraphel, in Genesis 14:1, are followed by the words, they made war, in Genesis 14:2. And the Gemara also cited the instances of Genesis 6:1 followed by Genesis 6:5; Genesis 11:2 followed by Genesis 11:4; Joshua 5:13 followed by the rest of Joshua 5:13; Joshua 6:27 followed by Joshua 7:1; 1 Samuel 1:1 followed by 1 Samuel 1:5; 1 Samuel 8:1 followed by 1 Samuel 8:3; 1 Samuel 18:14 close after 1 Samuel 18:9; 2 Samuel 7:1 followed by 1 Kings 8:19; Ruth 1:1 followed by the rest of Ruth 1:1; and Esther 1:1 followed by Haman. But the Gemara also cited as counterexamples the words, And there was evening and there was morning one day, in Genesis 1:5, as well as Genesis 29:10, and 1 Kings 6:1. So Rav Ashi replied that wa-yehi sometimes presages misfortune, and sometimes it does not, but the expression and it came to pass in the days of always presages misfortune. And for that

proposition, the Gemara cited Genesis 14:1, Isaiah 7:1 Jeremiah 1:3, Ruth 1:1, and Esther 1:1. (Babylonian Talmud Megillah 10b.)

Lot and His Family Recalled Home by Abraham (1613 etching by Antonio Tempesta at the National Gallery of Art) Rab and Samuel equated the Amraphel of Genesis 14:1 with the Nimrod whom Genesis 10:8 describes as a mighty warrior on the earth, but the two differed over which was his real name. One held that his name was actually Nimrod, and Genesis 14:1 calls him Amraphel because he ordered Abram to be cast into a burning furnace (and thus the name Amraphel reflects the words for he said (amar) and he cast (hipil)). But the other held that his name was actually Amraphel, and Genesis 10:8 calls him Nimrod because he led the world in rebellion against God (and thus the name Nimrod reflects the word for he led in rebellion (himrid)). (Babylonian Talmud Eruvin 53a.)

Abram and Melchizedek (woodcut by Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld from the 1860 Bible in Pictures) Rabbi Abbahu said in Rabbi Eleazars name that his trained men in Genesis 14:14 meant Torah scholars, and thus when Abram made them fight to rescue Lot, he brought punishment on himself and his children, who were consequently enslaved in Egyptian for 210 years. But Samuel said that Abram was punished because he questioned whether God would keep Gods promise, when in Genesis 15:8 Abram asked God how shall I know that I shall inherit it? And Rabbi Johanan said that Abram was punished because he prevented people from entering beneath the wings of the Shekhinah and being saved, when in Genesis 14:21 the king of Sodom said it to Abram, Give me the persons, and take the goods yourself, and Abram consented to leave the prisoners with the king of Sodom. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32a.)

Rab interpreted the words And he armed his trained servants, born in his own house in Genesis 14:14 to mean that Abram equipped them by teaching them the Torah. Samuel read the word vayarek (he armed) to mean bright, and thus interpreted the words And he armed his trained servants in Genesis 14:14 to mean that Abram made them bright with gold, that is, rewarded them for accompanying him. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32a.)

Melchisedec King of Salem blesses Abram (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) Reading the report in Genesis 14:14 that Abram led 318 men, Rabbi Ammi bar Abba said that Abrams servant Eliezer outweighed them all. The Gemara reported that others (employing gematria) said that Eliezer alone accompanied Abram to rescue Lot, as the Hebrew letters in Eliezers name have a numerical value of 318. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32a.)

Melchisedek Is Holding Up His Hands and Blessing Abraham (illustration from the 1897 Bible Pictures and What They Teach Us by Charles Foster)

