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T H E ROLE OF

SCOSITY IN LUBRICATION
PROCEEDINGS OF AN ASME SYMPOSIUM H E L D MARCH 10-11, 1958 SPONSORED BY THE LUBRICATION DIVISION OF T H E AMERICAN 50CIETY O F MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

E D I T E D BY OSCAR C. BRIDGEMAN PHILLIPS PETROLEUM COMPANY BARTLESVILL E, OKLAHOMA

THE
2 9

A M E R I C A N
W E S T

SOCIETY
S T R E E T ,

O F

MECHANICAL
Y O R K

ENGINEERS N E W
Y O R K

3 9 t h

N E W

18,

CONTENTS
l ntroductory
Remarks

I. VISCOSITY CHARRCTERISTICS' OF LUBRICANTS


Effect o f Temperature on Viscosity H. H. Zuidema Effect o f Pressure on Viscosity E. M. Barber Effect of Rate of Shear on Viscosity Alan Beerbower

XI. SENSITIVITY TO "ISCOSIITY OPERATING CONDITIONS


Introductory Remarks Paul C. Warner

UNDER

24 25

The Sensitivity of Equipment to Variation i n Lubricant Viscosity R. C. Garretson and J. Boyd Sensitivity of Machines to Lubricant Viscosity Charles A. Bailey Lubrication o f Roll Neck Bearings and Gear Drives i n Continuous Rolling M i l l s J. H. Hitchcock Effect o f Viscosity on Hydraulic Systems K. G. Henrikson

33

III. DESIGN CRITERZA FOR SELECTING VISCOSITY


Viscosity and Related Problems i n Engine Design W. M. Kauffmann Selecting Lubricant Viscosity for Design o f Helical and Worm Gears F. A. Thoma Viscosity i n the Lubrication Mechanisms of RollingElement 8earings L. B. Sibley and J. C B e l l .

53

61

64

I V . RESEARCH C O ~ R I B U T I O N S TO APPLIED LUBRICRTION


Gear Lubrication and Viscosity E. E. Shipley Recent Research and Development Work in Rolling Bearings H. Hanau The Effect of Temperature and Pressure on Viscosity as Related to Hydrodynamic Lubrication E. Saibel Author Index

85 105 108

Copyright 1960 by The Amerlcan Society of Mechanical Engineers Printed In the United States of America

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
By Oscar

C Bridgeman, Phillips Petroleum Co. .


the corrections for the hydrodynamic disturbances. Instead, most viscosity values are relative to the viscosity of some working standard, and the generally accepted standard is the value for water at 68OF and normal atmospheric pressure. Thus water is used to calibrate a suitable viscometer, i which is then used for measurement of a higher viscosity fluid. In turn, this lattf er fluid is usedto calibrate another viscometer, and so on up the scale. While this procedure does not eliminate corrections for hydrodynamic disturbances, it tends to make the magnitude of these corrections smaller. On the other hand, the errors are cumulative through this step-wise procedure and hence there may be considerable lack of precision in high viscosity values. One other point should be mentioned in connection with the viscosity of water. For years, the accepted value was 1.007 centistokes at 68OF. About two years ago, this value was changed to 1.0038 cs at 68OF, to bring it into accord with the measurements of the National Bureau of Standards. Thus, in terms of the new working standard, all viscosity values are now about 0.3% lower for the same identica1,fluids.This change may not be of much consequence in many applications, but it is important to keep it in mind when comparing literature values for pure liquids. Insofar as viscosity is confined to infinitely low shear rates, it can be considered as a property of the given fluid, as long as there is no change in composition of the fluid. In other words, if the symbol p is used to designate viscosity, this means that d p is a perfect differential, with all that this connotes. One important consequence is that the rate of change of the temperature coefficient with pressure must equal the rate of change of the pressure coefficient with temperature. Whether viscosity can continue to be considered a property of the fluid as shear rates increqse is possibly a metaphysical question. From one standpoint, the answer to this question involves such matters as whether Newton's law holds at these higher shear

. Ihe tour Technical Committees of the A S M E Lubrication Division are the Lubricants Technical Committee, Builders & Opera1 ators Technic] Committee, Design Technical Comnit;tee and Research Technical Committee. These cornmitItees organized and presented *. IC . -- - - - -. . L I I C ~ y r n p u s l mon the Role of Viscosity in Lubrication at the Socony hlobil Oil Company Training Center, New York, N.Y., on March 10 and 11, -1958. The papers presented covered both theory and practical applications of this subject and were followed by an active discussion. The presentations and di scussions were later revised and submitted for publication early in 1960. It is appropriate to include in this -n+-"duction a brief statement about viscosity per s e -- what it is and what it means Viscosity of a fluid is defined r--.. .lurlllsrlly as the shearing stress divided by the rate of shear. Further, Newton's law states that this ratio is constant, or in *her - words that the viscosity is indep-_ bnt of the rate of shear. Liquids obeying this law are frequently called Newtonian fluids Measurement of viscosity therefore requires means for evaluating shearing stress and rate of shear, or their equivalents. Many methods are available, such as use of a capillary tube, a rotational viscometer, a falling or rolling ball viscometer, and Q h nn. It will be found generally that it is necessary to apply corrections to the observed results in order to account for extraneous hydrodynamic disturbances. In *.. ," ., such cases, there is lack of general agreement on the precise validity of these corrections, and sometimes it almost appears 1that Newton's law is being accepted by definj ition, as a basis for the corrections. Further, in many cases, the magnitude of L1cne correctj.ons changes with rate of shear, making it possible to extrapolate back to an infinitely low rate of shear. Most of t h e available data on viscosity of fluids es to very low shear rates. is rare in practice to make viscosity cements directly in terms of the prim\ 1 variables, due to the uncertainties in
&..ULV1

I.

C
'\

--

-.a

IIJCUJ~

, ,

r a t e s , and whether a d e q u a t e a c c o u n t h a s b e e n t a k e n o f hydrodynamic d i s t u r b a n c e s . C e r t a i n l y , t h e r e a r e some f l u i d s which show a temporary d r o p i n v i s c o s i t y t o an e x t e n t d e p a d e n t upon t h e s h e a r r a t e . A l s o , a t v e r y h i g h r a t e s o f s h e a r , i t seems p r o b a b l e t h a t many non-polymer l i q u i d s d e p a r t from Newton's law d u e t o c h a n g e s i n m o l e c u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n . A r e l a t e d phenomenon i s t h e m e a s u r e a b l e r e l a x a t i o n time, n a m e l y t h e t i m e for a liquid t o return t o its n o ~ m a l m o l e c u l a r o r i e n t a t i o n a t e r b e i n g s u b j e c t e d t o a high r a t e o f p r e s s u r e a p p l i c a t i o n . C l a s s i c a l hydrodynamics d e a l s w i t h r a m i n a r flow, namely up t o Reynolds numbers o f a b o u t 2000. I n t h i s r e g i m e , p r e s s u r e d r o p i s p r o p o r t i o r l a l t o t h e f i r s t power o f t h e v i s c o s i t y . At Reynolds numbers above about 4000, t u r b u l e n t flow e x i s t s , and u n d e r t h e s e conditions t h e pressure drop is e s s e n t i a l l y proportional t o the one-quarter power o f t h e v i s c o s i t y . I n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e r a n g e from 2000 t o 4000 R e y n o l d s number, t h e e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y v a r i e s i n unknown manner from t h e 1st t o t h e % power. I n c o n c l u s i o n , v i s c o s i t y i s a v e r y comp l e x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a f l u i d . As u s e d i n

hydrodynamic s t u d i e s , i t i s a v a l u e a t - 9 a p p r o p r i a t e t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e , r.,-. a t i v e t o a f i x e d v a l u e f o r w a t e r , b u t appl i c a b l e t o a low r a t e o f s h e a r . The e x t e n t t o which t h i s v a l u e i s a p p l i c a b l e t o h i g h r a t e s o f s h e a r may b e u n c e r t a i n . D e f i n i t e l y i t is apparent t h a t design t r e n d s towards h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e s , p r e s s u r e s , and Reyno l d s numbers, are f o r c i n g a t t e n t i o n t o t h e i n c r e a s i n g importance o f v i s c o s i t y e f f e c t s . T r e n d s i n new t y p e s o f l u b r i c a n t s a r e a l s o . c o m p l i c a t i n g t h e p i c t u r e . Hence, i t seems e v i d e n t t h a t w e may b e o u t - r u n n i n g o u r knowledge on v i s c o s i t y b o t h i n t h e o r y and i n service application. In years p a s t each o f t h e four Technical Committees mentioned above normally h e l d i n d i v i d u a l meetings covering t h a t s u b j e c t m a t t e r i n which e a c h was i n t e r e s t e d . On t h i s o c c a s i o n a l l f o u r g r o u p s met c o n s e c u t i v e l y t o discuss t h e broad s u b j e c t of v i s c o s i t y i n l u b r i c a t i o n from t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e viewpoints. This resulted in t h e Symposium which f o l l o w s , a n d i t i s hoped t h a t t h i s w i l l be a n o t h e r s t e p towards adva n c i n g o u r t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s , which i s t h e goal of the A S M E Lubrication Division.
-

SESSION CHAIRMAN - A . R . B l a c k , Shell O i l Co.


Chairman, Lubricants Technical Committee

V I S C O S I T Y CHARACTERISTICS OF ZUBRICANTS
E F F E C T O F TEMPERATURE ON V I S C O S I T Y

H . H . Z u i d e m a , S h e l l O i l Co.
E F F E C T OF P R E S S U R E ON V I S C O S I T Y

E . M . B a r b e r , T h e T e x a s Co.
E F F E C T OF RATE O F SHEAR ON V I S C O S I T Y

Alan Beerbower, Esso Research & Engineering C o

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON vIscasIn By 11.H. Zuidema, S h e l l O i l Co.


V i s c o s i t y i s a measure o f t h e r e s i s t a n c e o f a f l u i d t o flow. \#en t h e temperature o f a l i q u i d i s changed, t h e d i s t a n c e between molecules changes, and t h i s i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e v i s c o s i t y . L i q u i d s w i t h low c o e f f i c i e n t s o f expansion w i l l i n general have lower viscosity-temperature c o e f f i c i e n t s than t h o s e which have high c o e f f i c i e n t s o f expansion. Faust proposed a theory i n 1914 t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y o f a given l i q u i d i s a function o f d e n s i t y a l o n e , i r r e g a r d l e s s o f tempera t u r e and p r e s s u r e . B r i d p a n l a t e r proved t h a t t h i s theory is an o v e r - s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . He made v i s c o s i t y measurements on a number o f l i q u i d s o v e r a range o f temperatures and p r e s s u r e s , and found t h a t change i n d e n s i t y does not account f o r a l l o f t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e on v i s c o s i t y , a l t h o u g h i t i s responsible for a substantial p a r t of the total effect. The magnitude o f t h e e f f e c t o f tempera t u r e upon v i s c o s i t y i s v e r y s t r i k i n g . For example, an c i l w i t h a v i s c o s i t y o f 10 c s a t 210F and a v i s c o s i t y iildex o f 100 w i l l have a v i s c o s i t y o f approximately 10,000 c s a t OF. T h u s , a change i n t e m p e r a t u r e o f o n l y 210F caused a tllousand-fold change i n v i s c o s i t y . Many l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s a r e c a l l e d upon t o f u n c t i o n o v e r a much wider tempera t u r e range than this. Furthermore, i f t h e o i l had been one o f z e r o v i s c o s i t y i n d e x r a t h e r t h a n o f one hundred, t h e change i n v i s c o s i t y would h a v e been by a f a c t o r o f tea thousand i n s t e a d o f one thousand. Even m u l t i g r a d e 10 W-30 motor o i l s , which a r e unique i n t h a t t h e y show a minimum v a r i a t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y with temperature, s u f f e r a change i n v i s c o s i t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y two
CHART

"--*

h u n d r e d - f o l d o v e r t h i s same t e m p e r a t u r e range. S i n c e tlie e f f e c t o f temperature on visc o s i t y i s so pronounced, i t i s necessary t o c o n t r o l t e m p e r a t u r e v e r y c l o s e l y , and t o measure i t a c c u r a t e l y , i n o r d e r t o a t t a i n good a c c u r a c y a n d p r e c i s i o n i n v i s c o s i t y d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . The ASTM r e q u i r e s a temp e r a t u r e c o n t r o l o f fO.OSF i n Method D-88 f o r S a y b o l t v i s c o s i t y . The same t o l e r a n c e i s r e q u i r e d i n Method D-445 f o r k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y a t t e m p e r a t u r e s below 60F. At temperatures higher than t h i s , t h e to1erance i s f0.02F. The m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s l i i p between v i s c o s i t y and t e m p e r a t u r e i s complex, and many e q u a t i o n s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d , b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l . Perhaps t h e b e s t known and most widely used o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , a t l e a s t i n t h i s country, i s t h e e p i r i c a l W a l t h e r e q u a t i o n which was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n 1929. I t may be w r i t t e n a s follows:

l o g l o g [V

+ kl

=A

+D

log T

where V i s t h e k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y i n centistokes, T is the absolute t m p e r a t i ~ r e , k i s a ' u n i v e r s a l c o n s t a n t ' , and A and B a r e c o n s t a n t s f o r a given o i l . A valae of 0 . 6 i s g e n e r a l l y assigned t o k , although 0 . 8 h a s a l s o been used. For h i g h v a l u e s o f V, t h e e x a c t v a l u e o f k i s o f l i t t l e importance, but a s V decreases, the significance o f k i n c r e a s e s . The Walther e q u a t i o n h a s been found t o f i t t h e d a t a f o r mineral o i l s q u i t e well. I t i s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e ASTM v i s c o s i t y temperature c h a r t s , Method D-341. The f o l l owing f i v e c h a r t s a r e a v a i l a b l e .
TEMP. IMNGE SIZE OF CHART

VISCOSITY UNITS

V~SCOSI~ RANGE

Saybolt Universal Saybolt Universal Centistokes Centistokes Centistolies

33 t o 100,000,000
33 t o 100,000 2 t o 20,000,000 0 . 4 t o 100 2 t o 20,000,000

-30 t o +450F -30 t o +350F -30 t o +450F -30 t.o +450GF -100 t o +450F

20 x 16 i n .

B
C

8%

x 11 i n .

D E

20 x 16 i n . 20 x 20 i n .

24 x 16 i n .

Ci

'These c h a r t s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d i n s u c h a A e r t h a t t h e d a t a f o r a given o i l can b e p l o t t e d l i n e a r l y . Tne o n l y s e r i o u s d e v i a t i o n normally encountered i n t h e c a s e o f mineral o i l s o r o t h e r petroleum f r a c t i o n s i s i n t h e c a s e o f non-homogeneous systems, a s f o r example a waxy o i l t h a t h a s b e e n c h i l l e d t o a t e m p e r a t u r e below i t s c l o u d p o i n t . High-temperature v i s c o s i t y d a t a f o r s u c h an o i l w i l l p l o t l i n e a r l y , b u t t h e curve w i l l bend upward a t low t e m p e r a t u r e s . Data f o r c e r t a i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s , on t h e o t h e r hand, show a d i s t i n c t c u r v a t u r e o v e r a wide t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e . T h i s p o i n t i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 1 which shows v i s c o s i t y temperature c u r v e s f o r two m i n e r a l o i l s and t h r e e s y n t l l e t i c l u b r i c a n t s , a l l p l o t t e d on a s i m p l i f i e d ASTM c h a r t . B o t h m i n e r a l o i l s a n d two o f t h e s y n t h e t i c s p r o d u c e d l i n e a r p l o t s although the slopes varied widely. However, t h e f i f t h l i n e r e p r e s e n t ing t h e p o l y a l k y l e n e g l y c o l shows a d e c i d e d curvatt~re. The method that. h a s b e e n u s e d t h e most

'
.-

widely i n t h i s country f o r expressing t h e v i s c o s i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t i s t h e viscosi t y i n d e x , w h i c h was f i r s t p u b l i s h e d by Dean and Davis i n 1929, and which h a s been an ASTM method (D-567) s i n c e 1940. It i s based on two s e r i e s o f r e f e r e n c e o i l s . ?he f i r s t , a r b i t r a r i l y assigned v i s c o s i t y index v a l u e s o f 100, c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f f r a c t i o n s from a P e n n s y l v a n i a c r u d e . T h e second is s i m i l a r , except t h a t t h e s o u r c e was a G u l f C o a s t a l c r u d e , and t h e v a l u e o f v i s c o s i t y i n d e x a s s i g n e d was z e r o . The v i s c o s i t y i n d e x o f a n o i l i s c a l c u l a t e d from t h e equation:

v.

I. = 100 [L

- ul

/ [L

-H I

where U i s t h e v i s c o s i t y a t 100F o f t h e o i l i n q u e s t i o n , and where L and H a r e t h e r e s p e c t i v e v i s c o s i t i e s a t 100F o f t h e 0 V I and 100 V I s t a n d a r d s which match t h e unknown o i l i n v i s c o s i t y a t 210F. V a l u e s o f L a n d o f (L - H) a r e c o n v e n i e n t l y r e a d from t a b l e s p u b l i s h e d a s a p a r t o f ASTM Method D-567.

FIG. 1

EFFECT O F TEMPERATURE ON V I S C O S I T Y

1 . MINERAL O I L 2 . MINERAL O I L

1 0 0 VI 0 VI
4

3 . SILICONE
4 . FLUOROCARBON
5.

POLYALKYLENE GLYCOL

'The v i s c o s i t y index of a mineral o i l i s d e t e r m i n e d p r i m a r i l y by i t s hydrocarbon composition. 'Ihe hydrocarbons i n t h e lubr i c a t i n g o i l range o f molecular weight a r e very complex, and t h e i r exact configuration i s not known. However, they may be considered as containing three basic types of h y d r o c a r b o n g r o u p s , namely p a r a f f i n i c , naphthenic, and aromatic. A l l mineral o i l s contain a l l t h r e e of these b a s i c types, but t h e p r o p o r t i o n s vary c o n s i d e r a b l y . High v i s c o s i t y index i s a s s o c i a t e d with a high content of p a r a f f i n i c groups. The pres,ence o f aromatics lowers the v i s c o s i t y index, a s does t h e presence o f naphthenes. I t i s p o s s i h l e t o remove a r o m a t i c s by normal s o l v e n t e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e s s e s , b u t these processes do not e f f e c t i v e l y s e p a r a t e naphthenes from p a r a f f i n s . Thus o i l s from d i f f e r e n t sources d i f f e r not only i n t h e i r v i s c o s i t y index p r i o r t o r e f i n i n g , but they d i f f e r i n t h e e x t e n t of improvement t h a t can be accomplished by r e f i n i n g . ?his p o i n t

i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig. 2. V i s c o s i t y i n d e x can be r a i s e d by L/ i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f c e r t a i n polymeric additi v e s , commonly known a s V I i m p r o v e r s . These polymers r a i s e t h e v i s c o s i t y throughout t h e temperature range, but t h e i r r e l a t i v e e f f e c t i s g r e a t e r a t t h e higher tempera t u r e s . Thus t h e y f l a t t e n t h e v i s c o s i t y temperature curve and r a i s e t h e v i s c o s i t y index. 'The e f f e c t of t h r e e d i f f e r e n t polymers upon t h e v i s c o s i t y i n d e x o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t base o i l s i s shown i n Fig. 3. I t w i l l be observed t h a t t h e degree of improvement i n v i s c o s i t y index a t t a i n a h l e with a given p e r c e n t a g e o f polymer depends upon t h e c h o i c e o f b a s e o i l a s well a s t h e c h o i c e of polymer. Large q u a n t i t i e s o f V I improvers a r e used i n t h e manufacture o f multigrade motor o i l s which have become s o p o p u l a r d u r i n g t h e l a s t few years.

EFFECT OF SOLVENT EXTRACTION O V I N (VON FUCHS AND ANDERSON)

PENN . R E S I D U E MID-CONTINENT RESIDUE

GULF COASTAL D I S T I L L A T E

FIG.

2
I 8

I 2

4. 6 STAGES OF EXTRACTION

The v i s c o s i t y index system h a s s e r v e d a y u s e f u l purpose. However, i t h a s c e r t I n d e f i c i e n c i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y when a p p l i e d t o o i l s o f h i g h v i s c o s i t y index. Two o i l s , f o r example, b o t h o f 50 c s v i s c o s i t y a t 100F, b u t having v i s c o s i t i e s o f 10 and 45 c s a t 210F, would have a v i s c o s i t y i n d e x o f approximately.150. Gross anomalies o f t h i s type do n o t o c c u r i n t h e range o f V I from zero t o one hundred f o r which t h e system was developed, b u t they do c o n s t i t u t e a s e r i o u s p r o b l e m i n some o f t h e c u r r e n t o i l s . Another d i s a d v a n t a g e o f t h e system, throughout t h e v i s c o s i t y index range, is t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y index o f a b l e n d i s n o t a simple f u n c t i o n o f composition. Tne ASTM has recognized t h e need f o r a b e t t e r v i s c o s i t y - t e m p e r a t u r e system and a cornnittee, j o i n t l y s p o n s o r e d by T e c h n i c a l

Committee B on L u b r i c a t i n g O i l s and Rese a r c h D i v i s i o n V I I on Flow P r o p e r t i e s , b o t h under ASTM Comnittee %2, i s working on t h e problem. The f o l l o w i n g methods a r e b e i n g considered by t h i s comni t t e e . 1. S l o p e o f t h e ASTM v i s c o s i t y t e m p e r a t u r e curve. 2. The V i s c o s i t y - T e m p e r a t u r e I n d e x (Larson and Schwaderer) . 3. The R a t i o n a l V i s c o s i t y Index (Hardiman and Nissen) . 4 . T h e V i s c o s i t y Modulus ( B l o t t a n d Verner) . 5 . The Fundamental V i s c o s i t y Temperatu r e Index ( C o r n e l i s s a n and Wateman). 6 . The Viscosity-Temperature R a t i n g (Ramser) . 7. The V i s c o s i ty-Temperature F u n c t i o n (Wright).

EFFECT OF POLYMER UPON V I (EVANS AND YOUNG)

FIG. 3

2
1

1 . POLYBUTENE

2 . CONDENSATION PRODUCT, C H L O R I N A T E D WAX AND NAPHTHALENE


3 . P O L Y C E T Y L METHACRYLATE

10 15 20 CONCENTRATION OF POLYMER, XWt .