Midrash identified the Melchizedek of Genesis 14:18 with Noah's son Shem. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32b; Genesis Rabbah 46:7, 56:10; Leviticus Rabbah 25:6; Numbers Rabbah 4:8.) The Rabbis taught that Melchizedek acted as a priest and handed down Adams robes to Abraham. (Numbers Rabbah 4:8.) Rabbi Zechariah said on Rabbi Ishmaels authority (or others say, it was taught at the school of Rabbi Ishmael) that God intended to continue the priesthood from Shems descendants, as Genesis 14:18 says, And he (Melchizedek/Shem) was the priest of the most high God. But then Melchizedek gave precedence in his blessing to Abram over God, and thus God decided to bring forth the priesthood from Abram. As Genesis 14:19 reports, And he (Melchizedek/Shem) blessed him (Abram), and said: Blessed be Abram of God Most High, Maker of heaven and earth; and blessed be God the Most High, who has delivered your enemies into your hand. Abram replied to Melchizedek/Shem by questioning whether the blessing of a servant should be given precedence over that of the master. And straightaway, God gave the priesthood to Abram, as Psalm 110:1 says, The Lord (God) said to my Lord (Abram), Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool, which is followed in Psalm 110:4 by, The Lord has sworn, and will not repent, You (Abram) are a priest for ever, after the order (dibrati) of Melchizedek, meaning, because of the word (dibbur) of Melchizedek. Hence Genesis 14:18 says, And he (Melchizedek/Shem) was the priest of the most high God, implying that Melchizedek/Shem was a priest, but not his descendants. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32b; Leviticus Rabbah 25:6.) Rabbi Isaac the Babylonian said that Melchizedek was born circumcised. (Genesis Rabbah 43:6.) A Midrash taught that Melchizedek called Jerusalem Salem. (Genesis Rabbah 56:10.) The Rabbis said that Melchizedek instructed Abraham in the Torah. (Genesis Rabbah 43:6.) Rabbi Eleazar said that Melchizedeks school was one of three places where the Holy Spirit manifested itself. (Babylonian Talmud Makkot 23b.) Rabbi Judah said in Rabbi Nehorai's name that Melchizedeks blessing yielded prosperity for Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. (Genesis Rabbah 43:8.) Ephraim Miksha'ah the disciple of Rabbi Meir said in the latter's name that Tamar descended from Melchizedek. (Genesis Rabbah 85:10.) Rabbi Hana bar Bizna citing Rabbi Simeon Hasida (or others say Rabbi Berekiah in the name of Rabbi Isaac) identified Melchizedek as one of the four craftsmen of whom Zechariah wrote in Zechariah 2:3. (Babylonian Talmud Sukkah 52b; Song of Songs Rabbah 2:33.) The Gemara taught that David wrote the Book of Psalms, including in it the work of the elders, including Melchizedek in Psalm 110. (Babylonian Talmud Baba Batra 14b15a.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 15

Abram Guarding His Sacrifice (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot)

A Deep Sleep Fell Upon Abram and a Horror Seized Him (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) The Gemara expanded on Abrams conversation with God in Genesis 15:121, quoting Abram to ask: Master of the Universe, should Israel sin before You, will You do to them as You have done to the generation of the Flood and to the generation of the Dispersion? God replied: No. Abram then said to God: Master of the Universe, Let me know whereby I shall inherit it. (Genesis 15:8) God answered: Take Me a heifer of three years old, and a she-goat of three years old. (Genesis 15:9) Abram then continued: Master of the Universe! This holds good while the Temple remains in being, but when the Temple will no longer be, what will become of them? God replied: I have already long ago provided for them in the Torah the order of sacrifices, and whenever they read it, I will deem it as if they had offered them before me, and I will grant them pardon for all their iniquities. (Babylonian Talmud Taanit 27b, Megillah 31b.)