SUMMARIZED D I S C U S S I O N

It was pointed out t h a t k i n t h e Walther


equation i s only a ' u n i v e r s a l constant' i n an approximate sense. I n o t h e r words, t h e value of k underlying t h e ASTM v i s c o s i t y c h a r t s was s e l e c t e d so a s t o minimize depa r t u r e from l i n e a r i t y with t y p i c a l mineral o i l s . O r i g i n a l l y , t h e c h a r t s were based on a .value o f k = 0 . 8 , b u t t h i s was l a t e r chan.ged t o k = 0 . 6 a s experimental informa t i o n became a v a i l a b l e on a wider v a r i e t y o f petroleum p r o d u c t s . S t i l l l a t e r , & h a t p o r t i o n o f t h e c h a r t s c o v e r i n g very low v i s c o s i t i e s was modified s o a s t o provide a gradual v a r i a t i o n i n value of k. While t h e ASTM V i s c o s i t y C h a r t s a r e adequate f o r many a p p l i c a t i o n s , numerous examples e x i s t with p r e c i s e v i s c o s i t y data o v e r a range o f t e m p e r a t u r e where i t i s necessary t o s e l e c t individual values of k i n t h e Walther equation f o r each s p e c i f i c product. I n such cases, t h e Walther equat-

ion i s o f onconvenient form f o r a n a l y t i c e \ r ' treatment o f experimental d a t a , and t h e r e i s need f o r a simpler form of mathematical expression f o r t h e change o f v i s c o s i t y with temperature, even though i t may r e c p i r e use o f t h r e e a r b i t r a r y constants. The author i n d i c a t e d some o f t h e peculi a r i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t Dean and D a v i s system f o r v i s c o s i t y index, and mentioned t h a t t h i s m a t t e r i s c u r r e n t l y under study by ASTM . However, such s t u d i e s a r e largel y concerned with a v i s c o s i t y index system, which would s t i l l r e q u i r e c o n s i d e r a b l e manipulation before t h e a r b i t r a r y v i s c o s i t y index value could he converted t o a tempera t u r e c o e f f i c i e n t a t any given temperature o f i n t e r e s t . Again, t h i s ernpllasizes t h e need f o r an improved mathematical relationship covering the change of v i s c o s i t y with temperature.

EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON VISCOSITY By E.M.Barber,lie Texas Co.


The v i s c o s i t y o f l u b r i c a n t s i n c r e a s e s markedly with i n c r e a s i n g pressure. A t t h e pressures existing i n the lubricant film o f hydrodynamic bearings, the v i s c o s i t y o f t h e - l u b r i c a n t may be many t i m e s g r e a t e r than i t s v i s c o s i t y a s measured a t atmospheric pressure. T h i s property o f l u b r i c a n t s undoubtedly has an influence on heari n g performance c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such a s load-carrying capacity, f r i c t i o n and temperature r i s e . There i s no simple method o f measuring v i s c o s i t y a t high p r e s s u r e . A program of measurement t o d e f i n e t h e pressure-viscosity-temperature p r o p e r t i e s o f a s i n g l e l u b r i c a n t assumes t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f a research program r a t h e r than o f a r o u t i n e physical property measurement. Consequently pressure-viscosity-temperature d a t a a r e r e l a t i v e l y scarce and the e f f e c t of pressure-viscosity p r o p e r t i e s on b e a r i n g performance i s n o t a s well understood a s may be desirable. ;'- .The falling-body type o f viscometer i s '.-iof t h e most acceptable methods f o r the measurement o f v i s c o s i t y a s a function o f pressure. This type o f equipment was used by P r o f . P . W.Bridgman ( R e f . 1 ) i n h i s pioneering work i n t h i s f i e l d , and i t has been refined and extended i n i t s usefulness i n several pressure-viscosity i n v e s t i g a t i o n s sponsored and/or s u p p o r t e d by t h e A S E Research Committee on L u b r i c a t i o n M (Kef. 2). A typical cross-section of a f a l l i n g body viscometer i s i l l u s t r a t e d by Fig. 1 . A sinker f a l l s v e r t i c a l l y i n a viscometer tube which contains the t e s t f l u i d , and t h e time o f f a l l i s i n t e r p r e t a b l e i n terms o f t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e f l u i d . To avoid d i f f e r e n t i a l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and thermal e f f e c t s , the tube and t h e s i n k e r a r e made o f Symbol t h e same m a t e r i a l . S i n k e r s o f v a r y i n g weight and o f v a r y i n g c l e a r a n c e r e l a t i v e t o t h e t u b e can be used. The v i s c o m e t e r tube is f i t t e d loosely i n t o the pressure chamber so t h a t i t i s completely surrounded by t h e pressure-transmitting f l u i d . Pressure i s transmitted t o the t e s t f l u i d i n s i d e ' t h e viscometer tube v i a a c o l l a p s i b l e bellows type o f r e s e r v o i r f i t t e d t o one end o f a the viscometer tube. The assembly i s inuners e d i n a temperature c o n t r o l bath. To make a measurement, the assembly i s inverted and the time f o r the sinker t o f a l l i s measured by e l e c t r i c a l signals. Fig. 2 i l l u s t r a t e s the variation of visc o s i t y with pressure and temperature f o r a t y p i c a l paraffin-base mineral o i l o f about 250 SSU a t 100F and 100 Viscosity Index. Note t h e r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e changes of visc o s i t y w i t h p r e s s u r e , a s f o r example a t 210F, a p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e o f 20,000 p s i produces almost a t e n f o l d i n c r e a s e of viscosity. F i g . 3 shows t h e changes o f v i s c o s i t y with p r e s s u r e a t 210F f o r t h r e e p a r a f f i n base mineral o i l s o f d i f f e r e n t v i s c o s i t y l e v e l . These t h r e e samples A, B and C have S SU v i s c o s i t i e s a t 100F o f approximately 250, 700 and 2500 seconds, and have approxi m a t e l y 100 V i s c o s i t y I n d e x . The t h r e e c u r v e s a r e s i m i l a r i n t r e n d and g e n e r a l slope, which suggests t h a t l e v e l o f viscosi t y does not g r e a t l y a l t e r t h e t r e n d of v i s c o s i t y with p r e s s u r e f o r o i l s o f comparable molecular type. Fig. 4 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y with pressure a t 210F f o r an assortment o f mineral o i l and s y n t h e t i c type l u b r i c a t i n g f l u i d s which a r e i n t h e same general range o f l e v e l o f v i s c o s i t y a s measured by S S U a t 100F. Some i d e n t i f i c a t i o n d a t a on t h e f l u i d s o f Fie. 4 a r e given below.

Identification SSU P a r a f f i n i c hiineral O i l Naphthenic Mineral O i l Polybutylene Fluorocarbon Silicone Oil Di ( 2 - E t h y l h e x y l ) P h t h a l a t e D i (2-Ethylhexyl) Sebacate

V.I. 96 23 30 -178 152 13 154

There i s a t e n d e n c y f o r t h e f l u i d s o f h i g h V i s c o s i t y Index, namely t h o s e f l u i d s t h a t undergo t h e l e a s t change o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e , a l s o t o show t h e l e a s t change w i t h p r e s s u r e . However, t h i s i s n o t a u n i v e r s a l tendency and t h e r e a r e excepti o n s . Even f o r t h e l i m i t e d s e l e c t i o n o f samples shorn on Fig. 4, n o t e t h e exception i n s a m p l e s F and G which show p a r a l l e l changes o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h p r e s s u r e b u t a i l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e i n V i s c o s i t y Index. The e f f e c t o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e pressure-viscosity characteristics of f l u i d s on t h e performance o f b e a r i n g s i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t i s n o t e n t i r e l y resolved. ?he p r e s e n t e v i d e n c e seems t o s u g g e s t however t h a t f l u i d s having a g r e a t e r i n c r e a s e o f v i s c o s i t y with p r e s s u r e w i l l t e n d t o produ c t a somewhat h i g h e r load-carrying capac-

i t y , f r i c t i o n and o p e r a t i n g temperature.
I n s t e a d o f a t t e m p t i n g t o draw c o n c l ~ ~ , i o n s from t h e f o r e g o i n g m a t e r i a l , i t seems appropriate t o suggest several areas f o r f u t u r e development t h a t c o u l d a p p r e c i a b l y improve o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r e s s u r e v i s c o s i t y problem i n l u b r i c a t i o n . (1) A simple ' r o u t i n e ' type measurement technique t h a t would make pressure-viscosi t y data readily available. ( 2 ) A c o r r e l a t i o n whereby a small number o f measurements c o u l d be used t o p r e d i c t t h e whole p a t t e r n o f a l t h r i c a n t ' s behavior under p r e s s u r e . ( 3 ) A s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t s , on t h e lubr i c a t i o n performance o f a v a r i e t y o f beari n g s , o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e pressilre-visc o s i t y characteristics of lubricants.

REFERENCES 1 . The E f f e c t o f P r e s s u r e on t h e V i s c o s i t y o f F o r t y - T h r e e P u r e L i q u i d s , by P . W . B r i d g man, P r o c . A m . A c a d . A r t s S c i . , 6 1 , 57 ( 1 9 2 6 ) . 2 . ( a ) V i s c o s i t y and D e n s i t y o f L u b r i c a t i n g F l u i d s f r o m 0 t o 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 PSIG a n d 3 2 t o 4 2 5 ' ~ , by B r a d b u r y , Mark and K l e i n s c h n i d t , ASME T r a n s . , 7 2 , 667 ( 1 9 5 1 ) . ( b ) Progress i n Lubrication Research, F o u r t h R e p o r t o f t h e S p e c i a l R e s e a r c h Comrni t t e e on L u b r i c a t i o n , Appendix N o . 1 . ( c ) E x p e r i m e n t s by R. V. K l e i n s c h m i d t on t h e V i s c o s i t y o f L u b r i c a t i n g O i l s under H i g h H y d r o s t a t i c P r e s s u r e , ASME T r a n s . , 5 9 , l(1928). 3 . D a t a f o r F i g . 2 , 3 and 4 were s e l e c t e d from V i s c o s i t y a n d D e n s i t y o f O v e r 4 0 Lubr i c a t i n g F l u i d s o f Known C o m p o s i t i o n a t P r e s s u r e s t o 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 PSI and Temperatu t o 4 2 ~ A~ R e p o .r t o f t h e ASME R e s e a . ~ C o m m i t t e e on L u b r i c a t i o n , o b t a i n a b l e f r o m t h e Research Department, The American Soci e t y o f M e c h a n i c a l E n g i n e e r s , 2 9 West 3 9 t h S t r e e t , New York, N . Y.

SUMMARIZED D I S C U S S I O N

The p o i n t was r a i s e d t h a t t h e a u t h o r presented curves f o r a number o f o i l s sliowi n g t h e change o f v i s c o s i t y w i t h p r e s s u r e , b u t he d i d n o t p r e s e n t any mathematical r e l a t i o n s a p p l i c a b l e t o t h i s e f f e c t . I t was i n d i c a t e d t h a t B r a d b u r y , Mark and Icleins r h m i d t ( l o c . c i t . ) had p r e s e n t e d a mathematical treatment of t h e A S M E pressureviscosity data, but it is necessary t o consult the original doctoral t h e s i s for t h e v a l u e s o f t h e p a r a m e t e r s f o r t h e vari o u s o i l s . R e f e r e n c e was made t o t h e f a c t t h a t no m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t o f v i s c o s i t y can pred i c t t h e f r e e z i n g p o i n t o f t h e o i l under p r e s s u r e , and many c a s e s o f l u b r i c a n t f r e e z i n g were e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h e A S M E work. However, t h i s i s no Inore o f a problem t h a n w i t h many phenomena w h e r e a p h a s e

change o c c u r s . I f v i s c o s i t y i s considered t o be a prope r t y o f a f l u i d , t h e n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and pressure coefficients a r e inter-related. T h i s l e a d s t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f developi n g a p r e s s u r e - v i s c o s i t y c h a r t analogous t o t h e A S T M temperature-viscosity c h a r t , o r even a c h a r t c o v e r i n g a l l t h r e e v a r i a b l e s . I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n , i t was i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e A S T M c h a r t had been found s u i t a h l e i n some c a s e s f o r r e p r o d u c i n g t h e change o f v i s c o s i t y with temperature a t elevated pressures. I n response t o q u e s t i o n s regarding t h e e f f e c t s of v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e s under pressu r e i n machine e l e m e n t s , t h e a u t h o r s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s c u r r e n t l y under d i s c u s s i o n an A Shl E proposed r e s e a r c h program aimec e v a l u a t i n g t h e magnitude o f t h e s e e f f e c t s .
,

FIGURE I

CROSS SECTION OF VISCOMETER

TRANSMITTING FLUID INLET TIME OF FALL CONTACTS

VISCOMETER TUBE

FIGURE 2

VISCOSITY - PRESSURE -TEMPERATURE CHARACTERISTICS OF A PARAFFIN BASE MINERAL OIL


I
L

100,000

t c SOLIDIFIED
I .

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

PRESSURE

- 1000's OF P.S. I .

FIGURE 3

PRESSURE VISCOSITY CHARACTERISTICS AT 2 1 0 E FOR T H R E E P A R A F F I N B A S E M I N E R A L OILS


r

.
!00,000

>

I ,

20

40 60 80 100 PRESSURE- 1000'9 OF f?S.I.

120

10 4

..-

FIGURE 4

PRESSURE VlSCOS I T Y CHARACTERISTICS AT 210F. FOR A VARIETY OF LUBRICATING FLUIDS


I
I

, .

l00,000

a:
I

I -

20

40

60

80

100

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1 0 4

PRESSURE- 1000 O F P. S . I .

E F F E C T O F RATE O F SHEAR ON V I S C O S I T Y
\-.>I

By Alan Beerbower, Esso Research & Engineering Cb. essed i n poises. Anotlier i d e a l i z e d type o f m a t e r i a l shown i s t h e p l a s t i c s o l i d a c c o r d i n g t o Bingham. Mere t h e s l o p e o f t h e l i n e i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e constant hut t o s t a r t a t a distance r e m o t e from t!le o r i g i n on t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s a x i s . T h i s displacement i s known a s t h e y i e l d v a l u e . Relow t h e y i e l d v a l u e , these materials a r e considered t o a c t a s normal s o l i d s , m e r e l y r e s i s t i n g movement e l a s t i c a l l y u n t i l the c r i t i c a l value i s r e a c h e d . I n a c t u a l i t y , v c r y few m a t e r i a l s obey t h e J3ingham Law, and t h e d o t t e d curved l i n e marked p s e u d o - p l a s t i c g r e a s e i s more typical o f t h i s c l a s s of substances. F i r s t , some flow b e g i n s a t a s h e a r i n g s t r e s s appr e c i a b l y below t h e y i e l d v a l u e which would be p r e d i c t e d by e x t r a p o l a t i n g back from t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s a t h i g h r a t e s o f s h e a r on t h e Bingham t h e o r y . Flow t h e n i n c r e a s e s i n a non-linear r e l a t i o n t o s h e a r i n g s t r e s s . Eventually a l i n e a r condition i s reached which e s s e n t i a l l y i s t h e Bingham t y p e o f flow. The v i s c o s i t y o f t h e m a t e r i a l can t h e n b e spoken o f p r o p e r l y a s t h e r e c i p r o c a l o f t h i s l i n e ( o f t e n c a l l e d tile mobili t y ) . However, t h e term a p p a r e n t v i s c o s i t . y a s defined i n t h e preceding equation does not represent t h i s slope, but i s a variable i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e dashed l i n e g o i n g from t h e o r i g i n t o any p o i n t on t h e c u r v e . I t s t a r t s a t an i n i t i a l v a l u e o f i n f i n i t y i n a l l c a s e s , a n d i t s r a t e o f d e c r e a s e is a f u n c t i o n o f both y i e l d value and m o b i l i t y . T h e r e h a s been c o n s i d e r a b l e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e use o f apparent viscos.ity a s being a c o n f u s i n g t e r m . Ilowever, i f a p p a r e n t v i s c o s i t y i s d e f i n e d i n terms o f t h e r a t e o f s h e a r a t w h i c h i t was t a l t e n , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e e n t i r e Binrham diagram ( n e g l e c t i n g t h e pseudo-pl a s t i c r e g i o n ) from two s e t s o f r e a d i n g s . T h e m o b i l i t y i s assumed t o b e c o n s t a n t and i s a f n n c t i o n o f t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e Newtoni a n b a s e o i l used i n t h e p r o d u c t . The appa r e n t v i s c o s i t y approaches t h i s c o n s t a n t v a l u e a t v e r y h i g h r a t e s o f s h e a r due t o t h e d e c r e a s e d a n g l e between t h e l i n e s , and t h e r e f o r e i s f r e q u e n t l y s t a t e d t o equal t h e base o i l v i s c o s i t y a t i n f i n i t e r a t e o f shear.

In comparison w i t h t h e e f f e c t s o f tempe r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e on l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y the e f f e c t s o f s h e a r i n g s t r e s s e s a r e r e l a t ively ill-defined. A great deal of data have been and a r e b e i n g o b t a i n e d i n t h i s f i e l d , b u t have n o t y e t l e d even t o empiri c a l e q u a t i o n s t h a t can be proposed t o cover t h e phenomena i n g e n e r a l . Continuing study i s important, s i n c e t h e e f f e c t s of s h e a r a r e s i g n i f i c a n t and i n some c a s e s a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h o s e o f t h e more commonly studied v a r i a b l e s . H'hi.le n a t u r a l and synthe t i c o i l s above t h e i r pour p o i n t s u s u a l l y show no e f f e c t s , g r e a s e s and polyner-blende d o i l s g i v e a v a r i e t y o f phenomena. The following discussion covers t h e s e a s they apply too l u b r i c a t i o n problems. The s c i e n c e o f Rheology, o r t h e g e n e r a l s t u d y o f t h e flow o f m a t e r i a l s , i s a speci a l i z e d o n e , and i n o r d e r t o d i s c u s s t h e subject a t a l l , i t i s necessary t o define c e r t a i n s p e c i a l terms which a p p e a r c o n s t a n t l y . A p p a r e n t V i s c o s i t y i s d e f i n e d by I <-- . r e l a t i o n s h i p :
,

PR/SL Shearing S t r e s s T a = -4 i j l n ~ ~ R a t e o f S h e a r T h i s i s e s s e n t i a l l y based on Newton's defi n i t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y a s t h e r a t i o o f sheari n g s t r e s s t o r a t e o f s h e a r . However, i n t h i s c a s e , t h e d e f i n i t i o n has been extended t o cover non-Newtonian f l u i d s by u s i n g t h e v a r i a b l e term a p p a r e n t v i s c o s i t y i n p l a c e o f v i s c o s i t y (which i s c o n s t a n t f o r a Newto n i a n f l u i d ) . I n t h e e q u a t i o n shown, t h e o r d i n a r y e q u a t i o n f o r flow through a capi l l a r y i s broken i n t o two p a r t s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s and t h e r a t e o f s h e a r a t t h e wall o f t h e tube. \#en r e a r r anged, t h i s i s probably f a m i l i a r t o t h e reader a s t h e Hagen-Poiseuille equation 77 = T P R~ / 8 QL, e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1846. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e f a c t o r s i s illu s t r a t e d i n Fig. 1, which shows t h e behavi o r o f d i f f e r e n t types o f m a t e r i a l s p l o t t e d w i t h s h e a r i n g s t r e s s and r a t e o f s h e a r a s c o o r d i n a t e s . The t r u e f l u i d o i l e x h i b i t s Newtonian behavior i n t h a t a l i n e o f constant s l o p e i s formed, p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e . The r e c i p r o c a l o f t h e s l o p e i s t h e Newtonian v i s c o s i t y , normally expr-

FIG.

- O I L AND GREASE FLOW DIAGRAMS

TRUE F L U I D O I L (NEWTONIAN), PLASTIC SOLID ( BINGHAM)

Yield Value

SHEARING STRESS o b t a i n e d by e x t r a p o l a t i n g t h e v i s c o s i t y from t h e ASTM c h a r t , as t h e wax s t r u c t u r e i s broken dorm by flow. Another t y p e o f anomalous b e h a v i o r i s shown by polymer b l e n d s . A t a somewhat h i g h e r r a t e o f s h e a r , t h e s e begin t o show a p p r e c i a b l e d e v i a t i o n downward from t h e v i s c o s i t y a t low r a t e s o f s h e a r . T h i s phenomenon, which i s a form o f v i s c o e l a s t i c b e h a v i o r , i s known u s u a l l y a s t e m p o r a r y v i s c o s i t y l o s s and i s c a u s e d apparently by an o r i e n t a t i o n phenomenon i n t h e polymer m o l e c u l e s . T h i s p a r t o f t h e c u r v e w i l l Le d i s c u s s e d i n more d e t a i l l a t e r on. Another e f f e c t know a s permanent v i s c o s i t y l o s s i s shown on t h e lowest l i n e o f F i g . 2. Here an o i l c o n t a i n i n g a high m o l e c u l a r weight polymer which h a s been s u b j e c t e d f o r some t i m e t o a high r a t e o f shear i s allowed t o r e t u r n t o low r a t e s of s h e a r . I t is foilnd t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y permanently decreased, and t h a t t h e o i l 1s
- -

I n rheology, t h e Newtonian and Bingham types o f m a t e r i a l s a r e only s p e c i a l cases. Because Newtonian f l u i d s a r e common i n petroleum l a h o r a t o r i e s , we t e n d t o f o r g e t how very r a r e l y i t i s t h a t a m a t e r i a l exh i b i t s such simple behavior. Actually, t h e vast majority of materials i n industrial work a r e non-Newtonian. A l a r g e number o f o t h e r c l a s s e s o f non-Rewtonian m a t e r i a l s e x i s t including d i l a t a n t ones, which thicke! under shear, and t h e visco-elastic type, ; which includes those lubricating o i l s containing elastomer-type polymers. Fig. 2 illu s t r a t e s t h e behavior o f l u b r i c a t i n g o i l s under s e v e r a l c o n d i t i o n s o f non-Newtonian flow. O i l s below t h e pour p o i n t e s s e n t i a l l y have t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of greases i n t h a t t h e y show f i n i t e y i e l d v a l u e s . For t h i s r e a s o n , t h e example shown s t a r t s with an apparent v i s c o s i t y of i n f i n i t y a t zero r a t e o f s h e a r . T h i s a p p a r e n t v i s c o s i t y soon drops t o t h e normal value, which would be

FIG. 2

BEHAVIOR OF OILS UNDER SHEAR

now somewhat more s t a b l e a g a i n s t temporary v i s c o s i t y l o s s . T h i s phenomenon h a s been experimentally determined, by separation of t h e polymer, t o be due t,o d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e polymer t o a lower average m o l e c u l a r weight. Thus, even a l u b r i c a t i n g o i l can S ~ I O W t h r e e types o f anomalous r h e o l o g i c a l behavior i f it contains polymer. In t h e rheology o f g r e a s e s (which i n c l udes o i l s below t h e i r pour p o i n t ) a n o t h e r phenomenon known a s t l i i x o t r o p y a p p e a r s . Thixotropy can be defined a s a l o s s o f con- . s i s t e n c y upon a g i t a t i o n , which may be reve r s i b l e upon aging. I t i s a s s o c i a t e d with l o s s of y i e l d value r a t h e r than l o s s of m o b i l i t y , and a p p e a r s when t h e g r e a s e i s worked. F i g . 3 i l l u s t r a t e s two t y p i c a l c y c l e s o f a g r e a s e u n d e r s h e a r . On t h e f i r s t c y c l e , no flow occurs u n t i l a c e r t in y i e l d value i s reached. Flow then takes ae 'c a t an increasing r a t e of shear a s t h e

s t r e s s i s i n c r e a s e d . On reducing t h e r a t e o f s h e a r , i t i s found t h a t t h e s h e a r i n g s t r e s s and apparent v i s c o s i t y a r e substanti a l l y l e s s f o r any given r a t e of shear than on t h e up c y c l e . A s a r e s u l t , t h e y i e l d value obtained a f t e r t h e t e s t i s substanti a l l y lower t h a n t h a t a t t h e b e g i n n i n g . 'Ihis i s thixotropy i n i t s simplest form. A c o m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t some m a t e r i a l s recover y i e l d .value on standing t o a greate r o r l e s s e x t e n t . I n t h e example s h o r n , recovery during t h e time l a p s e (which might b e as l i t t l e a s an hour) amounts t o about 50% o f t h e v a l u e l o s t . The s e c o n d c y c l e then s t a r t s from a lower y i e l d v a l u e than t h e f i r s t and on r e t u r n i n g down a new low i n y i e l d value i s reached. T h i s l o s s i n turn would be p a r t i a l l y recoverable, and s o cycling would produce a gradual decrease i n y i e l d value. T h i s may go t o z e r o , o r more commonly may s t a b i l i z e a t some f i n i t e

FIG. 3 - THIXOTROPY OF GREASES

SECOND CYCLE
I

F I R S T CYCLE

TIME LAPSE

SHEARING S E S m S
blends of t h r e e comnercially used polymers,

value. Thixotropy is a phenomenon which i s v e r y *?asy t o o b s e r v e b u t n o t so e a s y t o express i n r a t i o n a l mathematical terms. I n g e n e r a l , t h e r e h a v e b e e n no g e n e r a l l y accepted attempts t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h i s p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t y i n terms o f e m p i r i c a l equations. Each group of substances appears t o be a law unto i t s e l f , though some corre l a t i o n s on an energy i n p u t per u n i t volume b a s i s appear promising. The s p e c i a l c a s e o f o i l s blended with polymers i s of considerable i n t e r e s t a t the present time because of t h e high v i s c o s i t y index of these products and t h e i r very wide use f o r motor o i l s , hydraulic f l u i d s and so f o r t h . Shear e f f e c t s i n s o l u t i o n s o f high polymers have been s t u d i e d widely and some work has been done on t h e a c t u a l V.I. i m p rover polymers i n comnercial use i n t y p i c a l mineral o i l s . Correlations based on l i m i t e d d a t a have been proposed. Horowitz (Ref. 1) h a s given a complete method f o r r e d u c i n e d a t a on t h e s e o i l s t o s t a n d a r d conditions. F i g . 4 p r e s e n t s some o f h i s d a t a on o i l

A , B and C. I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h e terms i n which t h e f i g u r e i s p l o t t e d . The o r d i n a t e i s t h e % Temporary V i s c o s i t y Loss


o r r a t i o o f v i s c o s i t y change o f t h e blend under t e s t c o n d i t i o n s t o t h e v i s c o s i t y c o n t r i b u t e d by t h e polymer a t low s h e a r r a t e s . The s h e a r i n g s t r e s s d i v i d e d by t h e concentration i s used a s t h e a b s c i s s a , thus removing a n o t h e r v a r i a b l e . T h i s procedure i s s i m i l a r t o t h e reduced v a r i a b l e procedu r e u s e d by F e r r y i n h i s s t u d i e s on t h e dynamic v i s c o s i t i e s and r i g i d i t i e s o f polymer s o l u t i o n s . Although most r h e o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e based on t h e u s e o f t h e r a t e o f s h e a r a s a parameter, i t was found experimentally t h a t t h i s d i d not serve t o c o r r e l a t e t h e d a t a a t d i f f e r e n t temperatures on t h e t h r e e blends. However, t h e use of shearing s t r e s s a s a parameter p e r m i t t e d t h e r e d u c t i o n of t h e nine curves obtained t o t h e t h r e e which a r e showr~. Tilus, t h e e f f e c t of temperature was e l i m i n a t e d . S u p e r f i c i a l l y , t h e i n t e r

FIG. 4 - P E R C E N T TEMPORARY V I S C O S I T Y L O S S FOR D I F F E R E N T V . I . I M P R O V E R S

SHEAR STRESS

I \ T% !.

POLYMER I N BLEND

( DYNES/CM~/% ACTIVE IKGREDI ENT)


'- %ptof t h e t h r e e l i n e s on t h e s p e c i f i c ,.,scosity a x i s appear t o have the character o f the ~ i e l d value, This however i s merely due to the use of a logarithmic s c a l e , and i n r e a l i t y t h e tendency t o l o s e v i s c o s i t y begins t o appear even a t q u i t e low r a t e s of shear, so t h a t t h e sharp i n t e r c e p t does not have any t r u e s i g n i f i c a n c e . I n b r i e f , a l l temperature and r a t e o f s h e a r e f f e c t s can be correlated by t h e technique using empiri c a l e q u a t i o n s t o reduce t h e e f f e c t s o f polymer t o a p r e d i c t a b l e system. The work was extended t o actual v e r i f i c a t i o n i n t e s t engines on cold-starting so t h a t the method i s validated by p r a c t i c a l experiment. I n g e n e r a l , t h e e f f e c t s o f s h e a r i n g on l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y a r e s o v a r i e d and so complicated t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e hope t h a t a general c o r r e l a t i o n will be developed and g e n e r a l l y accepted i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e f o r a l l materials. This unfortunate s i t u a t i o n does not a f course apply t o a l l s p e c i f i c types o f composition but t o t h e f i e l d o f l u b r i c a n t s i n general. I t may be t h a t when adequate equations a r e obtained which w i l l r e d i c t t h e v i s c o s i t y o f o i l s under any

c o n d i t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e , they can be modified t o accomodate correcti o n s f o r r a t e o f shear. (3-1h e o t h e r hand, t t h e i n c l u s i o n o f even t h e simplest greases i n such a system appears t o be v a s t l y more difficult. An i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e type o f problem which is not y e t solved, o r f o r t h a t matter even v e r y t h o r o u g h l y c o n s i d e r e d , i s t h e e f f e c t of shear r a t e i n d i f f e r e n t directi o n s . Fig. 5 i l l u s t r a t e s a s l e e v e b e a r i n g running a t a high r a t e o f s h e a r i n t h e c i r c ~ u n f e r e n t i a ld i r e c t i o n . It a1 so contains a component o f low s h e a r r a t e due t o t h e f e e d o f l u b r i c a n t from t h e c e n t e r t o t h e ends. The i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e s e two s h e a r r a t e s upon t h e v i s c o s i t y i s a complicated problem which, t o t h e b e s t of our knowledge h a s n o t y e t been a t t e m p t e d f o r a n y t h i n g l e s s simple than a Newtonian f l u i d . A gene r a l mathematical s o l u t i o n o f t h i s simple everyday problem f o r non-Newtonian f l u i d s is a major problem f o r t h e future.
REFERENCE 1 . It. H. H o r o w i t z , I n d . E n g . C h e m . , 5 0 , 1089 ( 1 9 5 8 ) .

e;

FIG. 5

SHEAR IN A SLEEVE BEARING

INLET

HIGH SHEAR RATE

LUBRICANT

LOW SHEAR RATE

SUMMARIZED DISCUSSION
With regard t o Fig. 4, t h e l i n e s f o r t h e t h r e e polymer b l e n d s a r e extended s o c l o s e t o t h e apparent i n t e r c e p t t h a t they could r e a d i l y b e i n t e r p r e t e d t o mean t h a t an i n t e r c e p t e x i s t s i n r e a l i t y . S e v e r a l perso n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t p r e c i s e v i s c o s i t y rneasu r e m e n t s showed temporary v i s c o s i t y l o s s even a t low v a l u e s of s h e a r s t r e s s , s o t h a t t h e i n t e r c e p t must be a t minus i n f i n i t y on t h e logarithmic scale. The a u t h o r s t a t e s t h a t o i l s below t h e pour p o i n t e s s e n t i a l l y have t h e c h a r a c t e r i n i , i c s o f g r e a s e s i n t h a t they show f i n i t e y i e l d v a l u e s . I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e , many g r e a s e s do n o t have w e l l - d e f i n e d y i e l d v a l u e s , b u t r a t h e r behave i n t h e pseudop l a s t i c manner shown i n F i g . 1. S e c o n d l y , f o r a considerable range o f temperature below t h e pour p o i n t o f some o i l s , t h e beha v i o r can b e c l a s s e d a s pseudo-plastic and n o t t h a t o f a p l a s t i c s o l i d . With a waxf r e e o i l below i t s pour p o i n t , t h e behavior might even b e Newtonian i n c h a r a c t e r . I t was a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t many o i l s s t a r t t o e x h i b i t nonaewtonian behavior a t temperatu r e s a s high a s 30F above t h e pour p o i n t . 'There was some d i s c u s s i o n on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f c h a r a c t e r i z i n g o i l s a s Newtoni o r non-Newtonian, s i n c e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f a n y g i v e n o i l may c h a n g e d e p e n d e n t upon c o n d i t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e s s u r e , and r a t e o f s h e a r . Examples a r e g i v e n i n t h e paper where a Newtonian o i l i n a given regime c o u l d e x h i b i t n o n d e w t o n i a n behavior a s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e was l o w e r e d , a n d i t i s known t h a t p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e can c a u s e simi l a r t r a n s i t i o n s i n b e h a v i o r . It seems probable a l s o t h a t , a t a given temperature and p r e s s u r e , an o i l can be Newtonian o v e r wide r a n g e s o f r a t e o f s h e a r , b u t s t i l l d e p a r t from Newtonian c h a r a c t e r a t v e r y high r a t e s of shear. The c o r r e l a t i o n s e x h i b i t e d i n F i g . 4 g i v e promise o f p e r m i t t i n g some g e n e r a l i z e d m a t h e m a t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f polymer-blended o i l s , i n s o f a r a s shear e f f e c t s a r e concerne d . More e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e would b e d e s i r a b l e on a wider range of V.I. improve r s , w i t h v a r i a t i o n both i n molecular t y p e and i n molecular weight. I f composition can b e a d e q u a t e l y d e f i n e d , and i f t h e experime n t a l data a r e reproducible, it i s logical t o expect t h a t g e n e r a l i z e d c o r r e l a t i o n s 1 be developed.

SESSION CHAIRMAN
Vice-Chairman,

- P.C.W a r n e r ,

Wes tinghouse Electric Corp.

Builders & Operators Technical Committee

I- . SENSITIVITY TO VISCOSITY &~~DER OPERATING CONDITIONS


/

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS
Paul

C. W a r n e r , W e s t i n g h o u s e E l e c t r i c C o r p .

THE SENSITIVITY OF EQUIPMENT TO VARIATION IN LUBRICANT VISCOSITY

R. C.

Garretson and

J.

Boyd, Westinghouse Electric Corp.

SENSITIVITY OF MACHINES TO LUBRICANT VISCOSITY


Charles A. Bailey, National Tube Division,

U. S. S t e e l

Corporation

LUBRICATION OF ROLL NECK BEARINGS AND GEAR DRIVES IN CONTINUOUS ROLLING MILLS

J. H.

H i t c h c o c k , M o r g a n C o n s t r u c t i o n Co.

EFFECT OF VISCOSITY ON HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

K. G.

H e n r i k s o n , S o c o n y M o b i l O i l Co.

By Paul

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS C. Warner, Westinghouse Electric Corp.

This section deals with the role of viscosi t y i n l u b r i c a t i o n from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f the p e r s o n working in the field o f d e s i g n , c o n s t ruction, or operation o f equipment employing lubricated parts. One might infer from the previous section that the properties o f real lubricants are imperfectly known and thus any theory o f l u b r i c a t i o n must n e c e s s a r i l y h a v e u n k n o w n areas of appreciahle size. It is also true that even with the assumption o f an ideal lubricant, many important phases o f lubrication have not as yet been satisfactorily investigated. From this standpoint at least, lubrication is an art rather than a s c i e n c e , and thus o u r working k n o w ledge of the subject is dependent in some degree o n experience. T h e papers i n this s e c t i o n a r e written from the standpoint o f experience, and give us insight on the practical range of sensi t i v i t y o f m a c h i n e s a n d m a c h i n e e l e m e n t s to lubricant viscosity.

F V E SENSITIVITY OF EQUIPMENT TO VARIATION IN LUBRICANT VISCOSITY By H.C.Garretson and J.Boyd, Westingllouse E l e c t r i c Corp. (>;
A s i s t r u e i n most l a r g e companies, we a t ~ ' e s t i n g h o u s e a r e v i t a l l y concerned w i t h t h e problem of s p e c i f y i n g t h e r i g h t l u b r i c a n t f o r each a p p l i c a t i o n and w i t h t h e asso c i a t e d problem o f k e e p i n g t h e number o f l u b r i c a n t p a d e s t o a minimum. Since v i s c o s i t y i s probably a lubrica n t ' s [nost i m p o r t a n t p r o p e r t y and s i n c e t h i s p r o p e r t y i s one which c a n b e r e a d i l y d e f i n e d and ~ n e a s u r e d , we a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n the i n f l u e n c e of v i s c o s i t y on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f e q u i p m e n t . It i s , of c o u r s e , a r e l a t i v e l y simple m a t t e r t o ::nlculate t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a t y p i c a l machine element, such a s a b e a r i n g , i f an o i l o f a given v i s c o s i t y i s s e l e c t e d . I t i s e q u a l l y s i m p l e t o c a l c u l a t e t h e performance w i t h o i l s o f v a r i o u s v i s c o s i t i e s . The r e a l problem i s t o d e c i d e what range o f v i s c o s i t y i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r a d e s i r e d performance i n a g i v e n a p p l i c a t i o n . Ikis i n u n ediately introduces t h e s u b j e c t of viscosi t y g r a d e s and a system f o r t h e i r c l a s s :?ation. --in t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , w w i l l show by c a l e
c u l a t i o n t h e manner i n which v a r i a t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y a f f e c t s performance. T h i s w i l l be done f o r t h e c a s e o f a s i m p l e b e a r i n g , b u t i t w i l l b e assumed t h a t t h e e f f e c t on o t h e r machine e l e m e n t s wi 11 be q u a l i t a t i v e l y t h e same. W w i l l i n t e r p r e t t h e s e p e r f o r m a n c e e changes i n terms o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l Viscosi t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( I VC) , proposed a t t h e A S T M Symposium on V i s c o s i t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n h e l d i n A t l a n t i c C i t y , J u n e 1957. W e w i l l a l s o c o n s i d e r t h e I VC s y s t e m on t h e b a s i s of t h e allowable v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n s deterrrlined from a s u r v e y o f t h e recommenda t i o n s o f v a r i o u s machine b u i l d e r s .

EFFECT OF CHANGING VISCOSITY


In order t o evaluate the effect of v i s c o s i t y on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a machine e l e m e n t , s u c h a s a b e a r i n g , we d e t e r m i n e how i t s o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e a f f e c t e d by c h a n g i n g t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t s u p p l i e d t o i t . To do t h i s , cons i d e r t h e b e a r i n g shown d i a g r a m m a t i c a l l y i n F i g u r e 1. I f we want t o c a r r y a g i v e n

FIG.

Oil In

Thickness

FIG. 2

I
11

I
1 2

I
1 3

I
14 1 5

I
1 6 1 7

I
I8

I
19 20 21

22 2 3 2 4 25 26

27 28 2 9

I V C Grade

FIG. 3

I V C Grade

Soybolt Seconds
I0

u
20

40

60

I I 8 0 100

I 200

400

600

1000

Centistokes O i l Viscosity a t 1 0 0 F

l o r ' mid wish t o o p e r a t e a t a given speed, , C k o b l e m w i l l be t o d e t e r n i n e how t h e l e a r i n g w i l l perform when s u p p l i e d w i t h a lubricant of some assumed v i s c o s i t y and how :his performance w i l l be a l t e r e d i f a lubr i c a n t of a d i f f e r e n t v i s c o s i t y i s s u b s t i Luted. I n j u d g i n g t h e p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e ,erformance f a c t o r s we a r e most a p t t o be :oncerned with a r e t h e minimum f i l m t h i c k l e s s , t h e power l o s s , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t i s e (where t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e = o u t l e t temp. i n l e t temp.) and t h e mean f i l m temperature. A l l of t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s can be r e a d i l y evaluated once t h e bearing load, speed, and s i z e a r e determined and t h e l u b r i c a n t and t h e i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e s e l e c t e d . As an example, c o n s i d e r a 10 i n . d i a m e t e r x 10 i n . long turbine bearing with a diametral c l e a r a n c e of 0.020 i n . , o p e r a t i n g a t 3600 rpm with a load of 200 p s i . Let us p i c k t h e i n l e t temperature t o be 100F and determine t h e minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s , t h e power l o s s , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e , and t h e mean f i l m temperature, when s u p p l i e d with o i l s having v i s c o s i t y g r a d e s corresponding t o I VC 20, 21, 22, e t c . 3 , 4, and 5 w i l l show how 1 gures t i 2 i e s q u a n t 1 vary with t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e o i l supplied. It w i l l be noted t h a t each of t h e q u a n t i t i e s i n c r e a s e s w i t h v i s c o s i t y and w h i l e t h e change depends somewhat upon t h e temperature a t which t h e comparison i s made, t h e percentage i n c r e a s e i s l s u a l l y considerably less than t h e percentage i n c r e a s e i n v i s c o s i t y . The dependence of t h e performance f a c t l r s upon v i s c o s i t y i s by no means a new idea. Everyone knows t h a t v i s c o s i t y i n f l ~ e n c e sperformance. The i m p o r t a n t problkm is f a r a s we a r e concerned i s t h e i n f l u e n : e o f v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n s upon m a c h i n e lerformance a s r e l a t e d t o t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t ~f a r a t i o n a l , s t a n d a r d v i s c o s i t y c l A s s i fc a t i o n system t o r e p l a c e t h e many a r b i t ary and u n r e l a t e d systems which a r e i n u s e oday. I f t h i s symposium h e l p s t o e v e n t a l l y b r i n g about such a s y s t e m , we w i l l e e l t h a t i t has been highly s u c c e s s f u l .

tljS

of any system which proposes t o s e t up visc o s i t y s t e p s o r grades. It is obviously d e s i r a b l e t o a r r a n g e t h e s t e p s w i t h a d e f i n i t e and r a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p t o one another. T h i s i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e I VC system i n which t h e nominal v i s c o s i t y o f each g r a d e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25% higher than t h e preceding grade. T h i s i s a l s o equivalent t o the v i s c o s i t y doubling e v e r y t h i r d s t e p . The i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n , i s , what is t h e e f f e c t on t h e performance f a c t o r s o f t h e v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n i n each g r a d e . I n o t h e r words, what i s t h e l a r g e s t * d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e performance f a c t o r s one might expect i n using an o i l from t h e lower and frorr~t h e upper l i m i t of a given grade. It w i l l be seen from Fig. 2 t h a t an o i l from t h e lower end of I V C 20, f o r example, w i l l g i v e a minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s o f 6 . 4 m i l s and one from t h e upper end w i l l g i v e EI minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s o f 6 . 7 m i l s . Thus, t h e maximum change i n l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y possible within t h e grade r e s u l t s i n a change of o n l y about 5% i n t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a n g e f o r t h e power l o s s i s a b o u t 16% and a b o u t 9% f o r t h e temperature r i s e .
EFFECT OF CHANGING INLET TEMPERATURE

VISCOSITY VARIATION AND THE IVC CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

have shown above how t h e performance

/.

k s vary with v i s c o s i t y . Tne same cur-

can be used t o h e l p decide t h e e f f i c a c y

To i l l i ~ s t r a t et h e s i z e of an I VC g r a d e i n a n o t h e r way, we can look a t t h e m a t t e r from t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e change which would be n e c e s s a r y t o produce t h e same change i n v i s c o s i t y a s t h a t enco u n t e r e d i n g o i n g from t h e low end t o t h e h i g h end o f a g i v e n g r a d e . T h i s we can do by making a c a l c u l a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h e one above b u t k e e p i n g t h e l u b r i c a n t t h e same and varying t h e i n l e t temperature. Fig. 6 shows how t h e minimum f i l m thickness i s a f f e c t e d i f the i n l e t temperature i s v a r i e d from 80F t o 120F. S i m i l a r curv e s can, o f c o u r s e , be drawn f o r t h e o t h e r performance f a c t o r s . I t w i l l b e n o t e d from Fig. 6 t h a t o n e w i l l g e t t h e same minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s with o v i s c o s i t y corresponding t o t h e lower l i m i t o f s a y , I V C 20 g r a d e , a t 100F a s with a v i s c o s i t y corresponding t o t h e upper l i m i t of t h e I V C 20 g r a d e a t 106F. The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e temperatures o f 6 O can be thought of a s t h e temperature eguivalettt of t h e d i f f e r e n c e o r spread i n vis-

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t o g e t an i d e a of t h e e f f e c t o f t h e v i s c o s i t y spread within a given v i s c o s i t y grade, we can say t h a t t h e change would b e t h e same a s t h a t of a l t e r i n g t h e i n l e t temp e r a t u r e by t h e amount o f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e equivalent. The temperature e q u i v a l e n t vari e s w i t h t h e I V C grade f o r which t h e compa r i s o n i s made, going from 10F f o r t h e low numbered g r a d e s t o 5'F f o r t h e h i g h numbered grades. The above a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t , rega r d l e s s of what v i s c o s i t y i s d e s i r e d f o r a given a p p l i c a t i o n , one can choose an I V C grade which w i 1 f i t h i s requirements with1 o u t producing a change of o p e r a t i n g condi t i o n s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e change e q u i v a l e n t t o a l t e r i n g t h e i n l e t temperature 10F. As w e a r e g r e a t l y i n t e r e s t e d i n keeping t h e number o f v i s c o s i t y grades t o a minimum i n t h e adoption of a s t a n d a r d r a t i o n a l system of v i s c o s i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o ~ ~ , f e e l we t h a t t h e I V C system i s e n t i r e l y a d e q u a t e f o r our g e n e r a l requirements but we r e a l i z e
'

- t y w i t h i n a g i v e n g r a d e . Thus, i f we

t h a t t h e r e may be a few c a s e s which w i l l require special consideration.