The Gemara expounded on the words, And He brought him outside, in Genesis 15:5. The Gemara taught that Abram had told God that Abram had employed astrology to see his destiny and had seen that he was not fated to have children. God replied that Abram should go outside of his astrological thinking, for the stars do not determine Israels fate. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32a.) A midrash taught that there was not a mighty man in the world more difficult to overcome than Og, as Deuteronomy 3:11 says, only Og king of Bashan remained of the remnant of the Rephaim. The midrash told that Og had been the only survivor of the strong men whom Amraphel and his colleagues had slain, as may be inferred from Genesis 15:5, which reports that Amraphel smote the Rephaim in Ashteroth-karnaim, and one may read Deuteronomy 3:1 to indicate that Og lived near Ashteroth. The midrash taught that Og was the refuse among the Rephaim, like a hard olive that escapes being mashed in the olive press. The midrash inferred this from Genesis 15:13, which reports that there came one who had escaped, and told Abram the Hebrew, and the midrash indentified the man who had escaped as Og, as Deuteronomy 3:11 describes him as a remnant, saying, only Og king of Bashan remained of the remnant of the Rephaim. The midrash taught that Og intended that Abram should go out and be killed. God rewarded Og for delivering the message by allowing him to live all the years from Abraham to Moses, but God collected Ogs debt to God for his evil intention toward Abraham by causing Og to fall by the hand of Abrahams descendants. On coming to make war with Og, Moses was afraid, thinking that he was only 120 years old, while Og was more than 500 years old, and if Og had not possessed some merit, he would not have lived all those years. So God told Moses (in the words of Numbers 21:34), fear him not; for I have delivered him into your land, implying that Moses should slay Og with his own hand. (Numbers Rabbah 19:32.) Resh Lakish taught that Providence punishes bodily those who unjustifiably suspect the innocent. In Exodus 4:1, Moses said that the Israelites will not believe me, but God knew that the Israelites would believe. God thus told Moses that the Israelites were believers and descendants of believers, while Moses would ultimately disbelieve. The Gemara explained that Exodus 4:13 reports that the people believed and Genesis 15:6 reports that the Israelites ancestor Abram believed in the Lord, while Numbers 20:12 reports that Moses did not believe. Thus, Moses was smitten when in Exodus 4:6 God turned his hand white as snow. (Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 97a.) A midrash noted the difference in wording between Genesis 47:27, which says of the Israelites in Goshen that they got possessions therein, and Leviticus 14:34, which says of the Israelites in Canaan, When you come into the land of Canaan, which I gave you for a possession. The midrash read Genesis 47:27 to read, and they were taken in possession by it. The midrash thus taught that in the case of Goshen, the land seized the Israelites, so that their bond might be exacted and so as to bring about God's declaration to Abraham in Genesis 15:13 that the Egyptians would afflict the Israelites for 400 years. But the midrash read Leviticus 14:34 to teach the Israelites that if they were worthy, the Land of Israel would be an eternal possession, but if not, they would be banished from it. (Genesis Rabbah 95.)

Landscape with Hagar and the Angel (1646 painting by Claude Lorrain) The Mishnah pointed to Gods announcement to Abram in Genesis 15:16 that his descendants would return from Egyptian slavery to support the proposition that the merits of the father bring about benefits for future generations. (Mishnah Eduyot 2:9.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 16

Sarai Sends Hagar Away (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai deduced from the words, and she had a handmaid, an Egyptian, whose name was Hagar, in Genesis 16:1 that Hagar was Pharaohs daughter. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai taught that when Pharaoh saw what God did on Sarahs behalf, Pharaoh gave his daughter to Sarai, reasoning that it would be better for his daughter to be a handmaid in Sarais house than a mistress in another house. Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai read the name Hagar in to mean reward (agar), imagining Pharaoh to say, Here is your reward (agar). (Genesis Rabbah 45:1.) A Midrash deduced from Sarais words in Genesis 16:2, Behold now, the Lord has restrained me from bearing; go into my handmaid; it may be that I shall be built up through her, that one who is childless is as one who is demolished. The Rabbi of the Midrash reasoned that only that which is demolished must be built up. (Genesis Rabbah 45:2.)

The Gemara taught that if one sees Ishmael in a dream, then God hears that persons prayer (perhaps because the name Ishmael derives from the Lord has heard in Genesis 16:11, or perhaps because God heard (yishmah Elohim, ) Ishmaels voice in Genesis 21:17). (Babylonian Talmud Berakhot 56b.)

[edit] Genesis chapter 17

Rabbi Judah contrasted the words Noah walked with God in Genesis 6:9 with Gods words to Abraham, walk before Me, in Genesis 17:1. Rabbi Judah compared it to a king who had two sons, one grown up and the other a child. The king asked the child to walk with him. But the king asked the adult to walk before him. Similarly, to Abraham, whose moral strength was great, God said, Walk before Me. But of Noah, whose strength was feeble, Genesis 6:9 says, Noah walked with God. (Genesis Rabbah 30:10.)