SURVEY O F B U I L D E R S RECOMMENDATIONS

Having concluded t h a t a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t i e s on t h e I V C system was ade q u a t e from a design s t a n d p o i n t , we decided t o d e t e r m i n e how w e l l i t a g r e e d w i t h t h e l u b r i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s s e t down by t h e 'manufacturers o f t h e v a r i o u s machine t o o l s which we u s e i n o u r p l a n t s . To do t h i s , we wrote t o a number of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e manufacturers and asked them t o a d v i s e u s i f t h e y f e l t t h a t a f20% change i n v i s c o s i t y from t h e nominal v a l u e which they s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e i r equipment would be an a c c e p t a b l e t o l e r a n c e . W c a r e f u l l y e x p e l a i n e d i n our l e t t e r t h a t o u r q u e s t i o n had no reference t o q u a l i t y , but only t o t h e e a c c e p t a b i l i t y l i m i t s on v i s c o s i t y . W furt h e r s t a t e d t h a t our present specifications f o r v a r i o u s 150 second o i l s now l i r n i t u s t o p r o d u c t s having a v i s c o s i t y i n Saybolt s e o

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MAXIMUM PERCENTAGE VARIATION (PLUS OR MINUS) MANUFACTURER A G E ERAL WAYS WORMS GEARS HYDRAULICS SPINDLES

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MAXIMUM PERCEKTAGE VARIATION I N VISCOSITY APPROVEDBYMACHINETOOLMANUFACTURERS FOR VARIOUS MACHINE ELEMENTS FIGURE 7

PERCENTAGE VARIATIONS IN VISCOSITY

PERCENTAGE O F MANUFACTURERS APPROVING VISCOSITY VARIATIONS SHOWN I N FIRST COLUMN GENERAL WAYS WORMS GEARS HYDRAULICS SPlmES

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s a t 100F o f 140 t o 175, and asked i f ,

i s recommendations. For example, h l a n n f a c t u r e r W w a n t s t o l i m i t the range of v i s c o s i t i e s f o r o i l s used i n h i s equipment t o f10 S a y b o l t seconds f o r o i l s h a v i n g v i s c o s i t i e s o f 60 t o 200 seconds, and f 1 5 seconds f o r o i l s havi n g v i s c o s i t i e s o f 200 t o 500 s e c o n d s . I t i s g e n e r a l l y agreed t h a t a l a r g e r v a r i a t i o n is permissible i n the higher viscosity o i l s a n d , on t h e f a c e o f i t , t h a t i s e x a c t l y what h a s been done. However, a simple calculation w i l l disclose that actually t h i s manufacturer w i l l t o l e r a t e a f 1 7 p e r c e n t d e v i a t i o n i n a 60 second s p i n d l e o i l , b u t o n l y a f5 p e r c e n t d e v i a t i o n i n a 2 0 0 second machine o i l . On t h e h e a v i e r o i l s , 200 t o 500 S S U , t h i s same manufacturer p l a c e s l i m i t s of f 7 . 5 p e r c e n t on t h e 2 0 0 s e c o n d o i l , but only f 3 p e r c e n t on t h e 500 second o i l . Comptre t h i s with t h e re commendations of Manufacturer I who w i l l approve t 2 0 perc e n t f o r t h e o i l s used i n h i s equipment, which i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t manufactured by W. Manufacturer I i n c i d e n t a l l y i s q u i t e f u s s y about t h e l u b r i c a n t s h e s p e c i f i e s . . , Glancing down t h e column headed General . w i l l note t h a t Manufacturer D l i m i t s g e n e r a l p u r p o s e machine o i l s u s e d i n

c?

h e i r o p i n i o n , t h e i r e q u i p m e n t would operate s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i f the v i s c o s i t y of t h e o i l were a s low a s 120 o r a s h i g h a s 180 SSU. I f they f e l t t h a t a f20% d e v i a t i o n from t h e nominal was t o o h i g h , t h e y were asked t o s t a t e what p e r c e n t d e v i a t i o n would be acceptable. S i m i l a r q u e s t i o n s were asked about a nominal 1700 second o i l . The a n s w e r s t o t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e a r e t a b u l a t e d i n Fig. 7 . I t i s seen t h a t i n t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of c a s e s t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s w i l l accept percent v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n s t h a t a r e g r e a t e r than t h e f12.5% v a r i a t i o n t h a t e x i s t s w i t h i n each p a d e o f t h e p r o p osed I V C c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system. ' K e s e r e s u l t s , based on a c t u a l p r a c t i c e i n the f i e l d , i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of v i s c o s i t y g r a d e s having a f12.5% v a r i a t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y should n o t be expect e d t o cause s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n t h e performance 3 f machine e l e m e n t s . F u r t h e r study of t h e d a t a w i l l show t h a t i n most i n s t a n c e s where a manufacturer recommended a s i g n i f i c a n t l y s m a l l e r v a r i a t i o n i n viscosity, inconsistencies are evident

h i s machines t o f5 p e r c e n t . However, Manuf-. a c t u r e r s A, R, and T, who produce t h e same t y p e o f machine a s Manufacturer D, a l l a p p r o v e S O p e r c e n t v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n . On t h i s basis, i t i s f e l t quite certainly that Manufacturer D could a c t u a l l y accept a g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y without e x p e r i e n c i n g any performance d i f f i c u l t y . Manufacturer P s t a t e s t h a t t h e a c t u a l v i s c o s i t y o f t h e o i l a s i t e n t e r s t h e pump i n l e t i s t h e c r i t i c a l f a c t o r . He then goes on t o s t a t e t h a t t h e maximum a l l o w a b l e visc o s i t y range, based upon c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e pump i n l e t , i s 6 5 t o 4000 S S U , which i s c e r t a i n l y more t h a n 320 p e r c e n t . ?his same manufacturer a d v i s e s t h a t a l i g h t h y d r a u l i c o i l b e u s e d when t h e ambient t e m p e r a t u r e f a l l s b e t w e n 2 5 and 13SF. I f t h e ambient temperature is only s l i g h t l y higher, say from 40 t o 160F, h e recommends t h e u s e of a medium h y d r a u l i c o i l . I f we assume t h a t t h i s d e n o t e s a 300 S S U o i l , t h e n t h e s e recomnenda t i o n s can be i n t e r p r e t e d t o imply t h a t i n any p l a n t where t h e ambient tempera t u r e s r a n g e from 40 t o 13s0F, e i t h e r o i l may be u s e d . I f we a l l o w a t o l e r a n c e o f o n l y 10% on e a c h o f t h e s e two o i l s , t h e n t h e permissible range of v i s c o s i t i e s is from 135 t o 330 S S U, o r a d e v i a t i o n o f 5 4 0 p e r c e n t from t h e mean. The r e s u l t s shown i n F i g . 7 a r e sunmari z e d f o r e a s i e r r e f e r e n c e i n F i g . 8 which shows t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e 2 6 manufa c t u r e r s who r e p l i e d t o o u r q u e s t i o n n a i r e h a v e approved d e v i a t i o n s i n v i s c o s i t y o f 1 2 . 5 p e r c e n t , o r more, from t h e mean. Many have approved a range of S O p e r c e n t a s was shown i n t h e p r e v i o u s F i g u r e . Most o f t h e r e m a i n i n g m a n u f a c t u r e r s approved f 1 0 p e r c e n t and i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y would accept t h e s l i g h t l y h i g h e r v a r i a t i o n of 1 2 . 5 perc e n t . The few who s p e c i f i e d v a r i a t i o n s o f l e s s t h a n f10 p e r c e n t c o u l d , i n most i n s t a n c e s , b e shown t o be i n c o n s i s t e n t .
C A S E HISTORIES

T h e s e comments i n d i c a t e t h a t p e r h a p s equipment is n o t q u i t e a s s e n s i t i v e t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n v i s c o s i t y a s some p e o p l e would have u s b e l i e v e . I n s u p p o r t o f t h i s c o n t e n t i o n , s e v e r a l case h i s t o r i e s m i g h t be cited. About 10 y e a r s ago, w h i l e o n e o f t h e

a u t h o r s was employed by a n o t h e r f i r m , h e had a l u b r i c a t i o n survey made by one of t h e major o i l companies. During t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s s u r v e y , t h e q u e s t i o n was a s k e d whether t h e number o f h y d r a u l i c o i l s requ i r e d could be reduced. When t h e survey was completed, and i t was determined t h a t o n l y a very small percentage o f t h e t o t a l number o f h y d r a r ~ l i c systems i n t h e p l a n t r e q u i r e d a 300 second o i l , i t was decided t h a t a 150 second o i l f o r a l l h y d r a u l i c systems aould b e s t a n d a r d i z e d upon. T h i s was done w i t h t h e understanding t h a t i n a few c a s e s somewhat h i g h e r maintenance c o s t s i n i g l ~ tr e s u l t from using an o i l l i g h t e r than t h a t recommended by t h e manufacturer. S i n c e t h i s pract i c e removed any doubt a s t o what was i n t h e h y d r a u l i c system, and s i m p l i f i e d s t o r a g e and h a n d l i n g problems, i t was f e l t t o b e f u l l y j u s t i f i e d . T h i s a u t h o r was associ a t e d with t h e p l a n t f o r t h e next s i x y e a r s and t o t h e b e s t o f h i s knowledge, t h e possi b l e i n c r e a s e i n maintenance c o s t s f a i l e d t o m a t e r i a l i z e and p e r f o r m a n c e was f u l l y satisfactory. ?he second c a s e h i s t o r y , i f we may c a l l i t t h a t , i n v o l v e s t h e recommendation o f a s u p p l i e r of speed r e d u c e r s , who r e p l i e d t o o u r q u e s t i o n n a i r e by s t a t i n g t h a t a maxi~rium d e v i a t i o n i n v i s c o s i t y o f o n l y f10 p e r c e n t was p e r m i s s i b l e . Most o f u s r e a l i z e , I am

s u r e , t h a t a g r e a t many g e a r r e d u c e r s 0-9 l u b r i c a t e d with t h e most r e a d i l y a v a i l q . l u b r i c a n t s , and t h a t t h e s e may d i f f e r 'by s e v e r a l S A E g r a d e s . I n f a c t , even g r e a s e s have been used i n some c a s e s . And y e t , many o f t h e s e u n i t s have o p e r a t e d f o r years. S t i l l a n o t h e r example c a n b e c i t e d of small g e a r r e d u c e r s being operated a t temp e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g from -60' t o +180F. The o i l s recommended f o r t h i s s e r v i c e have a low v i s c o s i t y of around 70 S a y b o l t seconds, and a very high VI o f about 200. 'Ihese o i l s a r e f a r more t h a n 2 0 p e r c e n t l i g h t e r i n v i s c o s i t y t h a n t h e o i l s recommended f o r t h i s t y p e o f u n i t when used u n d e r ambient temperature c o n d i t i o n s of 40' t o 100F.
CONCLUSIONS

To c o n c l u d e , t h e a u t h o r s b e l i e v e t h a t from t h e d e s i g n and p r a c t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which h a v e b e e n d i s c u s s e d , t h e 10s t e p I V C c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m would amply s a t i s f y t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f o u r machine t o o l b u i l d e r s , and would b e acce p t a b l e i n equipment m a n u f a c t u r e d i n o u r own p l a n t s . W a r e convinced t h a t i t a - 1 e b e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e v a l u e t o u s i n o u r L .r i c a t i o n program and i n o u r d e a l i n g s w i t h s u p p l i e r s , customers, d e s i g n e r s , e n g i n e e r s and maintenance p e r s o n n e l .

(- ;i

SENSITIVITY OF MACHINES TO LUBRICANT VISCOSITY


By Charles A. Bailey, National Tube Division, U.S. S t e e l Corporation The u n i t of measure i s time i n seconds requ i r e d f o r 60 m l of all o i l t o flow through a s t a n d a r d o r i f i c e under a s t a n d a r d f a l l i n g head and a t a given temperature. 100F and 210F a r e common temperatures f o r r e p o r t i n g v i s c o s i t y . S a y b o l t Fur01 V i s c o s i t y is obtained with t h e same instrument with a large r o r i f i c e producing r e s u l t s approximately one-tenth t h o s e o f t h e U n i v e r s a l o r i f i c e . readings. I t c a n now be o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e two methods vary i n i n s t r u m e n t a l accuracy and t h a t b o t h methods a r e f a r more a c c u r a t e t h a n c a n b e d e t e c t e d by machines. Theref o r e , machines a r e only s e n s i t i v e t o visc o s i t y r a n g e s and n o t t o s i n g l e u n i t s o f measurement of any of t h e known methods. Spindle O i l : It i s believed t h a t t h e category of high speed s p i n d l e o i l s requiri n g low v i s c o s i t i e s l e a d s i n machine sensi t i v i t y . Nominal v i s c o s i t i e s of 32, 40, 52 and 60 S S U a t 100F with ranges of 10% a r e r e q u i r e d because temperature e f f e c t s i n t h e machine p a r t s can e a s i l y be observed. Engine O i l : - Engine o i l i s one o f t h e l e a s t s e n s i t i v e c a t e g o r i e s and can u s e nomi n a l v i s c o s i t i e s o f 200, 300, 500 and 1200 S S U a t 100F i n which t h e range t o l e r a n c e s may be a s l i b e r a l a s e5%. Turbine Oi 1: hbst t u r b i n e o i l r e q u i r e nlents a r e met w i t h t h r e e nominal v i s c o s i t i e s o f 150, 300 and 500 S S U a t 100F with t o l e r a n c e s equal t o t h e m a n ~ l f a c t u r i n ~ v i s c o s i t y range. Circulatirlg Oi 2: 'fie c a t e g o r y of c i r c u l a t i n g o i l s e x t e n d s frorn 700 seconds t o 3000 seconds and i s very c o n t r o v e r s i a l i n v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t i o n . However, we f i n d t h a t n o m i n a l v i s c o s i t i e s o f 700, 900, 1 1 0 0 , 1400, 1800, 2300, and 2900, with t h e ranges e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e l b s t e p v i s c o s i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system (Table I ) , a r e adequate. I n conclusion, t h e s e n s i t i v i t y of machi n e s t o l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y can b e s t b e d e f i n e d by v i s c o s i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a p p l i e d t o l u b r i c a n t s c u r r e n t l y i n u s e . Our experi e n c e h a s proven t h a t t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c a n be used f o r t e c h n i c a l and s t a t i s t i c a l purposes without i n t e r f e r i n g with e x i s t i n g nomenclature (Table 1 1 ) .

I h e design of an o i l f o r a given machine r e q u i r e s a s e l e c t i o n of v i s c o s i t y o r visc o s i t y range f o r t h a t machine, g i v i n g consideration t o i t s o p e r a t i n g environmerit. Tne v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t i o n i s one of the f i r s t properties t.o be given c o n s i d e r a t i o ~ i . I t i s not necessariiy t h e most important, because of many r e l a t e d f a c t o r s . Tile change i n visc o s i t y , h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e , pour p o i n t , o r o t h e r independent p r o p e r t i e s may a l t e r . t h e problem d r a s t i c a l l y . The 20th Century demand f o r i n c r e a s e i n speed, p r e s s u r e s , and g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n of machine p a r t s , a f f e c t s v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t i o n and w i l l a f f e c t i t t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e i n t h e f u t u r e . Before determining t h e d e g r e e o f s e n s i t i v i t y o f machines t o l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y , t h e two p r i n c i p a l methods o f measurement s h o u l d b e r e v i e w e d . 1. Kinematic and Absolute P r e c i s e Methods. 2. Saybolt Conventional Method. Kinematic v i s c o s i t y (ASTM Method m45) -* ',the most ~ r e c i s e measurement of a f l u i d ,' -h.;d is commonly r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e s c i e n t i f i c method, because i t s value i s t h e neare s t t o absolute v i s c o s i t y . Kinematic v i s c o s i t y i s t h e p r o p e r t y measured when a f i x e d amount o f an o i l flows t h r ~ l i ~ a i c a p i l l a r y t u b e under t h e f f o r c e of g r a v i t y . An i n t e r m e d i a t e measurement i n seconds i s taken and then converted by t h e viscometer c o n s t a n t f o r t h e f i n a l answer. The u n i t of kinematic v i s c o s i t y is the stoke o r centistoke designated a s c s , where c s = C t , namely t h e Viscometer Constant C mu1 t i p l i e d by t h e observed flow time t i n seconds. Absolute v i s c o s i t y i s t h e kinematic v i s c o s i t y c o r r e c t e d t o overcome t h e vari a t i o n s caused by d i f f e r e n c e s i n s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y . The c e n t i p o i s e i s one-hundredth o f a p o i s e and i s t h e u n i t o f a b s o l u t e v i s c o s i t y more comn~onlyused. The r e l a t i o n b e t w e n a b s o l u t e and k i n e m a t i c v i s c o s i t y i s a s follows. C e n t i p o i s e s = c e n t i s t o k e s x specific gravity. Saybolt v i s c o s i t y ( A S'TM Method D88) .-;.th i t s wide usage i s i n r e a l i t y a measure . " f l o w a b i l i t y a t a d e f i n i t e ten~iperature. '

TABLE I

VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION
VISCOSITY
Code No.

SAY Mn . i

BOLT
Max.

SAYBOLT
UNIVERSAL Nominal V i s . a t 10O0F

CENTISTOKES
KINEMATIC Nominal V i s . a t 100F

UNIVERSAL

T h i s t a b l e may b e e x t e n d e d by e a c h c e n t i s t o k e number i n c r e a s i n g ten-fold every ten s t e p s . S a y b o l t s e c o n d s a t 100F

= C e n t i s t o k e s (above 70) x 4.635.

TABLE I 1
VISCOSITY CLASSIFICATION A P P L I E D T O U N I T E D S T A T E S S T E E L A P P L I C A T I O N REQUIREMENTS Req.No. Identification Engine O i l Turbine O i l Way Lubricant C i r c u l a t i n g Turbine O i l C i r c u l a t i n g Engine O i l Circulating Oil B t e r g e n t Motor O i l s Code No. Related t o S.S.U. @ lOOF

k,
?F,:
..

16 18 20 22 24 15 18 20 15 18 23 15 18 20 22 23 16 18 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 16 18 20 22 24 S A E ' ~ I O ) (20) (30) (40) (50) Locomotive D i e s e l Engine O i l 20 22 S A E (30) (40) P a l e P a r a f f i n Slushing O i l 10 12 13 Sendzirnir M i l l R o l l O i l 10 14 Mineral Metalworking F l u i d 13 15 16 Heavy Duty Min, Metalworking F1. 13 15 16 18 Soluble Metalworking F l u i d 18 21 23 Heavy Duty Sol. kletalworking F1. 03 15 18 23 27 Inverted Type Water Emulsion 18 19 Phosphate E s t e r Type 10 13 15 18 21 23 Glycol Water Base 13 15 16 18 23 I n s u l a t i n g Oi 1 10 Pneumatic Tool O i l 15 16 Uncompounded Cylinder Stock 22 25 27 29 32 Compounded Cylinder Stoclc 27 28 32 Extreme P r e s s u r e O i l 16 18 19 20 22 25 Hypoid Gear O i l 20 24 27 S A E (80) (90) (140) Roll Neck Spray o r Gear O i l 31 32 36 39 Black Oi 1 18 22 2 7 Open Gear Lubricant 29 36 39 41 O 3 4 3)C1 #3 #4 CupGr.BaseOilVis. 100400@lOOF W C u p G r . B a s e O i l V i s . 4 0 0 t o C y l . S t o . ?YO0 7% # 1 39 #3 M #l #3 #4 Soda Base Grease Mixed Base Grease A # 3 W A 3 9 Graphited R o l l Neck Grease Extreme Pressure Grease #l #2 Extra Duty E.P. Grease (250 Drop P t . ) 7% #l #2 Extreme Temperature E. P. Grease ?& #l #.1 Iiigh Temperature E.P. Grease #l 39 Ball and R o l l e r Bearing Grease i?O $ 1 #2 #3 3 % #l 772 #3 Extreme Temperature Grease 7% $ 1 Mining Machine Lubricant #OO Block Grease 3% Pipe Thread Compound #1 High Pressure S i l i c o n e Thread Comp. #1 Asphalt Road O i l

28

27

29

#5 $5

Figures i n p a r e n t h e s i s and i t a l i c s a r e S A E numbers.

Revised January 1958

yright 1956, N a t i o n a l T u b e D i v i s i o n , U n i t e d s t a t e s S t e e l C o r p o r a t i o n (Reproduced b y p e r m i s s i o n o f the author)

LUBRICATION O F ROLL NECK BEARINGS AND GEAR D R I V E S I N CONTINUOUS ROLLING M I L L S


By J.H.Hitchcock, Morgan C o n s t r u c t i o n Co.

I am honored t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s synlposium i n t h e company of s o many t o p f l i g h t a u t h o r i t i e s . I f e e l a l i t t l e timid about p r e s e n t i n g m views i n t h e f a c e of s o much y authority. It is gratifying to note that the experts are striving to define the p r o p e r t i e s of l u b r i c a n t s more c l o s e l y ; but i t i s somewhat f r i g h t e n i n g t o l e a r n t h a t t h e e x p e r t s f i n d s o many q u e s t i o n s regaini n g unanswered. I f I were s t a r t i n g w i t h o u t a background o f e x p e r i e n c e t o s e l e c t lubr i c a n t s f o r t h e m a c h i n e r y we b u i l d , t h e r e v e l a t i o n s of t h i s niorning's s e s s i o n would l e a v e me t e r r i f i e d . F o r t u r l a t e l y , we have a v e r y e x t e n s i v e background o f s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i n g experience which provides a sorind b a s i s f o r subsequent s p e c i f i c a t i o n s . M modest c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s symposium y r e l a t e s t o t h e l u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e major components of t h e continuous r o l l i n g m i l l s which we manufacture. These components incl u d e mill p i n i o n s and d r i v e g e a r s , t h e b e a r i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e p i n i o n s and g e a r s , and o i l f i l m r o l l neck b e a r i n g s . 1 propose t o demonstrate t h a t individual conlponents such a s t h e s e , perhaps excluding extremes o f speed o r speed range i n a singl e component, a r e q u i t e i n s e n s i t i v e t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y , and t h a t c l o s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n and c o n t r o l of viscosi t y become n e c e s s a r y o n l y when t h e same l u b r i c a n t is reqrlired t o s e r v e a wide range of s p e e d , e i t h e r i n a s i n g l e component o r i n a group of components l u b r i c a t e d from a comnon system. To support t h i s view, I w i l l o u t l i n e t h e requirements f o r a t y p i c a l cont i n u o u s r o l l i n g m i l l , i n terms o f t h e l o a d and speed p r e v a i l i n g i n v a r i o u s components, and i n d i c a t e t h e wide range o f c o n d i t i o n s which a r e met s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h a s i n g l e lnbricant. Fig. 1 i l l u s t r a t e s diagrammatically the l a y o u t of a t y p i c a l continuous r o l l i n g m i l l d e s i g n e d t o p r o d u c e w i r e r o d s . The s o l i d black rectangles represent separate r o l l s t a n d s , o f which t h e r e a r e 2 1 i n t h i s m i l l . Each r o l l s t a n d c o n t a i n s two r o l l s which a r e mounted i n f o u r o i l - f i l m r o l l n e c k b e a r i n g s and d r i v e n through m i l l p i n i o n s .