Abraham Took Ishmael with All the Males Born in His House and Circumcised Them (illustration from the 1728 Figures de la Bible) Rabbi taught that notwithstanding all the precepts that Abram fulfilled, God did not call him perfect until he circumcised himself, for in Genesis 17:12, God told Abram, Walk before me and be perfect. And I will make my covenant between me and you, and in Genesis 17:10, God explained that Gods covenant required that every male be circumcised. (Mishnah Nedarim 3:11; Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 31b, 32a.) Rab Judah said in Rabs name that when God told Abram in Genesis 17:1, Walk before me and be perfect, Abram was seized with trembling, thinking that perhaps there was some shameful flaw in him that needed correcting. But when God added in Genesis 17:2, And I will make My covenant between me and you, God set Abrams mind at ease. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32a.) Rabbi Hoshaiah taught that if one perfects oneself, then good fortune will follow, for Genesis 17:1 says, Walk before me and be perfect, and shortly thereafter Genesis 17:4 reports

Abrams reward for doing so: And you shall be a father of many nations. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32a.)

God Renews His Promises to Abraham (watercolor circa 18961902 by James Tissot) Rabbi Ammi bar Abba employed gematria to interpret the meaning of Abrams name change in Genesis 17:5 from Abram ( )to Abraham ( .)According to Rabbi Ammi bar Abba, at first God gave Abram mastery over 243 of his body parts, as the numerical value of the Hebrew letters in Abram is 243. Then God gave Abraham mastery over 248 of his body parts, adding five body parts, as the numerical value of the Hebrew letter hei ( )that God added to his name is five. The Gemara explained that as a reward for Abrahams undergoing circumcision, God granted Abraham control over his two eyes, his two ears, and the organ that he circumcised. (Babylonian Talmud Nedarim 32b.) The Mishnah notes that transgressing the command of circumcision in Genesis 17:14 is one of 36 transgressions that cause the transgressor to be cut off from his people. (Mishnah Keritot 1:1; Babylonian Talmud Keritot 2a.) The Gemara read the command of Genesis 17:14 to require an uncircumcised adult man to become circumcised, and the Gemara read the command of Leviticus 12:3 to require the father to circumcise his infant child. (Babylonian Talmud Shabbat 132b.) Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina taught that visiting those who have had medical procedures (as Abraham had in Genesis 17:26) demonstrates one of Gods attributes that humans should emulate. Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina asked what Deuteronomy 13:5 means in the text, You shall walk after the Lord your God. How can a human being walk after God, when Deuteronomy 4:24 says, [T]he Lord your God is a devouring fire? Rabbi Hama son of Rabbi Hanina explained that the command to walk after God means to walk after the attributes of God. As God clothes the naked for Genesis 3:21 says, And the Lord God made for Adam and for his wife coats of skin, and clothed them so should we also clothe the naked. God visited the sick for Genesis 18:1 says, And the Lord appeared to him by the oaks of Mamre (after Abraham was circumcised in Genesis 17:26) so should we also visit the sick. God comforted mourners for Genesis 25:11 says, And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed Isaac his son so should we also comfort

mourners. God buried the dead for Deuteronomy 34:6 says, And He buried him in the valley so should we also bury the dead. (Babylonian Talmud Sotah 14a.) Similarly, the Sifre on Deuteronomy 11:22 taught that to walk in Gods ways means to be (in the words of Exodus 34:6) merciful and gracious. (Sifre to Deuteronomy 49:1.)

[edit] Commandments
According to Maimonides and Sefer ha-Chinuch, there is one positive commandment in the parshah:

The precept of circumcision (Genesis 17:10)

(Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Positive Commandment 215. Cairo, Egypt, 11701180. Reprinted in Maimonides. The Commandments: Sefer Ha-Mitzvoth of Maimonides. Translated by Charles B. Chavel, 1:23031. London: Soncino Press, 1967. ISBN 0-90068971-4. Sefer HaHinnuch: The Book of [Mitzvah] Education. Translated by Charles Wengrov, 1:8587. Jerusalem: Feldheim Pub., 1991. ISBN 0-87306-179-9.)