T h e d r i v e s o f most o f t h e s e s t a n d s a l s o i n c l u d e r e d u c i n g g e a r s . B i l l e t s 2-3/8 i n . s q u a r e by 3 0 f t . l o n g , r e h e a t e d from a t m ospheric temperature i n the furnace, a r e passed through the m i l l , becoming elongated and reduced i n c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a s they pass through each p a i r of r o l l s . To compen-. s a t e f o r t h e e l o n g a t i o n t h a t o c c u r s i n each p a s s , each p a i r o f r o l l s must run f a s t e r t h a n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a i r , t h e l i n e a r speed b e i n g i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e crosss e c t i o n a l a r e a . The s n l a l l e s t p r o d u c t i s w i r e rod a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0.20 i n . d i a m e t e r , which i s approximately 180 times a s long a s t h e b i l l e t from which i t came. T h i s f a c t w i l l e x p l a i n i n p a r t t h e wide r a n g e of s p e e d which i s i n h e r e n t i n a m i l l o f t h i s kind. P r o d u c t s r o l l e d on t h i s m i l l i n c l u d e a variety of s i z e s , requiring variable s p e e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s u c c e s s i v e s t a n d s , and f o r t h i s r e a s o n , a d j u s t a b l e s p e e d d i r e c t c u r r e n t m o t o r s must be u s e d ' t h r o u g h o u t . Speed a d j u s t n e n t i s prov n o t o n l y by f i e l d c o n t r o l , b u t i n many p o s i t i o n s a d d i t i o n a l speed r a n g e i s a v a i la b l e through a d j u s t a b l e v o l t a g e . I n No. 1 s t a n d , f o r example, a r a n g e from 8 . 5 t o 25.6 rpm i s a v a i l a b l e a t f u l l v o l t a g e , and a minimum speed o f 6.4 rpm i s a v a i l a b l e a t reduced v o l t a g e . No. 2 1 s t a n d o p e r a t e s a t 1159 t o 1975 rpm, and h e r e no reduced voltage i s r e q u i r e d . T h e m a j o r components o f t h i s m i l l a r e l u b r i c a t e d by c i r c u l a t i n g s y s t e m s which i n c l u d e r e c e i v i n g t a n k s , pumps, f i l t e r s , t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l equipment, a l a r m devi c e s and s i g n a l s , a l l d e s i g n e d t o i n s u r e maximum c o n t i n u i t y o f o p e r a t i o n . With t h e wide range o f speed encompassed h e r e , i t i s inmediately obvious t h a t use of a s i n g l e l u b r i c a n t throughout i s n e i t h e r d e s i r a b l e n o r p r a c t i c a l . It w i l l be e q u a l l y o b v i o u s t h a t p r a c t i c a l considerations preclude the s e l e c t i o n of a d i f f e r e n t l u b r i c a n t viscosi t y f o r each component. The s o l u t i o n t o t h i s s i t u a t i o n , l i k e most e n g i n e e r i n g deci s i o n s , i s a compromise between t h e two extremes. The major components a r e gror. i n accordance with o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . . J

r a p h i c a l l o c a t i o n , and a s e p a r a t e circ~ i n gystem i s designed t o s e r v e t h e s components i n each group, with a l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t e d t o s u i t t h e range of c o n d i t i o n s encompassed w i t h i n t h e group. n e s e considerations led, i n t h i s instance, t o t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of f i v e s e p a r a t e c i r c u l a t i n g s y s t e m s , two s e r v i n g t h e main g e a r d r i v e s and t h r e e s e r v i n g t h e o i l f i l m r o l l neck bearings. It i s worth n o t i n g t h a t t h e hazard o f c o n t a m i n a t i o n i s one f a c t o r which e n c o u r a g e s s e p a r a t e l u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e r o l l neck b e a r i n g s . These b e a r i n g s a r e necessarily located i n a vulnerable positi o n , exposed t o c o o l i n g w a t e r and m i l l s c a l e , and although they a r e f u l l y enclosed t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f contamination i s always p r e s e n t . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s e b e a r i n g s must b e p u t on and removed from t h e r o l l s a t frequent i n t e r v a l s , with r e p e a t e d p o s s i b i li t y o f damage t o s e a l s . By c o n t r a s t , t h e g e a r d r i v e s a r e moderately remote from water and s c a l e , and can remain f u l l y encl o s e d f o r l o n g ~ e r i o d s f time. o The f i r s t o f t h e two systems a l l o c a t e d t o t h e main g e a r d r i v e s s e r v e s s t a n d s Nos. i n c l u s i v e . l h i s group of d r i v e s incs two r e d u c e r s o f t h e t y p e shown i n Fig. 2 , each c o n t a i n i n g f o u r o i l f i l m beari n g s and a s i n g l e gear mesh. Also i n c l u d e d i s a more conlplicated d r i v e , shown i n Fig. 3, which c o n t a i n s f i v e p o i n t s o f g e a r engagement and f o u r t e e n o i l f i l m b e a r i n g s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e i n t h i s group seven d r i v e s o f t h e t y p e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 4, each c o n t a i n i n g two p o i n t s of gear engagement and s i x o i l f i l m bearings. Within t h i s group o f components, t h e r e a r e s h a f t speeds r a n g i n g from 6 . 4 t o 750 rpm, p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t i e s i n g e a r engagement r a n g i n g from 26 t o 4860 f t . / m i n . , and g e a r t o o t h l o a d s r a n g i n g from 600 t o 5100 l b . / i n . o f f a c e width. F o r t u n a t e l y , t h e o i l f i l m b e a r i n g s which s u p p o r t t h e g e a r and p i n i o n s h a f t s a r e s u b j e c t e d o n l y t o low u n i t l o a d s . I n f a c t , t h i s i s a l w a y s t h e c a s e when o n l y g e a r t o o t h l o a d s a r e i n v o l v e d , when s h a f t diameters a r e s e l e c t e d f o r a conservative value of s t r e s s , and when b e a r i n g l e n g t h i s made a r e a s o n a b l e p r o p o r t i o n o f d i a m e t e r . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e u n i t l o a d on b,e-rings r a r e l y e x c e e d s 250 l b . / i n ? . a p a r a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f each element i n t h i s graa!, might l e a d t o v i s c o s i t y s e l -

Lf

e c t i o n r a n g i n g from 10 S S U f o r a b e a r i n g o p e r a t i n g a t 750 rpm, t o 700 S S U f o r a b e a r i n g o p e r a t i n g a t 6 . 4 rpm, t o 1500 S SU f o r a g e a r mesh o p e r a t i n g a t 26 f t . / m i n . u n d e r a l o a d of 5100 l b . / i n . o f f a c e . The assembly of t h e s e e l e m e n t s i n t o a group s e r v e d by a common l u b r i c a n t r e q u i r e s s e l e c t i o n o f a v i s c o s i t y which w i l l be s u i t a b l e f o r a l l elements. Experience has shown ~ m m i s t a k a b l yt h a t h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y than t h e minimum r e q u i r e d i s no d e t r i m e n t u n l e s s both speed and load a r e high enough t o demand serious consideration of operating temperature. Consequently, s e l e c t i o n of v i s c o s i t y can always be based on t h e slowe s t , most h e a v i l y l o a d e d element. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t e d was 1400-1500 S S U . The o n l y r e a s o n f o r l i m i t i n g t h e s p e c i f i e d range of v i s c o s i t y t o 100 S S U i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s l u b r i c a n t must s e r v e a l a r g e number o f elements o p e r a t i n g under a wide r a n g e o f c o n d i t i o n s . The a n a l y s t s can a s s u r e u s t h a t t h e u s e o f v i s c o s i t y h i g h e r t h a n t h e minimum, optimum v a l u e w i l l l e a d i n e v i t a b l y t o g r e a t e r I t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e and power l o s s . & theore t i c a l grounds, I s h a r e t h i s view f u l l y . I n i n s t a l l a t i o n s o f t h i s kind, however, n e i t L e r temperature r i s e nor power l o s s is l a r g e enough t o be s i g n i f i c a n t . A1 though measured d a t a a r e meagre, I b e l i e v e i t i s c o r r e c t t o say t h a t temperature r i s e i n the l u b r i c a n t s u p p l i e d t o g e a r d r i v e s n e v e r e x c e e d s 30 and r a r e l y exceeds 20. P r a c t i c a l considera t i o n s outweigh t h e t h e o r e t i c a l d e t r i m e n t . A s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n e x i s t s i n t h e second l u b r i c a t i n g s y s t e m which s e r v e s t h e main d r i v e s i n S t a n d s Nos. 10 t o 21. Here s h a f t s p e e d s r a n g e from 129 t o 1975 rprn, p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t i e s o f g e a r engngemerlt r a n g e from 371 t o 8520 f t . / m i n . , and g e a r t o o t h l o a d s r a n g e from 200 t o 1 5 0 0 l b . / i n . o f f a c e width. F i g . 5 i l l u s t r a t e s one o f t h e d r i v e s i n t h i s group, which s e r v e s t h e sixstand finishing t r a i n of the m i l l . This d r i v e i n c l u d e s s i x p a i r s oE s p i r a l b e v e l g e a r s , s i x p a i r s o f m i l l p i n i o n s , and 31 o i l f i l m b e a r i n g s , a l l contained i n a c o r n on housing. A s i n t h e p r e v i o u s c a s e , s e l e c t i o n of l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y f o r t h i s s y s t e m can be b a s e d on t h e s l o w e s t , most h e a v i l y loaded element. I n t h i s c a s e , t h e v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t e d was 700-800 S S U . And h e r e again t h e s p e c i f i e d range of v i s c o s i t y

i s limited t o 100 SSU, and lubricant temperature i s controlled within narrow l i m i t s , not because t h e v i s c o s i t y required f o r any s i n g l e element i s c r i t i c a l , but again because t h e same l u b r i c a n t must serve a l a r g e number of elements o p e r a t i n g under very d i f f e r e n t conditions. With r e s p e c t t o t h e g e a r d r i v e s and s h a f t bearings of a continuous r o l l i n g m i l l I now p r e s e n t a c o n c l u s i o n , a s f o l l o w s . Successful l u b r i c a t i o n of a particular' e l ement r e q u i r e s a l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y not l e s s than a minimum v a l u e which depends upon load and speed, but can be accomplished, without detriment, with v i s c o s i t y many times higher than t h e minimum. A group o f elements encompassing a wide range of opera t i n g conditions, and supplied with a common lubricant, requires a reasonably narrow t o l e r a n c e on v i s c o s i t y , both by s p e c i f i c a t i o n and by temperature c o n t r o l . Proceeding now t o t h e o i l film r o l l neck bearings, I r e f e r again t o Fig. 1 showing t h e m i l l layout i n d i a g r a n a t i c form. Tnese bearings a r e heavily loaded, corlunonly carrying 2000 t o 3000 lb./in?, and t h e range of speed throughout t h e mill i s 6.4 t o 1975 rpm. Here again i t i s obviously impractical t o use the same lubricailt v i s c o s i t y through out. I n f a c t , because of the g r e a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e with speed and v i s c o s i t y caused by the higher loads, control of viscosi t y i s decidedly Illore s i g n i f i c a n t here than i n t h e g e a r d r i v e s . For t h i s reason, t h e r o l l neck bearings i n t h i s m i l l a r e separa t e d i n t o t h r e e groups r a t h e r t h a n two, r e q u i r i n g t h r e e c i r c u l a t i n g systems. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f i r s t system s e r v i n g t h e b e a r i n g s i n s t a n d s Nos. 1 t o 7 p r o v i d e s independent control of v i s c o s i t y for stands Nos. 1 t o 4 through a cooler which reduces t h e temperature of l u b r i c a n t s u p p l i e d t o t h e s e four stands. The v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s system i s 2400-2500 S S U a t 100F, and lubricant i s supplied a t t h i s temperatu r e and viscosity t o the bearings i n stands Nos. 5 t o 7 , but for the Learings i n stands Nos. 1 t o 4 t h e l u b r i c a n t t e m p e r a t u r e i s reduced t o 8s0F, i n c r e a s i n g t h e v i s c o s i t y t o 4400-4500 S SU. S t a n d s Nos. 10 t o 14 a r e s e r v e d by a second c i r c u l a t i n g system, with l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t e d a t 1200-1300 S S U . The range of speed i n t h i s group i s from 129 t o

675 rpm. The t h i r d c i r c u l a t i n g system. r bearings s e r v e s t h e f i n i s h i n g t r a i n , speeds range from 473 t o 1975 rpm, and here t h e v i s c o s i t y selected i s 400-450 S S U . Although t h e design f e a t u r e s of t h e s e b e a r i n g s have been d e s c r i b e d on numerous previous occasions, c o n s i d e r a t i o n of t h i s s u b j e c t may be a s s i s t e d by a b r i e f review. The cutaway view i n Fig. 6 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n c l e a r l y . The bearing j o u r n a l i s a f o r g e d a l l o y s t e e l s l e e v e which i s mounted on and keyed t o t h e t a p e r e d r o l l neck. The s l e e v e i s surrounded by a s t a t i o n a r y bushing, and a double a c t i n g b a l l t h r u s t b e a r i n g i s provided t o c a r r y end t h r u s t i n e i t h e r d i r e c t i o n . These v i t a l p a r t s a r e enclosed i n a c a s t s t e e l chock. O i l i s i n t r o d u c e d a t a p r e s s u r e of 12-15 lb./in?, and i s drained by gravity f o r retu r n t o t h e c i r c u l a t i n g system. The whole assembly i s removed from t h e r o l l neck r e a d i l y and i n t e g r a l l y , a f t e r removal of the lock nut from t h e s p l i t threaded r i n g i n t h e groove of t h e r o l l neck. Fig. 7 illu s t r a t e s i n drawing form the c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a l a r g e r b e a r i n g , o f t h e t y p e used on backing r o l l s o f four-highmills. Here, 1 t h r u s t i s c a r r i e d on a double row tapered r o l l e r bearing, instead of t h e b a l l t h r u s t bearing employed i n smaller s i z e s . Another d i s t i n c t i o n i n t h i s bearing is the o i l f l i n g e r a t t h e inboard end of t h e s l e e v e , which precludes escape of l u b r i c a t i n g o i l . This feature is especially applicable t o dry. c o l d r o l l i n g m i l l s . The s u c c e s s f u l l u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e s e bearings with a s i n g l e l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y throughout a moderately wide range of speed demonstrates c l e a r l y t h a t t h e r e i s a wide l a t i t u d e i n viscosity s e l e c t i o n for a parti c u l a r bearing operating a t intermediate l e v e l s o f speed, even a t r a t e d load. I t i s recognized, a s s t a t e d e a r l i e r , t h a t use of a higher v i s c o s i t y than t h e permissible minimum leads t o increase of power l o s s and temperature r i s e , and i n general t h i s i m p oses no s i g n i f i c a n t hardship. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g , however, t o e x p l o r e t h e e f f e c t of speed and load upon operating temperature, a n d a s a f i r s t s t e p I r e f e r t o F i g . 8, which i s based upon work done by S.A.McKee a t t h e National Bureau o f Standards. :s p o r t r a y s p e r m i s s i b l e b e a r i n g load ( o r .a t e ) i n terms of r o t a t i n g speed (abscissa),

a b e a r i n g 2 i n . d i a m e t e r by 1-1/4 i n . , using a selected l u b r i c a n t supplied a t c o n s t a n t t e m p e r a t u r e . A t low s p e e d s , permissible load i s d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o speed, a s would be expected from hydrodynamic c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . A t h i g h e r s p e e d , t h e r i s e of operating temperature reduces t h e e f f e c t i v e v i s c o s i t y more r a p i d l y t h a n t h e r a t e of speed i n c r e a s e , s o t h a t permi s s i b l e l o a d i s no l o n g e r d i r e c t l y propo r t i o n a l t o speed. I n f a c t , a s speed i s increased further, the permissible load d e c r e a s e s , based on maintenance o f hydrodynamic c o n d i t i o n s w i t h a s e l e c t e d minimum value of ZN/P, using t h e e f f e c t i v e visc o s i t y of the l u b r i c a n t a t s t e a d i l y r i s i n g o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . I f a maxinun1 permi s s i b l e o p e r a t i n g temperature is imposed by t h e b e a r i n g m a t e r i a l , a s may be t h e c a s e , p e r m i s s i b l e l o a d d e c r e a s e s s t i l l more r a p i d l y with i n c r e a s i n g speed, a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e family of curves a t t h e right-hand s i d e of t h i s Figure. AlcKee produced t h i s graph by a n a l y t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and confirmed i t i n l a r g e p a r t by e x p e r i m e n t . The n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s p h e r e , however, a r e v a l i d only f o r t h e L ' d i t i o n s which McKee s e l e c t e d f o r h i s a n a l y s i s and experiment. S i m i l a r q u a l i t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s undoubtedly apply t o a l l o i l film bearings, but t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e values may b e v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t u n d e r d i f f e r e n t conditions. Among numerous d i f f e r e n c e s between hlcKee's bearing and o i l f i l m r o l l neck bearings, s i z e i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s i g n i f i c a n t . I t seems i m p o s s i b l e t o j u s t i f y n u m e r i c a l e x t r a p o l a t i o n from a b e a r i n g 2 i n . diameter by 1-1/4 i n . 101ig t o r o l l neck b e a r i n g s up t o 43 i n . d i a m e t e r by 39 i n . l o n g , and I would q u a r r c l v i o l e n t l y w i t h t h e view, i f presented, t h a t hlcKeels v a l u e s apply numeri c a l l y t o o i l f i l m r o l l neck b e a r i n g s . I n f a c t , t h e r e i s no c e r t a i n t y t h a t t h e maximum l o a d s and s p e e d s now e n c o u n t e r e d i n r o l l neck b e a r i n g s h a v e r e a c h e d a s t a g e corresponding t o t h e peak of McKee's curve, although i f t h e t r e n d toward higher operati n g speed c o n t i n u e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n c o l d r o l l i n g o p e r a t i o n s , t h i s phase probably w i l l appear. The r e s u l t s of a f u r t h e r s t e p i n explor<---the e f f e c t s of speed and l o a d upon o p L a i n g t e m p e r a t u r e a r e shown i n F i g . 9. T h i s p r e s e n t s d i r e c t nleasurements o f bear-

i n g temperature, speed and load i n o i l f i l m r o l l neck b e a r i n g s . These o b s e r v a t i o n s were made by i m b e d d i n g t h e r m o c o u p l e s i n t h e bearings, a s c l o s e t o the operating surface a s possible. Considerable experimental s c a t t e r is apparent, yet the trends a r e c l e a r l y defined. Temperature rises w i t h i n c r e a s i n g speed a t c o n s t a n t l o a d , and with i n c r e a s i n g load a t c o n s t a n t speed. These r e s u l t s a l s o suggest t h a t t h e r a t e of temp e r a t u r e r i s e is g r e a t e r with increasing speed than with i l l c r e a s i n g load. 'Ihis sugge s t i o n i s i n a c c o r d w i t h t h e o r y , and i s s u p p o r t e d by t h e c u r v e s shown i n F i g . 1 0 , which is based upon e x t e n s i v e and very deta i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n s made by t h e E n g i n e e r i n g Experiment S t a t i o n a t Annapolis, u s i n g a l uminum a l l o y b e a r i n g s 6 i n . d i a m e t e r by 2 i n . l o n g . T h e s e c u r v e s were p r e p a r e d from t h e r e p o r t e d o b s e r v a t i o n s by N.A.Wilson o f o u r S t a f f , i n an a t t e m p t t o p r e d i c t quali t a t i v e l y t h e r e l a t i o n s which can be expe c t e d i n o i l f i l m r o l l neck b e a r i n g s . Here t h e average bearing temperature ( o r d i n a t e ) i s lotted a g a i n s t Z N / P ( a b s c i s s a ) , u s i n g both l o a d and speed a s parameters. No doubt s i m i l a r r e l a t i o n s can e x i s t i n o i l f i l m r o l l neck b e a r i n g s , but t h i s is n o t proved by t h e d a t a p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e p e r t i n e n t t o d e f i n i t i o n of t h e upper l i m i t o f v i s c o s i t y s e l e c t e d f o r o i l f i l m bearings. Recognizing t h a t i n c r e a s e d v i s c o s i t y i n c r e a s e s power l o s s and t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e , i t i s a x i o m a t i c t h a t operating temperature a t prescribed l o a d and speed w i l l Le r a i s e d by i n c r e a s e o f v i s c o s i t y , and t h a t a p p l i c a t i o n s which a p p r o a c h a maximum p e r m i s s i b l e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e must have c l o s e a t t e n t i o n from t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f avoiding an u n n e c e s s a r i l y high v i s c o s i t y . Fortunately, t h i s is not a h i g h l y c r i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n any prese n t a p p l i c a t i o n s o f o i l f i l m r o l l neck b e a r i n g s o f which I am aware. Previous comments have d e a l t e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h r o l l neck b e a r i n g s which o p e r a t e f o r l o n g p e r i o d s o f time a t e s s e n t i a l l y consta n t speed. For c o n t r a s t , I r e f e r now t o a tandem c o l d r o l l i n g mill which i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 11, and which h a s o i l f i l m b e a r i n g s on t h e b a c k i n g r o l l necks. Here, successive c o i l s of hot r o l l e d s t r i p a r e t h r e a d e d through t h e s e v e r a l s t a n d s a t low s p e e d . When t h e l e a d i n g end i s secured on

t h e winding r e e l a t t h e d e l i v e r y end, t h e e n t i r e m i l l i s a c c e l e r a t e d q u i c k l y t o ope r a t i n g s p e e d o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5000 f t . / m i n . , and r o l l i n g c o n t i n u e s a t t h i s speed u n t i l t h e t r a i l i n g end of t h e c o i l appears. Then t h e m i l l i s q u i c k l y d r o p p e d t o low t h r e a d i n g speed and h e l d a t t h i s s p e e d a s t h e t r a i l i n g end p a s s e s t h r o u g h . Under t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e b e a r i n g s a r e requ i r e d r e p e a t e d l y t o o p e r a t e under l o a d a t low s p e e d , a t t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e which p r e v a i l s a t high speed. T h i s k i n d of operation obviously requires c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n of v i s c o s i t y , a s well a s c l o s e contr o l of supply temperature. The c o n c l u s i o n s t o which t h e s e conside r a t i o n s l e a d , with r e s p e c t t o s e l e c t i o n of

lubricant viscosity f o r oil. film r o l l r b e a r i n g s , a r e a s f o l l o w s . Any indivio,.. , L b e a r i n g which o p e r a t e s w i t h i n a m o d e r a t e r a n g e o f speed can be l u b r i c a t e d s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h a wide r a n g e o f l u b r i c a n t visc o s i t y , provided only t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y be high enough t o a s s u r e hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n a t minimum s p e e d , and low enough t o a v o i d p r o h i b i t i v e l y high o p e r a t i n g tempera t u r e a t maximum speed. I n a group of beari n g s which e n c o m p a s s e s a wide r a n g e o f s p e e d , o r i n a s i n g l e u n i t which i t s e l f p a s s e s through a wide r a n g e o f s p e e d , t h e range o f a c c e p t a b l e v i s c o s i t y may be sharpl y l i m i t e d , and c l o s e c o n t r o l of v i s c o s i t y by s p e c i f i c a t i o n and t e m p e r a t u r e may be required.