Isaiah (1509 fresco by Michelangelo in the Sistine Chapel)

[edit] Haftarah
The haftarah for the parshah is:

for Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews: Isaiah 40:27-41:16 for Karaite Jews: Joshua 24:318

[edit] In the liturgy

A page from a 14th century German Haggadah The Passover Haggadah, in the concluding nirtzah section of the Seder, in a reference to Genesis 14:15, recounts how God granted victory to the righteous convert Abram at the middle of the night. (Joseph Tabory. JPS Commentary on the Haggadah: Historical Introduction, Translation, and Commentary, 122. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2008. ISBN 978-0-8276-0858-0. Menachem Davis. The Interlinear Haggadah: The Passover Haggadah, with an Interlinear Translation, Instructions and Comments, 108. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2005. ISBN 1-57819-064-9.) The name Elyon or God Most High, which Melchizedek used in Genesis 14:19, is used in Psalm 92:2 to refer to God, and Psalm 92 is in turn recited after the Lekhah Dodi liturgical poem of the Kabbalat Shabbat prayer service. (Reuven Hammer. Or Hadash: A Commentary on Siddur Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals, 23. New York: The Rabbinical Assembly, 2003. ISBN 0-916219-20-8.)

A page from the Kaufmann Haggadah The Amidah draws on Gods words in Genesis 15:1, Fear not, Abram, I am a shield to you, to refer to God as Shield of Abraham. (Hammer, at 35a.) In the hymn Adon Olam (Lord of the World), use of the title Adon recalls the merit of Abraham, who first addressed God with the title in Genesis 15:2. (Menachem Davis. The Schottenstein Edition Siddur for Weekdays with an Interlinear Translation, 1415. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 2002. ISBN 1-57819-686-8.) The Haggadah, in the magid section of the Seder, quotes Genesis 15:1314 to demonstrate that God keeps Gods promises. (Davis, at 4142; Tabory, at 89.) Thereafter, the Haggadah

reports that Israel went down to Egypt forced to do so by the word [of God], and many commentators think that this statement refers to Gods foretelling in Genesis 15:13 that Abrams descendants would be a stranger in a land that is not theirs, and shall serve them. (Tabory, at 90.) And in the concluding nirtzah section, in a reference to Gods promises to Abram in the Covenant Between the Pieces in Genesis 15:1321, the Haggadah reports that God disclosed to the one from the Orient at midnight on Passover. (Tabory, at 125.) Following the Kabbalat Shabbat service and prior to the Friday evening (Ma'ariv) service, Jews traditionally read rabbinic sources on the observance of the Sabbath, including Mishnah Shabbat 18:3. Mishnah Shabbat 18:3, in turn, makes clear the precedence of the law of circumcision in Genesis 17:12 over even the observance of the Sabbath. (Hammer, at 25.)

[edit] The Weekly Maqam

In the Weekly Maqam, Sephardi Jews each week base the songs of the services on the content of that week's parshah. For parshah Lech Lecha, Sephardi Jews apply Maqam Saba, the maqam that symbolizes a covenant (berit). It is appropriate because in this parshah, Abraham and his sons undergo circumcisions, a ritual that signifies a covenant between man and God.

[edit] See also

Islamic view of Hagar

[edit] Further reading

The parshah has parallels or is discussed in these sources:

[edit] Ancient

Vassal treaties of Esarhaddon. Babylonia, 681669 BCE. "To go/pass through" in Hans G. Guterbock & Harry A. Hoffner (eds.), The Hittite Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, vol. P, 36-37. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1997.

[edit] Biblical

Genesis 20:116; 22:17 (numerous as stars); 26:133. Exodus 4:2426 (circumcision). Deuteronomy 1:10 (numerous as stars). Jeremiah 34:1820.

[edit] Early nonrabbinic

The Genesis Apocryphon. Dead Sea scroll 1Q20. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE. Reprinted in Gza Vermes. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 448, 45359. New York: Penguin Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7139-9131-3. (wife-sister, battle of the kings).

The Heavenly Prince Melchizedek. Dead Sea scroll 11Q13. Land of Israel, 1st century BCE. Reprinted in Gza Vermes. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English, 50002. New York: Penguin Press, 1997. ISBN 0-7139-9131-3.

Philo

Philo. Allegorical Interpretation 2: 15:59; Allegorical Interpretation 3: 8:24; 13:39; 25:79; 26:8227:83; 28:85; 70:197; 78:217; 81:228; 87:244; On the Cherubim 1:2; That the Worse Is Wont To Attack the Better 44:159; On the Giants 14:63; On the Unchangableness of God 1:4; On Drunkenness 7:24; 27:105; On the Confusion of Tongues 8:26; On the Migration of Abraham 1:1; 3:13; 9:43; 16:86; 19:107; 20:109; 27:148; 30:164; 39:216; Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? 1:2; 7:34; 12:58; 13:66; 14:69; 15:76; 16:81; 17:86; 18:90; 21:102; 25:125; 26:129; 43:207; 48:230; 49:237; 51:249; 54:267; 55:272; 56:275, 277; 60:300; 61:307, 312; 62:313; On Mating with the Preliminary Studies 1:1; 13:63; 14:71; 17:92; 18:99; 25:139; 27:153; On Flight and Finding 1:16; 22:119; 35:196; On the Change of Names 1:1; 3:15, 18, 22; 4:27; 5:39, 42; 6:5152; 23:130, 136; 27:148; 33:175, 177; 37:201; 44:253; 45:26346:264; 47:267; 48:270; On Dreams, That They Are God-Sent 1:9:47, 41:240; 2:39:255 On Abraham 17:77; 46:273; The Decalogue 10:3738; On the Virtues 39:21516; Every Good Man Is Free 5:29; Questions and Answers on Genesis 2: 80; 3: 162. Alexandria, Egypt, early 1st century CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Works of Philo: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by Charles Duke Yonge, 44, 52, 54, 59, 73, 7576, 78, 80, 129, 15758, 209, 216, 236, 25354, 257, 261, 263, 267, 269, 274, 276, 278, 28184, 286, 293, 29597, 299300, 30204, 30910, 312, 31617, 321, 331, 339, 34146, 35253, 356, 358, 36364, 369, 386, 406, 418, 434, 521, 662, 684, 839, 84163. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 1993. ISBN 0943575-93-1.

Josephus

Josephus. The Wars of the Jews, 5:9:4; 7:10:1. Circa 75 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Works of Josephus: Complete and Unabridged, New Updated Edition. Translated by William Whiston, 716. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 1987. ISBN 0-913573-868. Quran 2:258; 4:163; 6:7484; 19:4150. Arabia, 7th century.

[edit] Classical rabbinic

Mishnah: Nedarim 3:11; Sotah 7:5; Sanhedrin 10:3; Eduyot 2:9; Avot 5:3; Keritot 1:1. Land of Israel, circa 200 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Mishnah: A New Translation.

Translated by Jacob Neusner, 412, 458, 605, 64546, 685, 836. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1988. ISBN 0-300-05022-4. Tosefta: Berakhot 1:1213; Shabbat 7:24, 15:9; Yevamot 8:5; Nedarim 2:5; Sotah 5:12; Sanhedrin 13:8; Eduyot 1:14. Land of Israel, circa 300 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., The Tosefta: Translated from the Hebrew, with a New Introduction. Translated by Jacob Neusner. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Pub., 2002. ISBN 1-56563-642-2. Jerusalem Talmud: Berakhot 17ab; Sheviit 43b; Bikkurim 5b. Land of Israel, circa 400 CE. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Yerushalmi. Edited by Chaim Malinowitz, Yisroel Simcha Schorr, and Mordechai Marcus, vols. 1, 6b, 12. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 20052008. Genesis Rabbah 39:147:10. Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis. Translated by H. Freedman and Maurice Simon. London: Soncino Press, 1939. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.