FIGURE 2

FIGURE 3

FIGURE 4

----FIGURE 5

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Tt,rua!

Rc.~rnn(l

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1 /"

luu, ,..I: (P)


ryc

- Spring F .

(I1 I

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 7

FRICTION AND TEMPERATURE OF JOURNAL BEARINGS

N, 1 0 0 0 RPM

F I G. 8

- Lines of constant temperature in region of stable lubrication. 2"x1XN test bearings; ambient temperature, 80 OF; aviation oil 124.4 S U V at 210F; 98 V I ( S A E 60).
[ ~ e ~ r o d u c efrom National Bureau o f Standards Research d P a p e r R P 1295, by Samuel A. ~ c ~ < e e ]

FIG. 9

620

ssu

500

ssu

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

JOURNAL SPEED

f t. /min.

EFFECT OF VISCOSITY ON H Y D R A U L I C SYSTEMS By K.G.Henrikson, Socony Mobil O i l Co.


Our remarks t h i s a f t e r n o o n a r e c o n f i n e d n o t o n l y t o petroleum o i l s b u t a l s o a p p l y t o t h e so-called s y n t h e t i c t y p e of hydrauli c f l u i d s used f o r a p p l i c a t i o n s where resi s t a n c e t o f i r e hazards i s desired. From t h e o i l o r f l u i d s u p p l i e r s p o i n t of-view, t h e a p p r o a c h t o recommendations and development of o i l s f o r h y d r a u l i c . systems i n v o l v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t factors: Corrosion R e s i s t a n c e Oxidation S t a b i l i t y D e m u l s i b i l i t y and S e p a r a t i n g N ~ i l i t y Wear P r o t e c t i o n Fomning C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s V i s c o s i t y o r FLUIDITY The o r d e r does n o t i n d i c a t e t h e importance o f any o f t h e i t e m s . However, v i s c o s i t y g ~ n e r a l l ydoes n o t come l a s t i n t h e conside r a t i o n . Because o f t h e background of ' y e a r s o f experience, i t i s very e a s i l y and n a t u r a l l y s a i d t h a t we need a 150 S S U a t 100F o i l o r a 300 S S U a t 100F o i l , and t h e n p r o c e e d from t h e r e on t h e o t h e r f a c t o r s . However, when we look i n t o i t more c a r e f u l l y , a s we a r e f i n d i n g o u r s e l v e s d o i n g more and more nowadays, we f i n d t h a t i t i s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n n o t t o be taken c a s u a l l y . V i s c o s i t y i s j u s t one p r o p e r t y o f t h e o i l i n the consideration of f l u i d i t y . Visc o s i t y Index o r t h e temperature c o e f f i c i e n t of v i s c o s i t y i s a f a c t o r t i e d i n s o c l o s e w i t h i t t h a t we have t o c o n s i d e r both a t t h e same time. T h i s i s due t o t h e f a c t t h a t we, a s p e t r o l e u m and s y n t h e t i c hydr a u l i c f l u i d s u p p l . i e r s , must l o o k a t t h e viscosity or fluidity a t the operating temperatures and t h e s t a r t i n g temperatures. D e s i g n e r s o f h y d r a u l i c pumps and s y s t ems must c o n s i d e r t h e v i s c o s i t y and i t s v a r i a t i o n s f o r many b a s i c d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . That v i s c o s i t y c a l l s f o r t h e a t t e n t i o n o f d e s i g n e r s i s shown by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e H a g e n - P o i s e u i l l e law o f l a m i n a r flow i n tubes s t a t e s t h a t t h e q u a n t i t y of flow Q i s i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a b s o l u t e v i s c o s i t y p , namely: (pl - p 2 ) / 1128 p L 1 Much of t h i s i s probably done from t a b l e s o r c u r v e s , but even t h e r e , v i s c o s i t y i s one p a r a m e t e r . Reynolds Number, tlte c r i t e r i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g whether l a m i n a r o r t u r h u l e n t flow e x i s t s , i n v u l v e s t h e v i s c o s i t y of t h e f l u i d a s follows:

Q = n~

T i ~ u s , v a r i a t i o n s of v i s c o s i t y a r e important a s f a r a s system p i p i n g ~ n d pump p a s s a g e d e s i g n i s concerned. Viscosity is a l s o important a s f a r a s e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p r o p e r c l e a r a n c e s i s conc e r n e d . Flow through l e a k a g e p a t h s ( s h a f t s e a l s , p i s t o n s , s l i p p a g e i n pumps, e t c . ) and o f t e n through small c o n t r o l passages i s i n v e r s e l y proportiorla1 t o t h e v i s c o s i t y and t h u s c l e a r a n c e s must be c o n t r o l l e d . T h e r e i s , however, a l i m i t t o t h e c l o s e n e s s t o which c l e a r a n c e s can be made economically, and t h u s v i s c o s i t y must be c o n s i d e r e d a s a c o n t r o l l i n g f a c t o r . The importance of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown by t h e f a c t t h a t leakage i s d i r e c t l y proportional t o the t h i r d power of t h e c l e a r a n c e dimension. P r a c t i c a l l y , i t would seem d e s i r a b l e t o i n c r e a s e t h e v i s c o s i t y t o e l i m i n a t e o r redu c e l e a k a g e . However, t h i s t h e n p r o d u c e s high torque r e s i s t a n c e i n c l o s e l y f i t t e d p a r t s . As t h i s resistance is r e l a t e d dire c t l y t o v i s c o s i t y , i t then means t h a t f o r b e s t mechanical e f f i c i e n c y t h e l i g h t e s t o i l would be b e s t . High v i s c o s i t y a l s o a f f e c t s pump s u c t i o n s o t h a t l i g h t o i l s a r e a g a i n d e s i r e d . But then i n warm o r h o t o p e r a t i n g systems, t h e thinning e f f e c t of heat w i l l c a l l f o r h e a v i e r o i l s . Thus t h e f l u i d suppl i e r s have had t o r e s o l v e t h e s e seemingly incompatible requirements. Many o f t h e recommendations t h a t w t a l k about (150 S S U , e 300 SSU, e t c . ) have been developed through e x p e r i e n c e and o p e r a t i n g t e s t s o v e r t h e years. I n t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e s y s t e m s , 2500 p s i . and s o on, t h e g r e a t e r t o r q u e l o s s e s and v i s c o u s s h e a r l o s s e s can b e t o l e r a t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t h e y a r e a much s m a l l e r p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l power r e q u i r e d . Thus, h e a v i e r o i l s can b e used. I n t h e lowe r p r e s s u r e s y s t e m s , 500-1000. p s i . , whc l e a k a g e l o s s e s a r e n o t a s g r e a t and whel-

cous s h e a r , t o r q u e and flow l o s s e s must h e l d down, t h e n l o w e r v i s c o s i t y o i l s must be used. V i s c o s i t y o f h y d r a u l i c o i l s h a s n o t been a s c r i t i c a l i n the past &enerally a s is the c a s e now and i n t h e f u t u r e . With h y d r a u l i c machines t h a t were o p e r a t e d by o n e man, t h a t were n o t a p a r t o f a r e g u l a r producti o n l i n e , and where c l o s e ~ e r s o n a lc o n t r o l of a l l phases o f t h e c y c l e was p o s s i b l e , i t was n o t t o o a n n o y i n g o r t r o u b l e s o m e i f t h e r e was s l u g g i s h a c t i o n on Monday morning o r i f adjustments had t o be made d u r i n g t h e morning u n t i l a s t e a d y , c o n s t a n t c y c l e c o u l d bc o b t a i i i e d . The o p e r a t o r was c l o s e enough t d t h e j o b t o make t h e n e c e s s a r y a d j u s t m e n t s and n o t burn up t o o l s o r have an a c c i d e n t through machine components g e t t i n g o u t o f p h a s e . However, w i t h t h e r a p i d p o w t h o f automated p r o d u c t i o n l i n e s and t h e o f t e n e x t e n s i v e u s e o f h y d r a u l i c s i n such machines, i t h a s become i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e machine n o t g e t o u t o f p h a s e o r t h a t machining r a t e s n o t change t o a f f e c t t o o l l i f e o r p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s . Fewer o p e r a t o r s now c o v e r many e p r o d u c t i o n t o o l i n g p o i n t s and c a n ' t c d a y s be s u r e t o c a t c h a c y c l e t h a t i s s l u g g i s h due t o heavy o i l ( o r o i l t h i c k ened e x c e s s i v e l y by c o l d ) o r one t h a t h a s s p e e d e d up due t o t h e t h i n n i n g o f o i l a s i t h e a t s . M a n u f a c t u r e r s o f such equipment w i l l compensate f o r t h e s e v a r i a b l e s by t h e u s e o f h e a t e r s , and c o o l e r s . However, prope r f l u i d i t y can reduce t h e expense of such i t e m s . (Recorrunendations f o r such equipment may w e l l i n v o l v e t h e u s e o f o t h e r than t h e normal 150 SSU and 300 SSU v i s c o s i t i e s ) . Our experiences have shown t h e f o l l o w i n g t y p i c a l examples o f t r o u b l e s t h a t can deve l o p i n t h e more automatic machines. A hydraulically-fed automatic m u l t i p l e d r i l l i n g machine was a d j u s t e d f o r speed and feed on a Monday morning. ?he o i l g r a d u a l l y h e a t e d and t h i n n e d t o r e s u l t i n a f a s t e r r a t e of d r i l l f e e d . T h i s i n c r e a s e d f e e d r e s u l t e d i n t h e d r i l l s burning and wearing r a p i d l y and t h u s a production i n t e r r u p t i o n and added expense. I n another instance, sluggish action of a motor block c y l i n d e r honing aachirle res,-Iced i n t h e automated machine g e t t i n g o u t L p h a s e and a c t u a l breakage o f hones. These examples i n d i c a t e what c a n happen

w i t h t h e u s e o f o i l s t h a t have a r e l a t i v e l y high temperature c o e f f i c i e n t of v i s c o s i t y o r low v i s c o s i t y index. I n t h e second example, s a f e g u a r d s can be i n s t a l l e d i n t h e way o f i n t e r l o c k i n g c o n t r o l s t o p r e v e n t s u c h an i n c i d e n t . However, w i t h t h e same o i l t h e r e would s t i l l be s l u g g i s h a c t i o n f o r lowered p r o d u c t i o n . , Viscosi t y a t s t a r t up and o p e r a t i n g temperatures a r e important considerations. From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e e f f e c t o f lowered vi.scosity a t e l e v a t e d temperatures, problems can a r i s e from: I n c r e a s e d l e a k a g e through s e a l s o f cylinder shafts, etc. I n c r e a s e d pump s l i p p a g e - (A v i c i o u s c i r c l e a s i t produces more h e a t t o f u r t h e r thin the o i l , etc.). Loss o f p r e s s u r e and c a p a c i t y . I n c r e a s e d pump wear. These e f f e c t s become more apparent now with t h e speed-up of c y c l e s , t h e s m a l l e r s i z e of machines r e l a t i v e t o o u t p u t , and what appe a r s t o be a d e v e l o p i n g t r e n d t o i n c r e a s e i n pressures. An example o f t h e c r i t i c a l n a t u r e o f v i s c o s i t y and V . I . h a s been s e e n i n m a r i n e h y d r a u l i c winch e q u i p m e n t . With c e r t a i n d e s i g n s , t h e r e i s a d e f i n i t e l i m i t i n g rninimum v i s c o s i t y . V i e s e u n i t s have c o n s t a n t volume pumps o p e r a t i n g a t a r e l a t i v e l y high p r e s s u r e with a l a r g e p o r t i o n of t h e o u t p u t dunping o v e r t h e r e l i e f v a l v e and c r e a t i n g e x c e s s h e a t . No b r a k e s a r e provided and t h e o n l y t h i n g h o l d i n g a l o a d is t h e h y d r a u l i c p r e s s u r e i n t h e h y d r a u l i c motor. The lowe r e d v i s c o s i t y from t h e h e a t means more l e a k a g e and a s a g o f t h e l o a d , which i s u n d e s i r a b l e and d a n g e r o u s . A h e a v i e r o i l i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e answer a s low t e m p e r a t u r e s t a r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a l s o e x i s t , and t h e v i s c o s i t y c a n ' t be s o heavy a s t o cause c a v i t a t i o n . T h i s i s a n o t h e r example o f t h e f a c t o r o f v i s c o s i t y i n d e x and i t s importance i n t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y o r f l u i d i t y requirements. D u p l i c a t i n g o r copying ( t r a c e r ) machines i n c o r p o r a t i n g h y d r a u l i c systems a r e a n o t h e r example o f machines where t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l i y d r a u l i c f l u i d i s i m p o r t a n t . The valv e s , p i p i n g and p a s s a g e s a r e o f t e n designed around a f a i r l y narrow v i s c o s i t y range. These machines o f t e n have good t e m p e r a t u r e c o n t r o l , by t h e u s e of c o o l e r s and/or heat-

e r s , t o be s u r e t h a t proper v i s c o s i t i e s a r e o b t a i n e d . I f n o t , i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o s t a r t up such machines s e v e r a l hours b e f o r e o p e r a t i o n t o a l l o w t h e o i l t o t h i n down. R e l a t i v e l y l i g h t v i s c o s i t y and h i g h V . I . o i l s a r e needed a s i n s t a n t response i s nece s s a r y . But where t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e n o t c o n t r o l l e d p r o p e r l y , t h e a c c u r a c y of dupl i c a t i o n i s a f f e c t e d a n d p a r t s may b e rejected. The m a j o r i t y o f h y d r a u l i c pump (fl'uid power g e n e r a t o r s ) n ~ a n u f a c t u r e r shave d e t e r mined maximum and minimum v i s c o s i t y l i m i t s . T h o s e l i m i t s r a n g e from 70 S S U and 100 S S U a t t h e low end ( h i g h e r temperature) t o 4000 t o 6000 S S U a t t h e h i g h end ( l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e ) . The minimum v i s c o s i t y limit i s based on wear p r o t e c t i o n and t h e d e s i r e t o h o l d s l i p p a g e l o s s e s t o a minimum. The maximum v i s c o s i t y l i m i t i s b a s e d on t h e d e s i r e t o e l i m i n a t e any tendency f o r cavi t a t i o n with r e s u l t a n t wear o r damage from overheating. Often a maximum s u c t i o n vacuum i s s p e c i f i e d s o t h a t t h e f l u i d l i f t and p i p i n g flow r e s t r i c t i o n s can be c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e problem o f c a v i t a t i o n . The wear t h a t o c c u r s w i t h c a v i t a t i o n i s n o t o n l y o r basi c a l l y t h a t which comes w i t h l a c k o f o i l between moving p a r t s , b u t o f t e n i n v o l v e s wear o r d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e p u r e s e n s e o f t h e word with e r o s i o n . r e s u l t i n g from ultrah i g h frequency p r e s s u r e and vacuum c y c l e s i n t h e pump. Based on t h e 4000 S S U maximum v i s c o s i t y t h e r e can be a s much a s 10F d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e minimum s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a r t - u p tempera t u r e s f o r two o i l s , one o f 95/100 V. I. and t h e o t h e r of 10/20 V. I.. I f t h e V . I . i s n o t considered, t h e r e can d e f i n i t e l y be a d i f f e r e n c e i n s t a r t - u p c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a t colde r temperatures. T h i s f a c t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e f o r s t e e l m i l l i n s t a l l a t i o n s , mobile

equipment and o t h e r p l a c e s where low temr e r a t u r e s a r e i n v o l v e d . A s w e s a i d befor..,-. c a v i t a t i o n and p o s s i b l e r a p i d wear c a n r e s u l t from too heavy a f l u i d . A t t h e o t h e r end of t h e range, where t h e 70 and 100 S S U minimurn v i s c o s i t y limits a r e c a l l e d f o r , t h e maxilnum l i m i t i n g tempe r a t u r e s c a n v a r y a s much a s 10-20F and n e c e s s i t a t e t h e e x p e n s e o f more c o o l i n g equipment and h i g h e r o p e r a t i n g c o s t s w i t h t h e u s e o f t h e 10/20 V. I . o i l . C o n s i d e r i n g b o t h maximum and minimum viscosity l i m i t s , i t i s possible that the s u i t a b l e o p e r a t i n g range o f an o i l w i l l be narrowed by 20-25OF i f p r o p e r s e l e c t i o n of viscosity or fluidity characteristics is n o t made. Summarizing, we can s a y t h a t : 1. T h e r e a r e b a s i c d e s i g n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s that viscosity or fluidity influence to a g r e a t e x t e n t and o f which t h e d e s i g n e r s must be c o g n i zan t . 2. I n p a s t y e a r s , v i s c o s i t y and v i s c o s i t y v a r i a t i o n s have n o t had a s g r e a t an i n f l uence a s now on i n d u s t r i a l equipment, princ i p a l l y because t h e v a r i a t i o n s were t o l e r a b l e under t h e p a t t e r n of o p e r a t i o n . 3. Now, and i n c r e a s i n g l y s o i n t h e f u t u r L , t h e proper o p e r a t i o n o f h y d r a u l i c equipment w i l l be more s e n s i t i v e t o v i s c o s i t y and i t s v a r i a t i o n s because: ( a ) Higher p r e s s u r e s w i l l be i n v o l v e d , ( b ) A wider t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e o f opera t i o n w i l l be expected, ( c ) B e t t e r c y c l e c o n t r o l w i l l be requ i r e d by automated machines a s they i n c r e a s e i n complexi t y and e x t e n t o f use, (d) D u p l i c a t i n g a n d t a p e c o n t r o l l e d machines can t o l e r a t e b u t t h e very extreme minimum o f h y d r a u l i c system variation.

SESSION CHAIRMAN

V . S . Wagner, D e L a v a l S t e a m T u r b i n e Co.

C h a i rrnan, D e s i g n T e c h n i c a l C o m m i t t e e

III. DESIGN CRITERIA FOR SELECTING V I S C O S I T Y


V I S C O S I T Y AND RELATED PROBLEMS I N E N G I N E D E S I G N

W.M.Kauffmann, E n g i n e D i v i s i o n , W o r t h i n g t o n C o r p o r a t i o n
C R I T E R I A FOR S E L E C T I N G V I S C O S I T Y O F L U B R I C A N T S FOR D E S I G N O F H E L I C A L A N D WORM G E A R S

F . A . Thoma, D e L a v a l S t e a m T u r b i n e Co.
V I S C O S I T Y I N THE L U B R I C A T I O N MECHANISMS O F ROLLING-ELEMENT BEARINGS

L. B. S i b l e y and J . C. B e l l , B o t t e l l e M e m o r i a l I n s t i t u t e

VISCOSITY AND RELATED PROBLEMS I N ENGINE DESIGN


By W.h!.Kauffmann, Engine D i v i s i o n , Worthington Corporation
'Ihe complexity of t h e l u b r i c a t i o n problem of i n t e r n a l combustion engines r e q u i r e s t h a t c e r t a i n f a c t o r s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e speci a l p r o p e r t i e s o f motor o i l be examined. F i r s t , i t should w i t h s t a n d t h e mechanical and thermal environment which o b t a i n s i n an engine, without becoming of i t s e l f a s o u r c e o f d i f f i c u l t y . Seco~id, i t must n o t combine t o form d e l e t e r i o u s d e p o s i t s i n t h e combu s t i o n chamber, o r t e n d t o form s l u d g e i n t h e crankcase. And t h i r d , i t must not change i n viscosity o r exhibit i n s t a b i l i t y . Our b a s i c problem i s wear i n t h e c r i t i c a l l u b r i c a t i o n a r e a s of an e n g i n e . Wear h a s been c l a s s i f i e d a s b e i n g e i t h e r mecha n i c a l o r c h e m i c a l . M e c h a n i c a l w e a r may r e s u l t from two s o l i d s moving i n c o n t a c t , a s i n a b r a s i o n ; o r from impact of a f l u i d on a s o l i d , r e s u l t i n g i n erosiorl. Chemical wear r e s u l t s from c o r r o s i v e a c t i o n due t o c e r t a i n o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , f u e l s , and i n t e r m i t t e n t s e r v i c e (Ref. 1 ) . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r w i l l b e t o C s o c i a t e viscosity w i t h w e a r , and a l s o w i t h t h o s e o t h e r f a c t o r s which a r e r e l a t e d t o l u b r i c a t i o n problems o f t h e h i g h o u t p u t d i e s e l and s p a r k - i g n i t i o n turbocharged g a s e n g i n e s . These f a c t o r s i n c l u d e v i s c o s i t y t e m p e r a t u r e c r i t e r i a due t o c o l d w e a t h e r s t a r t i n g , j a c k e t w a t e r and c r a n k c a s e lubr i c a t i n g o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s , p i s t o n and r i n g b e l t d e s i g n , c r a n k p i n and j o u r n a l o p e r a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and combustion proce s s e s of t h e engine. C o n t r i b u t i n g problems t o maintenance o f s e l e c t i v e v i s c o s i t i e s a r e such d i f f i c u l t i e s a s f u e l d i l u t i o n , condens a t i o n , water leakage, s u l f u r f u e l s , a d d i e i v e d e p l e t i o r l , improper makeup, o r f a u l t y i n i t i a l s e l e c t i o n of l u b r i c a n t s . hloody and Gibb (Ref. 2 ) d e f i n e d viscos, i t y a s a ri,easure o f t h e i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n o r r e s i s t a n c e t o flow, o r motion, of a l i q u i d . It d e t e r m i n e s , t o a l a r g e d e g r e e , t h e r e s i s t a n c e t o be overcome i n c r a n k i n g a cold engine, and a l s o t h e s u p p o r t i n g e f f e c t of t h e o i l under f l u i d f i l m o r hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n i n b e a r i n g s , a s well a s t h e r a t e of flow through them. As such, i t cj/;.hmajor f a c t o r i n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f h e a t i n bearings and thereby i n f l u e n c e s o i l cons u n ~ p t i o nr a t e i n a n e n g i n e . I n b r i e f l y summarizing reasons f o r changes i n v i s c o s i t y from t h a t o f t h e o r i g i n a l c h a r g e , a 1ower.value was a t t r i b u t e d t o f u e l d i l u t i o n o r low v i . s c o s i t y makeup o i l . On t h e o t h e r hand, a Iiiglier v a l u e r e s u l t e d from o x i d a t i o n and i n s o l u b l e s such a s carbon contamina t i o n from f a u l t y d i e s e l combustion, o r u s e of a high v i s c o s i t y makeup o i l . Engine m a n u f a c t u r e r s g e n e r a l l y o u t l i n e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r l u b r i c a n t s based on viscosity-temperature c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o i l found b e s t s u i t e d f o r t h e i r ~ r o d u c t s . S p e a k i n g ~ a r t i c u l a r l yo f t h e l a r g e heavy duty engines from 9 i n . bore t o 16 i n . bore four-cycle d i e s e l , dual-fuel, o r spark igni t i o n gas engines, a t output r a t i n g s i n a range o f 150-180 brake mean e f f e c t i v e pressure, builder's specifications w i l l c a l l f o r a d e t e r g e n t t y p e o i l having a v i s c o s i t y r a n g e from 700 t o 1000 S SU a t 100F, and 70 t o 85 SS U a t 210F. These l i k e w i s e meet m i l i t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s a s p e r MILL-2104A. Turbocharged engines having s e p a r a t e turboc h a r g e r l u b r i c a n t systems may be s u p p l i e d with o i l best s u i t e d f o r t h e high rotor speed and r a p i d a c c e l e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e gas t u r b i n e . A non-detergent o i l of S A E 20 t o 30 g r a d e , i n h i b i t e d w i t h an anti-foaming a g e n t , i s s p e c i f i e d f o r t h i s system. Of c o u r s e , proper maintenance and v i g i l a n c e o f t h e o i l c l e a n l i n e s s l e v e l d e t e r m i n e s t h e d e g r e e o f s a t i s f a c t o r y lubr i c a t i o n o b t a i n e d i n s e r v i c e . Among t h e more i m p o r t a n t maintenance p r o c e d u r e s a r e o i l purification, a i r f i l t e r inspection, normal o p e r a t i n g l o a d s , p r o p e r f u e l chara c t e r i s t i c s , and e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n o f c o o l i n g f a c i l i t i e s f o r l u b e o i l and j a c k e t water. Considering t h e r e l a t i o n o f v i s c o s i t y t o t h e design problem, perhaps no a r e a i s more c r i t i c a l t h a n t h a t of t h e c y l i n d e r w a l l s , p i s t o n s k i r t and r i n g b e l t . Here t h e combi n e d e f f e c t s o f high flame t a n p e r a t n r e , and i n t e r m i t t e n t l y applied high f i r i n g loads, coupled w i t h c o r r o s i o n and a changing h e a t transfer gradient to the cylinder jacket cooling water, s u b j e c t s the l u b r i c a n t t o i t s s e v e r e s t t e s t . ?he engine d e s i g n e r must