Talmud

Babylonian Talmud: Berakhot 7b, 9b, 13a, 49a, 55a, 56b, 64a; Shabbat 89b, 97a, 105a, 108a, 118b, 130a, 132ab, 133b, 135ab, 156a; Eruvin 40b, 53a; Pesachim 52a, 69b, 87b, 92a; Sukkah 31a; Beitzah 8b; Rosh Hashanah 16b; Taanit 27b; Megillah 16b, 31b; Moed Katan 13a, 25b, 27b, 29a; Chagigah 12a, 13a; Yevamot 5b, 13b14a, 42a, 64a, 70b71a, 72a, 100b; Ketubot 112a; Nedarim 31b32b; Nazir 23ab; Sotah 4b, 17a, 32a, 33b, 38b, 46b; Gittin 2a; Kiddushin 29a, 39a, 41b; Bava Kamma 38b, 60b, 88a, 92b93a; Bava Metzia 59a; Bava Batra 15b16a, 56a, 100a, 127a, 163a; Sanhedrin 38b, 44ab, 59b, 92b, 95b96a, 99ab, 107b, 109a, 111a; Makkot 8b, 13b, 23b24a; Avodah Zarah 9a, 26b27a; Horayot 10b; Menachot 42a; Chullin 49a, 65a, 89a; Arakhin 16ab; Keritot 2a; Meilah 17b; Niddah 61a. Babylonia, 6th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Talmud Bavli. Edited by Yisroel Simcha Schorr, Chaim Malinowitz, and Mordechai Marcus, 72 vols. Brooklyn: Mesorah Pubs., 2006. Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 5:2:1. 6th7th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Pesiqta deRab Kahana: An Analytical Translation and Explanation. Translated by Jacob Neusner, 1:71. Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1987. ISBN 1-55540-072-8.

Rashi

[edit] Medieval

Rashi. Commentary. Genesis 1217. Troyes, France, late 11th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Rashi. The Torah: With Rashis Commentary Translated, Annotated, and Elucidated. Translated and annotated by Yisrael Isser Zvi Herczeg, 1:11572. Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, 1995. ISBN 0-89906-026-9.

Judah Halevi. Kuzari. 2:14, 16, 34, 44, 80; 3:7; 4:17. Toledo, Spain, 11301140. Reprinted in, e.g., Jehuda Halevi. Kuzari: An Argument for the Faith of Israel. Intro. by Henry Slonimsky, 90, 92, 108, 110, 132, 142, 223. New York: Schocken, 1964. ISBN 0-8052-0075-4. Zohar 76b96b. Spain, late 13th century.

Hobbes

[edit] Modern

Thomas Hobbes. Leviathan, 2:26; 3:33, 34, 35, 36. England, 1651. Reprint edited by C. B. Macpherson, 332, 417, 436, 44344, 45960. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Classics, 1982. ISBN 0140431950. Moshe Chaim Luzzatto. Mesillat Yesharim, ch. 4. Amsterdam, 1740. Reprinted in Mesillat Yesharim: The Path of the Just, 53. Jerusalem: Feldheim, 1966. ISBN 087306-114-4. Moses Mendelssohn. Jerusalem, 2. Berlin, 1783. Reprinted in Jerusalem: Or on Religious Power and Judaism. Translated by Allan Arkush; introduction and commentary by Alexander Altmann, 100. Hanover, N.H.: Brandeis Univ. Press, 1983. ISBN 0-87451-264-6. Abraham Isaac Kook. The Moral Principles. Early 20th century. Reprinted in Abraham Isaac Kook: the Lights of Penitence, the Moral Principles, Lights of Holiness, Essays, Letters, and Poems. Translated by Ben Zion Bokser, 182. Mahwah, N.J.: Paulist Press 1978. ISBN 0-8091-2159-X.

Mann

Irving Fineman. Jacob, An Autobiograhical Novel, 11, 17. New York: Random House, 1941. Thomas Mann. Joseph and His Brothers. Translated by John E. Woods, 411, 36, 43, 5254, 59, 78, 8991, 93, 9598, 10002, 125, 141, 148, 15354, 177, 25657, 309 10, 33955, 385, 425, 492, 523, 555, 59394, 596, 671, 763, 77879, 781, 788, 806, 859. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005. ISBN 1-4000-4001-9. Originally published as Joseph und seine Brder. Stockholm: Bermann-Fischer Verlag, 1943. Zofia Kossak. The Covenant: A Novel of the Life of Abraham the Prophet. New York: Roy, 1951. Erich Auerbach. Odysseus' Scar. In Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, 323. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1968. ISBN 0-69106078-9. (comparing accounts of Odysseus and Abraham). Martin Buber. On the Bible: Eighteen studies, 2243. New York: Schocken Books, 1968.