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f i r s t provide a p i s t o n c o n s t r u c t i o n t h a t

w i l l o b t a i n t h e l e a s t d i s t o r t i o n and minimum p i s t o n r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . H e f e r r i n g t o Fig. 1, a t y p i c a l high-output p i s t o n d e s i g n i s i l l u s t r a t e d . The w a l l s a r e of l i g h t sect i o n and t h e u n d e r s i d e o f t h e t o p s u r f a c e i s provided with a w a f f l e g r i d t o i n c r e a s e coolant contact area. I n t h i s case, t h e d e s i g n e r makes u s e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t a s an i n t e r n a l coolant i n conjunction with ,the well-known h e a t dam e x e c u t i o n which r e s t r i c t s h e a t flow t o t h e p i s t o n r i n g b e l t . The r e s u l t a n t r e d u c t i o n i n r i n g tempefatu r e s ' p e r m i t s t h e u s e of v e r y narrow power r i n g s . S i n c e t h e narrow p i s t o n r i n g provi d e s very l i t t l e h e a t t r a n s f e r , i t s s e a l i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s can t h u s be u t i l i z e d . O i l c o n t r o l l i k e w i s e i s o b t a i n e d by conformable o i l r i n g s with extremely f l e x i b l e s c r a p e r edges, backed Ly s p r i n g s o f e i t h e r t h e g r i d o r h e l i c a l type. The a b i l i t y of t h i s t y p e o f o i l c o n t r o l t o conform t o t h e c y l i n d e r w a l l s u r f a c e h a s r e s u l t e d i n unprecedented reduction i n l u b r i c a t i n g o i l consumption. Values of 1 5 , 0 0 0 t o 2 0 , 0 0 0 b r a k e horsepower h o u r s p e r g a l l o n a r e now c o n s i d e r e d normal i n t h e modern e n g i n e . Detergent o i l s , i r i t h e v i s c o s i t y range r e f e r r e d t o p r e v i o u s l y , have e x h i b i t e d adequ a t e f i l m s t r e n g t h and h e a t r e s i s t a n c e t o i n h i b i t wear a t t h e s e e x t r e m e l y low l u b e o i l r a t e s . Coupled w i t h t h e s e f a c t o r s i s t h e tendency o f engine u s e r s t o o p e r a t e a t h i g h e r j a c k e t water t e m p e r a t u r e s , and a l s o higher lube o i l temperatures. Possibly the next c r i t i c a l area i n importance i s t h a t of t h e r o t a t i n g s u r f a c e s or^ he c r a n k s h a f t i n t h e connecting rod and main j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s . F i g . 2 shows t h e h e a v y d u t y high-output d i e s e l engine o f V16 c o n s t r u c t i o n b u i l t by t h e B u f f a l o E n g i n e D i v i s i o n o f Worthington C o r p o r a t i o n . The r o t a t i n g e l e n e n t s a r e of s u b s t a n t i a l p r o p o r t i o n s t o maintain bearing loads i n l i n e w i t h proven d e s i g n c r i t e r i a . The d e s i g n e r must e v a l u a t e t h e p o l a r diagram summation o f i n e r t i a and power l o a d f o r c e s a t e a c h b e a r i n g t o e s t a b l i s h t h e mean b e a r i n g l o a d a p p l i e d d u r i n g t h e complete combustion cycl e of t h e engine. The r e l a t i v e Z N /P v a l u e provides a c r i t e r i o n for design acceptabili t y . Numerous improvements i n b e a r i n g desi g n and m e t a l l u r g y have k e p t pace with t h e i n c r e a s e i n engine output p e r cubic inch

d i s p l a c e m e n t , and s u b s e q u e n t l y h i g h e r f i i n g p r e s s u r e s and t e m p e r a t u r e s . P r e c i s i L . t y p e b e a r i n g s with 0.007 i n . o r l e s s b a b b i t t l i n i n g p r o v i d e more f a t i g u e r e s i s t a n c e and h i g h e r l o a d i n g capaci t i e s . G r e a t e r load a b i l i t y h a s been o b t a i n e d w i t h copper-lead, aluminum, and l e a d b r o n z e a l l o y s , a t some s a c r i f i c e however i n e m b e d d a b i l i t y , conf o r m a b i l i t y , and a n t i - s i e z u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n t h e h i g h e r speed engines, hardening o f s h a f t j o u r n a l s and p i n s h a s been genera l l y s p e c i f i e d w i t h t h e l a t t e r t y p e bearings. O i l f i l t r a t i o n t o eliminate abrasives and carbon i s e s s e n t i a l , and t h e f u l l - f l o w system i s becomitig an acceptcd s t a n d a r d f o r optimum p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e p r e c i s i o n s h e l l bearings. Savage and Bowlan (Ref. 3 ) s t a t e d t h a t wear occurs t o some e x t e n t even under i d e a l lubrication conditions. Bearing f a i l u r e s i n the f i e l d have been found t o be usrrnl ly due mostly t o d i r t , misassembly, misalignment, and f a t i g u e . However, normal rubbing wear, d e f i n e d as wear o c c u r r i n g .&en the o i 1 f i lm is n o t adequate t o p r e v e n t b e a r i n g c o n t a c t , a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s to b e a r i n g f a i l u r e s but t o a l e s s e r d e g r e e . R e s e a r c h by r a d i o a c t i t r a c e r technique, on lead-base b a b b i t t mate r i a l , i n d i c a t e d t h a t wear d u r i n g s t a r t i n g was of t h e same magnitude a s t h a t caused by h i g h s p e e d o p e r a t i o n . Changes i n e n g i n e l o a d a l s o r e s u l t e d i n a wear r a t e due, i t was b e l i e v e d , t o a s h i f t i n t h e b e a r i n g l o a d p o s i t i o n , r e q u i r i n g a break-in o f t h e new c o n t a c t a r e a s . It was c o n c l u d e d t h a t c o n n e c t i n g rod b e a r i n g wear was i n v e r s e l y proportional t o the lubricant's viscosity according t o t h e hydrodynamic l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y t h e o r y a s d e f i n e d by S t o n e and Underwood (Ref. 4 ) . T h i s theory s t a t e s t h a t the load c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y depends on seve r a l f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g b e a r i n g and j o u r n a l d i m e n s i o n s , v i s c o s i t y of t h e l u b r i c a n t , minim~lmo i 1 f i l m thickness to prevent wear, r a t e of j o r ~ r n a l r o t a t i o n , and r a t e of change i n b e a r i n g load p o s i t i o n . Load c a p a c i t y is t h a t load which w i 11 produce the minimum o i 1 f i l m t h i c k n e s s t h a t w i l l p r e v e n t conta c t between b e a r i n g and j o u r n a 1 s u r f a c e s . It was a l s o d e n o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e motion i n b e a r i n g l o a d p o s i t i o n had a pronounced e f f e c t on l o a d c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e c f i l m within t h e bearing. E s s e n t i a l l y , a d e q u a t e c r a n k s h a f t and

- - n k p i n d i a m e t e r s , and b e a r i n g s u r f a c e elignment o f f e r a p r a c t i c a l s t a r t toward a p r o p e r , e f f i c i e n t degr e e of l u b r i c a t i o n i n t h i s c r i t i c a l a r e a . Buildup of v i s c o s i t y due t o o x i d a t i o n w i l l , o f course, need t o be c o n t r o l l e d . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e u n d e r s l u n g c r a n k s h a f t d e s i g n i s shown i n F i g . 3. T h i s r e p r e s e n t s a s e c t i o n o f t h e SW9, a 9 i n . by 11 i n . d i e s e l engine r a t e d a t 170 B M E P f o r c o n t i n u o u s d u t y . Both s h a f t j o u r n a l s and c r a n k p i n s were p r o p o r t i o n e d on t h e b a s i s o f p o l a r diagram a n a l y s i s a s well a s minimum t o r s i o n a l v i b r a t i o n s t r e s s due t o t h e c r i t i c a l speed spectrum. S h a f t d i a m e t e r s r e q u i r e removal o f l i n e r and rod assembly a s a u n i t through t h e engi n e frame l i n e r bore. The n e x t c r i t i c a l p o i n t t o e x p l o r e i s t h e exhaust v a l v e , and v a l v e g e a r i n genera l . I n c r e a s i n g o u t p u t o f t h e modern engines h a s , because o f t u r b o c h a r g i n g , n o t been r e s p o n s i b l e f o r an e x c e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n exhaust v a l v e temperature. Due t o t h e gene r a l use o f aftercooling of t h e a i r discharged from t h e c e n t r i f u g a l blower o f t h e bocharger, and t h e use o f adequate overp o f i n l e t and exhaust e v e n t s , t h e e n g i n e v a l v e s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o a thorough scrubbi n g w i t h cooled a i r d u r i n g some 120 t o 140 d e g r e e s o f t h e combustion c y c l e . I n a d d i t i o n , improved c o o l i n g o f t h e valve g u i d e by high v e l o c i t y flow of t h e coolant through t h e c y l i n d e r head h a s tended t o reduce s t a n temperatures. V i s c o s i t i e s of l u b r i c a n t which have been adequate both f o r j o u r n a l s and p i s t o n s w i l l be g e n e r a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y f o r exhaust valve l u b r i c a t i o n i n t h e s e engines. Most i m p o r t a n t i s a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h o s e a r e a s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r v i s c o s i t y chang e i n t h e e n g i n e crankcase. Of t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t reduce v i s c o s i t y , f i r s t conies f u e l d i l u t i o n i n the d i e s e l engine. As such, d i l u t i o n reduces t h e l o a d s u p p o r t i n g a b i l i t y of t h e o i l f i l m , and t h e r e f o r e a c c e l e r a t e s wear w i t h t h e p r e s e n c e o f a b r a s i v e s due t o t h e d e c r e a s e d metal t o metal c l e o r ances. D i l u t i o n may be due t o l e a k a g e from t h e f u e l i n j e c t o r s r e s u l t i n g from l o o s e f i t t i n g s , t o raw f u e l unburned d u r i n g c o l d - - . a r t s , and t o l e a k a g e by t h e f u e l pump < _ i d e s . When e x p e r i e n c e d i n e x c e s s of 5%. the lubricating qualities of the o i l are

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c o n s i d e r e d i n a d e q u a t e , and a p p r o x i m a t e s a d r o p by one S A E grade. F o r t u n a t e l y , c o r r e c t i v e design measures o r maintenance p r o o edures w i l l eliminate t h i s factor. The f a c t o r s t h a t i n c r e a s e v i s c o s i t y a r e o x i d a t i o n and i n s o l u b l e s . The p r e s e n c e of water is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a c c e l e r a t i n g emuls i f i e d sludge formation, a s well a s o i l f o a m i n g , which o f c o u r s e a r e h a r m f u l t o b e a r i n g l i f e . Water l e a k s due t o wet sleeves c a n b e minimized by r e p l a c i n g s e a l i n g r i n g s . C o n d e n s a t i o n h a s been i n h i b i t e d by u t i l i z i n g higher j a c k e t water temperatures and keeping c r a n k c a s e temperature above t h e dew p o i n t o f t h e c o o l e d e x h a u s t o r blowby g a s e s . A t e m p e r a t u r e o f 150F is admissa b l e . F i g . 4 shows a n o v e l l i n e r d e v e l o p ment which e l i m i n a t e s t h e wet s l e e v e design and p r o v i d e s i n s u r a n c e a g a i n s t w a t e r contamination i n t h e crankcase. The o u t e r jacke t and l i n e r a r e c a s t i n t e g r a l l y , a c o n s t ruction t h a t provides a pressure-tight w a t e r s p a c e . The u n i t shown h e r e i s a 1 6 i n . by 16 i n . S U T C g a s engine compressor, o f which a s u b s t a n t i a l number a r e i n p i p e l i n e and p r o c e s s i n d u s t r y s e r v i c e . O x i d a t i o n may b e c o n t r o l l e d by u i i n g c o r r e c t i v e l u b r i c a n t a d d i t i v e s i n t h e o i 1. O x i d a t i o n g e n e r a l l y i s a c c e l e r a t e d by exc e s s i v e l y high o i l temperature, high sulf u r f u e l s , o r low c e t a n e f u e l o i l s . I n s o l u b l e s g e n e r a l l y may be t r a c e d t o poor f u e l q u a l i t y , i n j e c t i o n problems, i n a d e q u a t e a i r f o r c o m p l e t e c o m b u s t i o n , o v e r l o a d , worn p i s t o n r i n g s and r e s u l t i n g blowby, and low j a c k e t w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s . Some d e g r e e o f c o n t r o l o f c o n t a m i n a n t may be o b t a i n e d by p r o p e r f i l t r a t i o n . However, i n e v e r y c a s e c i t e d , t h e cause c a l l s f o r e i t h e r design o r p l a n t o p e r a t i o n c o r r e c t i v e procedures. S i n c e v i s c o s i t y i s a b a s i c and important c r i t e r i o n o f l u b r i c a n t e f f i c i e n c y , a number o f simple p o r t a b l e instruments a r e availa b l e f o r m e a s u r i n g d e g r e e o f c h a n g e , and whether it i s i n c r e a s i n g o r d e c r e a s i n g . These a r e o f p r a c t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e t o t h e p l a n t o p e r a t o r and encourage f r e q u e n t v i s u a l checks o f t h e l u b e o i l c o n d i t i o n . ?he p r a c t i c e s r e g a r d i n g f i l t r a t i o n a r e beyond t h e s c o p e o f t h i s d i s c u s s i o n . Howe v e r , it i s apparent t h a t complete f i l t r a t i o n of t h e o i l charge t o the engine i s b e s t s e r v e d by f u l l - f l o w o p e r a t i o n , w i t h t h e f i l t e r elements placed near t h e e n t r y

p o i n t t o t h e engine l u b r i c a t i n g o i l supply header. Currently, considerable attention is b e i n g focused upon c o l d weather s t a r t i n g o f i s o l a t e d e n g i n e s i n gas-gathering o r pipel i n e s e r v i c e , s i n c e such u n i t s a r e a f f o r d e d a minimum o f p r o t e c t i o n from t h e elements. The r e l a t i o n s h i p of low temperature cranking resistance t o viscosity characteristics o f e n g i n e o i l s becomes an i m p o r t a n t problem. Such an o i l must have good low tempera t u r e c r a n k i n g a b i l i t y and s t i l l r e t a i n h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e performance and econgmy. (Ref. 5). L i g h t o i l s t r e a t e d w i t h s u f f i c i e n t polymer t o meet high t e m p e r a t u r e v i s c o s i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s h a v e been d e v e l o p e d , u n d e r t h e d e s i g n a t i o n multigrade oils o r multiviscosity g r a d e oils. T h e c o m p l e x mechanism o f V . I . improvers, a s r e l a t e d t o temperature change, i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e unusual behavior o f t h e s e o i l s depends on t h e r e l a t i v e s h e a r r a t e s and s t r e s s e s d u r i n g c o l d s t a r t i n g . That t h e r e i s a l a r g e temporary v i s c o s i t y l o s s during cold cranking i s d u e , t o a l a r g e e x t e n t , t o t h e polymer a n d ' r e d u c e d r e s u l t a n t s h e a r s t r e s s a t low temperature. Many o p e r a t o r s , .for economical r e a s o n s , a r e i n c l i n e d t o u s e a lower v i s c o s i t y s t r a i g h t g r a d e o i l and add h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l f o r makeup, i n o r d e r t o b u i l d t h e v a l u e u p w i t h i n c r e a s i n g ambient t e m p e r a t u r e . O t h e r s employ h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l s and supply h e a t i n g elements i n t h e crankcase o i l sump. A n o t h e r o p e r a t i n g problem i s t h a t o f h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e c o o l i n g , g e n e r a l l y termed vapor phase o r e b u l l i t i o n c o o l i n g . I n both i n s t a n c e s , t h e engine cooling j a c k e t s a r e p r e s s u r i z e d up t o 50 p s i , r e s u l t i n g i n temp e r a t u r e s o f t h e steam i n t h e o r d e r of 250
-

t o 265OF. Published c l a i m s n o t w i t h s t a n d i i t s a p p l i c a t i o n h a s r e s u l t e d i n a m..-,.. c a r e f u l a p p r a i s a l of p i s t o n c o o l i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n o r d e r t o avoid s c u f f i n g and r i n g wear. T h i s would i n d i c a t e t h a t h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l s a r e n o t o n l y d e s i r a b l e , but necessary, f o r t h e engines s o equipped. % r e x p e r i e n c e h a s been t h a t o n e S A E g r a d e h e a v i e r than s p e c i f i c a t i o n s provides a s a t i s f a c t o r y l u b r i c a n t f o r vapor phase c o o l e d engines. I n c o n c l u s i o n , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t both t h e engine d e s i g n e r and o p e r a t o r a r e a l e r t l y cognizant o f t h e problems r e l a t e d t o v i s c o s i t y . The t r e n d toward s t i l l h i g h e r o u t p u t p l a c e s an i n c r e a s i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t y upon t h e e n g i n e m a n u f a c t u r e r t o b u i l d a i 1 product t h a t w 1 perform r e l i a b l y and continuously within the l u b r i c a t i n g specifica t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d on t h e b a s i s o f f i e l d and r e s e a r c h t e s t s . I n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , long l i f e and minimum wear a r e synonymous.
REFERENCES 1 . C r i t i c a l L u b r i c a t i o n Areas i n an E n g i n e , by V.C. R a v i o l i , SAE M e e t i n g , 6 / 4 / 5 2 , New Y o r k , N.Y. 2. F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g D r a i n P r a c t i c e s , Moody and Gibb, ASME M e e t i n g . 3/10/54, Mt,.i c o C i t y , D.F. 3 . R a d i o a c t i v e T r a c e r Measurements o f Beari n g Wear, by Savage and Bowman. SAE T r a n s . ,

1957. 4 . A n a l y s i s and L u b r i c a t i o n o f B e a r i n g s , by
S t o n e and Underwood. 5 . R e l a t i o n s h i p o f Low Temperature Cranking Resistance t o Viscosity Characteristics of M u l t i g r a d e O i l s , by Malone and S e l b y , SAE T r a n s . , 1956. 6 . Heavy Duty High Output I n t e r n a l Combusti o n E n g i n e L u b r i c a t i o n , by W.M.Kauffmann, ASLE M e e t i n g , 1 9 5 8 .