Mario Brelich. The Holy Embrace. Translated by John Shepley. Marlboro, Vermont: Marlboro Press, 1994. ISBN 1-56897-002-1. Originally published as Il Sacro Amplesso. Milan: Adelphi Edizioni s.p.a., 1972. Terrence Malick. Days of Heaven. 1978.

Steinsaltz

Adin Steinsaltz. Biblical Files, 1229. New York: Basic Books, 1984. ISBN 0-46500670-1. Phyllis Trible. Hagar: The Desolation of Rejection. In Texts of Terror: LiteraryFeminist Readings of Biblical Narratives, 935. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984. ISBN 0-8006-1537-9. Margaret Atwood. The Handmaid's Tale. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1986. ISBN 0-395-40425-8. Marc Gellman. Finding the Right Man. In Does God Have a Big Toe? Stories About Stories in the Bible, 4751. New York: HarperCollins, 1989. ISBN 0-06-022432-0. Aaron Wildavsky. Assimilation versus Separation: Joseph the Administrator and the Politics of Religion in Biblical Israel, 56, 15, 1729. New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1993. ISBN 1-56000-081-3. Jacob Milgrom. Bible Versus Babel: Why did God tell Abraham to leave Mesopotamia, the most advanced civilization of its time, for the backwater region of Canaan? Bible Review. 11 (2) (Apr. 1995). Walter Wangerin, Jr. The Book of God, 1325. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1996. ISBN 0-310-20005-9.

Card

Orson Scott Card. Sarah: Women of Genesis. Salt Lake City: Shadow Mountain, 2000. ISBN 1-57008-994-9. David A. deSilva. Why Did God Choose Abraham? Bible Review 16 (3) (June 2000): 1621, 4244. Tad Szulc. Abraham: Journey of Faith. National Geographic. 200 (6) (Dec. 2001): 90129. Alan Lew. This Is Real and You Are Completely Unprepared: The Days of Awe as a Journey of Transformation, 20. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 2003. ISBN 0-31673908-1. Marek Halter, Sarah. New York: Crown Publishers, 2004. ISBN 1-4000-5272-6. Suzanne A. Brody. Lech Lcha. In Dancing in the White Spaces: The Yearly Torah Cycle and More Poems, 64. Shelbyville, Kentucky: Wasteland Press, 2007. ISBN 160047-112-9. Esther Jungreis. Life Is a Test, 2829, 49, 68, 130, 134, 21415, 236. Brooklyn: Shaar Press, 2007. ISBN 1-4226-0609-0.

[edit] External links

[edit] Texts

Masoretic text and 1917 JPS translation Hear the parshah chanted

[edit] Commentaries

Academy for Jewish Religion, California Academy for Jewish Religion, New York American Jewish University Bar-Ilan University Chabad.org eparsha.com Jewish Theological Seminary Orthodox Union Oz Ve Shalom Netivot Shalom Parshah Parts Rabbi Shmuel Herzfeld Reconstructionist Judaism Sephardic Institute Tanach Study Center Torah.org TorahVort.com Union for Reform Judaism United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism Whats Bothering Rashi? [hide]v d eWeekly Torah Portions

Genesis Exodus Leviticus Numbers

Bereishit Noach Lech-Lecha Vayeira Chayei Sarah Toledot Vayetze Vayishlach Vayeshev Miketz Vayigash Vayechi Shemot Va'eira Bo Beshalach Yitro Mishpatim Terumah Tetzaveh Ki Tisa Vayakhel Pekudei Vayikra Tzav Shemini Tazria Metzora Acharei Kedoshim Emor Behar Bechukotai Bamidbar Naso Behaalotecha Shlach Korach Chukat Balak

Pinchas Matot Masei Devarim Va'etchanan Eikev Re'eh Shoftim Ki Teitzei Ki Tavo Nitzavim Vayelech Haazinu V'Zot HaBerachah Categories: Book of Genesis | Weekly Torah readings Deuteronomy