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,ECTING LUBRICANT VISCOSITY FOR DESIGN OF HELICAL AND WORM GEARS


l3y F.A.Thoma, DeLaval Steam Turbine Co.
s p e c i f i c l o a d s of t h e g e a r s . The a b i l i t y of t h e o i l t o maintain t h i s film increases w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n v i s c o s i t y . W have on e o n e hand a d e s i r e f o r a low v i s c o s i t y o i l a s a c o o l a n t and on t h e o t h e r hand a need f o r s u f f i c i e n t v i s c o s i t y t o prevent r a p i d wear. W could conclude from t h i s t h a t t h e e i d e a l l u b r i c a n t f o r h i g h speed g e a r s would b e one with t h e lowest v i s c o s i t y c a p a b l e o f m a i n t a i n i n g an o i l f i l m b e t w e e n m a t i n g t e e t h under any c o n d i t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n . I n o r d e r t o u s e t h i s i d e a l l u b r i c a n t , we would have t o have a b s o l u t e c o n t r o l over such v a r i a b l e s a s speed-load r e l a t i o n s h i p s , s h o c k s and i m p ~ l s e s , o i l t e m p e r a t u r e s t o t h e u n i t , and t h e geometry f a c t o r s a f f e c t ing load distribution, including p r o f i l e e r r o r , l e a d e r r o r , e c c e n t r i c i t i e s , balance, pinion deflections, errors i n parallelism o f c a s i n g bores, c a s e d i s t o r t i o n , and thermal e x p a n s i o n . T h i s of c o u r s e i s impossi b l e . Less e f f i c i e n t c o o l i n g can be t o l e r a t e d , b u t r a p i d wear cannot. ?he r e s u l t i s a s e l e c t i o n of a l u b r i c a n t f o r high speed g e a r s t h a t f a v o r s t h e wear c o n s i d e r a t i o n , namely a more v i s c o u s o i l . The l o s s i n c o o l i n g e f f i c i e n c y c a n b e o f f s e t t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t by s p e c i a l desi g n f a c t o r s . (he important c o n s i d e r a t i o n on t h e c o o l i n g o i l i s t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e spra y s . On g e a r s w i t h itch l i n e v e l o c i t i e s above 10,000 f t . / m i n . , a p p r e c i a b l e s a v i n g s i n o v e r - a l l e f f i c i e n c y can be o b t a i n e d by l o c a t i n g t h e o i l s p r a y s on t h e o u t g o i n g s i d e o f t h e mesh. An example o f t h i s i s a geared t u r b i n e g e n e r a t o r set t h a t was t e s t e d w i t h s p r a y s on t h e i n g o i n g and outgoing s i d e s o f t h e mesh. T h i s g e a r had a p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t y of 10,100 ft./min.. Measured temperature i n t h e drain l i n e indicated t e m p e r a t u r e s 3XF h i g h e r w i t h t h e s p r a y s d i r e c t e d a t t h e i n g o i n g s i d e o f t h e mesh than w i t h t h e s p r a y s on t h e o u t g o i n g s i d e o f t h e mesh. The 3%' temperature d i f f e r e n c e r e p r e s e n t s 0.5% i l l e f f i c i e n c y . ?his is unde r s t a n d a b l e when you c o n s i d e r two f a c t s . 1. The t e e t h a r e h o t t e s t when j u s t emerging from t h e mesh, a n d h e n c e more e f f i c i e n t c o o l i n g c a n b e o b t a i n e d by a p p l y i n g t h e f u l l q u a n t i t y o f c o o l i n g o i l t o them a t
-

The development of toothed g e a r i n g i s a vell-known and o f t - m e n t i o n e d s u b j e c t , b u t ~t does s e r v e t o b r i n g out a p o i n t . One o f .he e a r l i e s t forms o f a geared t r a n s m i s s i o n vas t h e r i g h t angle d r i v e c o n s i s t i n g o f two vooden wheels w i t h e n g a g i n g wooden p e g s . The purpose o f t h e d e v i c e was t o t r a n s m i t l o t i o n , and t h a t i t d i d . The t r a n s m i s s i o n vas n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y smooth, u n i f o r m , o r ' f f i c i e n t , b u t nobody much c a r e d . S p e e d s ~nd power were low and i f a peg b r o k e o u t > r wore away, they simply drove i n another. ~ b r i c a t i o nt o t h e s e g e a r s was n o t an i m p 3rtant consideration. As man became more c l e v e r , m e t a l s replaced wood, and c y c l o i d a l and i n v o l u t e forms replaced s t r a i g h t pegs. I t was d u r i n g t h i s t r a n s i t i o n t h a t t h e need f o r l u b r i c a t i o n was r e c o g n i z e d . A s two s u r f a c e s , such a s gear t e e t h , s l i d e over one a n o t h e r , h e a t i s generated through f r i c t i o n , and wear t a k e s p l a c e by t h e r o u g h n e s s o f t h e s u r f a c e s abrading each o t h e r . For a l o n g t i m e , t h e r t s i n l u b r i c a t i o n were d i r e c t e d a t r h d c i n g t h e r a t e a t which wear took p l a c e on t h e t e e t h . Heat removal was n o t a s e r ious problem because t h e low speeds allowed adequate time f o r t h e t e e t h t o b e a i r cooled between s u c c e s s i v e engagements. I n p r e s e n t day h i g h s p e e d g e a r u n i t s , i t i s not uncomnon t o encounter p i t c h l i n e veloci t i e s i n e x c e s s o f 20,000 f t . / m i n . . A t y p i c a l marine g e a r e d t u r b i n e d r i v e a t t h e s e speeds would have a time i n t e r v a l between s u c c e s s i v e p i n i o n t o o t h engagemen t s o f around 1/100 s e c . . T h i s does not allow much time f o r air-cooling. I n a g r e a t many g e a r applications today, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n high speed g e a r s e t s , t h e r o l e o f t h e l u b r i c a n t l a s been switched i n importance t o a primary r o l e of c o o l i n g and a secondary r o l e of retarding wear. The function of t h e o i l a s a c o o l a n t can 3est be performed by a low v i s c o s i t y o i l . r h i s same low v i s c o s i t y o i l w i l l g e n e r a l l y 3e t h e p r e f e r r e d l u b r i c a n t f o r t h e bearings ~ a r t i c u l a r l yt h e h i g h s p e e d p i n i o n beari n g s . A s a wear r e t a r d a n t , t h e o i l must !-.* enough body t o maintain a f i l m between ~ , n tg o t h s u r f a c e s when s u b j e c t e d t o t h e o

t h i s point. 2 . H'hen t h e s p r a y s a r e l o c a t e d on t h e i n going s i d e o f t h e mesh, t h e o i l i n t h e space between t e e t h must be d i s p l a c e d by t h e mating t e e t h . T h i s s e t s up a pumping a c t i o n t h a t c r e a t e s a d d i t i o n a l h e a t t o t h a t produced by t h e s l i d i n g o f t h e t e e t h . A f u r t h e r advantage o f s p r a y s l o c a t e d on t h e outgoing s i d e o f t h e mesh, though not a f u n c t i o n o f l u b r i c a t i o n , i s t h a t any f o r e i g n m a t t e r p a s s i n g through t h e o i l sqstem w i l l be thrown o f f t h e g e a r s by c e n t r i f u g a l a c t i o n r a t h e r than being passed tllrougb t h e mesh w i t h t h e r e s u l t i n g m a r r i n g o f t h e tooth surfaces. Another design f e a t u r e t h a t w i l l improve t h e e f f i c i e n c y of c o o l i n g i s t h e t y p e o f o i l spray used. The spoon o r fan t y p e spray a s compared t o t h e s t r a i g h t j e t w i l l g i v e g r e a t e r coverage t o t h e f a c e o f a g e a r f o r a given q u a n t i t y of o i l flow, and hence eff e c t more c o o l i ~ i gb e f o r e being thrown o f f . The c o o l i n g o f t h e space between h e l i x e s on double h e l i c a l g e a r s can be q u i t e import a n t . Heat g e n e r a t e d a t t h e t e e t l i t h a t i s n o t c a r r i e d away by t h e l u b r i c a n t f l o w s through t h e body o f t h e p i n i o n t o t h e ends o f t h e f a c e where i t i s d i s s i p a t e d t o t h e a i r and t h e o i l m i s t i n t h e g e a r case. n i s heat t r a n s f e r establishes a temperature g r a d i e n t a c r o s s each h e l i x o f tile p i n i o n , with t h e highest temperature e x i s t i n g a t t h e c e n t e r gap. T e s t p i n i o n s equipped with thermocouples have i n d i c a t e d temperature g r a d i e n t s r a n g i n g between 2 0 and 40F. On a 15 i n . d i a m e t e r p i n i o n , a t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c e n t e r and end o f 30' would r e s u l t i n a t a p e r e d p i t c h cylinde r , 0.003 i n . b i g g e r on one end than on t h e o t h e r . The t a p e r e d p i t c h c y l i n d e r i n t u r n c a u s e s l o a d c o n c e n t r a t i o n on t h e e n d s o f t h e t e e t h on t h e hot end, which can well be t h e f i r s t s t e p i n tooth f a i l u r e . Additional c o o l i n g s p r a y s d i r e c t e d a t t h e gap between h e l i x e s can keep t h i s t e m p e r a t u r e g r a d i e n t w i t h i n t o l e r a b l e limits. A number o f schemes have been d e v i s e d , aimed a t r e c t i f y i n g t h e seeming incompata b i l i t y between t h e v a r i o u s p u r p o s e s o f g e a r l u b r i c a n t s . Systems have been worked o u t u s i n g two s e p a r a t e o i l s , a low viscosi t y o i l f o r t h e b e a r i n g s and a h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l f o r c o n t a c t sprays. Going a s t e p f u r t h e r , o t h e r systems have been d e s i g n e d

f o r m a r i n e p r o p u l s i o n g e a r i n g u s i n c --"vo d i f f e r e n t o i l s i n t h e c o n t a c t sprays. ,-e, a r e l a t i v e l y low v i s c o s i t y o i l was used on t h e high speed t r a i n , and a h i g h e r viscosi t y o i l used on t h e low speed g e a r s . Needl e s s t o s a y , t h e s e systems have t h e i r drawbacks. A l e s s r a d i c a l and e a s i e r t o h a n d l e two temparrangement was t h e s i n g l e o i l e r a t u r e system. Here a t a k e o f f on t h e o i l c o o l e r permitted o i l t o be d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g e a r c a s e a t two d i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s . T h e h o t t e r o i l was u s e d t o l u b r i c a t e t h e b e a r i n g s , and t h e c o o l e r o i l u s e d i n t h e c o n t a c t s p r a y s . Where i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o squeeze o u t t h e l a s t b i t o f over-all machi n e r y e f f i c i e n c y , t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s may have some v a l u e . I n normal p r a c t i c e , howe v e r , w e p r e f e r t o u s e t h e s i m p l e r system o f one o i l d e l i v e r e d t o t h e g e a r c a s e a t one temperature. The above-n~entionedd e s i g n f e a t u r e s arid o t h e r s a s s i s t the o i l i n i t s function as a c o o l a n t . The q u e s t i o n then i s , how v i s c o u s should t h e o i l b e t o work a s a wear r e t a r d a n t . Numerous experiments and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been conducted toward answering t h i s . N a t u r a l l y , t h e experiments a r e du c t e d under l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s . - w i t h c l o s e c o n t r o l o v e r a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s . The t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e loaded w i t h a l o t o f high-powered matlienlatics and a h o s t of assumptions. The r e a l v a l u e i n t h e s e s t u d i e s l i e s i n the f a c t t h a t they p o i n t o u t t h e t r e n d s . One s t u d y , . b a s e d on E.K.Gatcombegs t l i e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n on tlie l u b r i c a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of g e a r s came up with a formula g i v i n g t h e allowable K f a c t o r s i n terms of gear r a t i o , pinion s p e e d , and a c o n s t a n t d e p e n d e n t on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e o i l used. T h i s cons t a n t i n c r e a s e d with an i n c r e a s e i n viscosi t y , but v a r i e d with an assumed t e n p e r a t u r e o f t h e o i l wedge between t h e t e e t h d u r i n g o p e r a t i o n . 'lhe a l l o w a b l e K f a c t o r r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s formula i s a widely used load f a c t o r f o r g e a r s , and i s a rough measure of t h e s u r f a c e compressive s t r e s s on t h e g e a r t e e t h . It i s d e f i n e d by t h e e q u a t i o n :

where R i s t h e r a t i o o f g e a r t e e t h t o pini o n t e e t h ; F i s t h e f a c e w i d t h ; D i , lie p i t c h d i a m e t e r o f t h e p i n i o n ; arid . .jM r e f e r s t o t h e p i n i o n speed. The absolute

a m c y of t h i s relationship i s not a s 1 : + nt a a s i t s indication of the trends. F o r example, c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t o f o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Assuming a c o n s t a n t o i 1 wedge temperature of 210F, an i n c r e a s e i n v i s c o s i t y from 4 5 0 SSU a t 100F t o 500 SSU i n c r e a s e s t h e a l l o w a b l e K f a c t o r by 2%. An i n c r e a s e o f v i s c o s i t y from 400 t o 600 SSU r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e d a l l o w a b l e I of 9%. The e f f e c t s o f p i n i o n s p e e d a r e ( more pronounced, I f we c o n s i d e r a main prop u l s i o n g e a r with a t u r b i n e speed of 6000 rpm and a second r e d u c t i o n p i n i o n speed o f 800 rpm, t h e a l l o w a b l e K f a c t o r s would be 1 7 0 and 8 8 f o r t h e f i r s t and s e c o n d reductions respectively. This allowable incre a s e i n l o a d i n g o f 95% i s d u e t o s p e e d a l o n e . It s h o u l d b e r e c o g n i z e d h e r e t h a t t h e s u r f a c e endurance l i m i t s of t h e s t e e l s have t o be h i g h e r t h a n t h e p r e s s u r e s deve l o p e d i n t h e o i l wedge, o r f a t i g u e f a i l u r e s w i l l occur. nKo important t r e n d s a r e i n d i c a t e d here. 1. O i l of h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y i s a b l e t o maint a i n a f i l m under h i g h e r s p e c i f i c loads. n 2. A i n c r e a s e i n s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y w i l l ena given o i l t o m a i n t a i n a f i l m under h -r l o a d s . Knowing t h e t r e n d s of changes i n viscosi t y and speed, and having c o n s i d e r a b l e operational data t o evaluate, enables u s t o : o r r e l a t e v i s c o s i t y w i t h s p e c i f i c l o a d s and speeds. W a r e t h e n i n a r e a s o n a b l y good e 3 o s i t i o n t o make f a i r l y i n t e l l i g e n t recomm3ndations f o r t h e v i s c o s i t y of a high speed ;ear l u b r i c a n t . The b a s i c c r i t e r i a a r e : 1. The s p e c i f i c t o o t h l o a d e x p r e s s e d a s ;urface compressive s t r e s s o r K f a c t o r . !. The s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y o f t h e t e e t h , o r ;he p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t y . There a r e c a s e s t h a t r e q u i r e s p e c i a l nonsiderat<?l~. I f a gear i s s u f f e r i n g surfice d i s t r e s s due t o poor a l i g n m e n t , d i s t ~r~ion, improper l u b r i c a t i o n , o r j u s t bad e a r c u t t i n g , i t may be p o s s i b l e t o a r r e s t h e condition, o r a t l e a s t r e t a r d i t s proge s s , by t h e use o f h i g h e r than normal v i s o s i t y o i l s , o r o i l s with E P a d d i t i v e s , o r 0 t h . Regarding t h e use o f h i g h v i s c o s i t y nd E P o i l s , i t i s o u r f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y e r v e d i f f e r e n t purposes. I n c a s e s o f sur8c.e f a t i g u e f a i l u r e , o r p i t t i n g , t h e u s e , ( \ h i g h e r v i s c o s i t y o i l may a r r e s t t h e e ord'ition i n i t s e a r l y s t a g e s . W doubt

"c-

t h a t t h e u s e o f an E P a d d i t i v e alone would have any e f f e c t . I n c a s e s of s u r f a c e weldi n g o r s c o r i n g , t h e u s e of proper E P addi t i v e s may a r r e s t o r prevent t h e d i s t r e s s . I n some c a s e s where p i t t i n g h a s ~ r o g r e s s e d enough, s u r f a c e welding may begin and combi n e d h i g h v i s c o s i t y and E P a d d i t i v e s may slow down t h e r a t e of d e t e r i o r a t i o n . I n our a c t i v i t i e s , s i m i l a r i t y i n practi c e s and o t h e r d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s seem t o group h i g h speed g e a r s by s p e c i f i c l o a d and p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t y i n t o two g e n e r a l double r e d u c t i o n m a r i n e classifications g e a r s and s i n g l e r e d u c t i o n l a n d g e a r s . It has been our experience t h a t rnost g e a r appl i c a t i o n s i n t h e two groups can be adequate l y h a n d l e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g v i s c o s i t y r a n g e s . For marine p r o p u l s i o n where r e l a t i v e l y low p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t i e s a r e encoun375 t o t e r e d i n t h e low s p e e d e l e m e n t s 6 0 0 S SU a t 100F. F o r l a n d a p p l i c a t i o n s where p i t c h l i n e v e l o c i t i e s a r e h i g h e r 250 t o 375 SSU a t 100F. S p e c i a l conside r a t i o n of c o u r s e i s given t o a p p l i c a t i o n s where u n u s u a l l o a d s , s p e e d s o r o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e involved. I n t h e c a s e o f worm g e a r i n g , t h e same b a s i c c r i t e r i a of s p e c i f i c l o a d and s l i d i n g v e l o c i t y apply t o t h e s e l e c t i o n of an o i l . The t o o t h a c t i o n i n h e l i c a l g e a r s and worm g e a r s i s roughly s i m i l a r i n t h a t r a d i a l r o l l and s l i d e , and s i d e s l i d e , a r e p r e s e n t i n b o t h . However, t h e r a t i o of s i d e s l i d e t o r a d i a l s l i d e i n wonn g e a r s is much higher t h a n i n h e l i c a l g e a r s , and i s a conditi o n which i s n o t conducive t o b u i l d i n g an o i l wedge. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , heavy b o d i e d o i l s compounded w i t h t a l l o w o r o t h e r s u i t a b l e animal f a t s a r e used. The animal f a t s p r o v i d e a t e n a c i o u s chemical l a y e r on t h e metal s u r f a c e s which do h e l p p r e v e n t wear, although they do n o t a c t a s a f l u i d . It i s o u r f e e l i n g t h a t a s a g e n e r a l reco m e n d a t i o n compounded o i l s of 15&190 S S U a t 210F a r e adequate f o r s l i d i n g v e l o c i ti e s up t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 600 f t . / m i n . . For h i g h e r s l i d i n g v e l o c i t i e s , we p r e f e r a l i g h t e r o i l i n t h e range of 125-150 SSU. Mild E P o i l s have been a p p l i e d extensi v e l y f o r l u b r i c a t i o n of worn gearing. Howe v e r , v a r i a t i o n i n r e s u l t s obtained with d i f f e r e n t branded compounds h a s p r e v e n t e d g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e by worm g e a r manufactu r e r s f o r approval of t h i s type l u b r i c a n t .

VISCOSITY IN THE LUBRICATION MECHANISMS OF ROLLING-ELEMENT BEAp-"VGS


By L.B.Sibley and J.C.Bel1, B a t t e l l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e
The importance of rolling-element beari n g s i n modern machine d e s i g n stems from s e v e r a l unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e i r operation. Rolling bearings have low f r i c t ion compared t o s l i d i n g bearings, p a r t i c u l a r l y a t start-up. Other a t t r i b u t e s i n c l u d e (1) smaller width, t h u s enabling t h e :haft t o he shortened i n some machines, ( 2 ) small e r c l e a r a n c e s , thereby providing a c c u r a t e positioning of t h e s h a f t , p a r t i c u l a r l y l v h e n used i n preloaded p a i r s , and ( 3 ) more r e l i a b i l i t y under conditions of meager lubrica t i o n . Because of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , rolling-element b e a r i n g s a r e f i n d i n g more and more use i n a i r c r a f t , m i s s i l e , and nucl e a r systems, a s well a s i n many i n d u s t r i a l a p p l i c a t i o n s . However, t h e use of new synt h e t i c l u b r i c a n t s , high temperatures, and h i g h speeds have brought on a v a r i e t y o f problems concerned with l u b r i c a n t e f f e c t s on bearing f a t i g u e l i f e and operating tempe r a t u r e . I n r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e s e problems have emphasized t h e need f o r a b e t t e r understanding of t h e r o l e of t h e l u b r i c a n t and i t s v i s c o s i t y i n the l u b r i c a t i o n mechanisms of rolling-element bearings.
CONTACT LOADS AND MOTIONS I N ROLLING-ELEMENT BEARINGS

In any discussion of bearing l u b r i c a t i o n and v i s c o s i t y , t h e shape of t h e c o n t a c t i n g s,urfaces, t h e m o t i o ~ l s , and t h e load pressu r e s i n t h e b e a r i n g must b e d e s c r i b e d , T h e r e a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f components i n rolling-element bearings: t h e r i n g s i n which t h e r a c e grooves a r e machined, t h e r o l l i n g elements themselves, and t h e cage o r rolling-element s e p a r a t o r . Although t h e s e components would appear t o c o n t a c t each o t h e r a t p o i n t s o r l i n e s , e l a s t i c deformation under any s i g n i f i c a n t l o a d produces f i n i t e a r e a s o r s u r f a c e s of c o n t a c t o v e r which t h e l o a d i s d i s t r i b u t e d .
C A G E WEAR S U R F A C E S

t h e cage pockets, and between t h e cage and t h e r i n g s on ring-located c a g e s , a r e esse n t i a l l y s l i d i n g bearings. l h e s e cage r u b L i n g s u r f a c e s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y of r a t h e r poor design from a s l i d i n g b e a r i n g s t a n d p o i n t . There a r e apparently no a c c u r a t e means y e t f o r determining cage loads i n rolling-eleme n t bearings, although under c e r t a i n condi t i o n s one might expect cage l o a d s t o be high. For example, i n b a l l bearings operati n g under heavy combined r a d i a l and t h r u s t l o a d , c a g e l o a d s a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e . The b a l l s o p e r a t e a t varying contact angles around t h e bearing, where t h e contact angle i s t h e a n g l e formed by a l i n e between t h e c e n t e r of t h e b a l l and t h e r a c e c o n t a c t a r e a , and a r a d i a l l i n e from t h e c e n t e r of t h e b e a r i n g through t h e b a l l c e n t e r . Thus t h e b a l l s tend t o speed up and slow down, rubbing f i r s t a g a i n s t t h e f r o n t s u r f a c e of t h e cage pocket and then a g a i n s t t h e r e a r . Under such c o n d i t i o n s , t h e l u b r i c a t i o n of cage pocket surfaces may be hydrodynamip or may depend more on t h e boundary lubric ~g p r o p e r t i e s of t h e l u b r i c a n t and of t h e cage m a t e r i a l . The cage-ring l o c a t i n g s u r f a c e s may support considerable loads hydrodynami c a l l y , even though t h e l e n g t h - d i a m e t e r r a t i o i s q u i t e small. I n any event, s l i d e r and journal bearing a n a l y s i s would apply t o t h e description of v i s c o s i t y e f f e c t s a t t h e s e cage s u r f a c e s , s o c a g e l u t r i c a t i o n phenomena w i l l not be discussed f u r t h e r .
ROLLING-CONTACT SURFACES

The cage and rolling-element assembly n o n a l l y r o t a t e s a t somewhat l e s s than h a l f t h e s h a f t speed of inner-ring r o t a t i n g bearings. The rubbing c o n t a c t a r e a s of t h e cage, both between the r o l l i n g elements and

The rolling-contact s u r f a c e s i n rollingelement bearings a r e probably most importa n t from t h e 1 u b r i c a . t i o n s t a n d p o i n t s i n c e t h e y c a r r y t h e l o a d and a r e u s u a l l y t h e surfaces a t which f a i l u r e occurs. These soc a l l e d r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t surfaces between the r o l l i n g elements and t h e r a c e s a p p a r e n t l y a r e r a r e l y i n pure r o l l i n g i n any p r a c t i c a l bearing. Gross s l i p o c c u r s , of course, whenever t h e t r a c t i o n of t h e c o l l i n g eleme n t s on t h e r a c e s i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o overcome the windage and drag of the cage, such a s under high-speed, l i g h t l y loaded conditi o n s . Even with s u f f i c i e n t t r a c t i o n , e v e r , t h e r e a r e t a n g e n t i a l f o r c e s a t - ,.be
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n n f a c e t h a t g i v e r i s e t o some s l i p . I n h-t-loaded b a l l b e a r i n g s , f o r example, o n s i d e r a b l e s l i p i s caused by t h e twisting f t h e b a l l s on one o r both o f t h e r a c e s . h a t i s , t h e r o t a t i o n of one r i n g with rese c t t o t h e o t h e r induces a t w i s t i n g moment n t h e b a l l s which i n c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s ng c o n t a c t angle. T h i s motion f o r c e s t h e l a l l s t o s l i d e on t h e r a c e s over l a r g e pori o n s of t h e contact a r e a s . In r a d i a l l y oaded b a l l b e a r i n g s and i n most r o l l e r l e a r i n g s , t h e t w i s t i n g i s minimized, b u t iome s l i p w i l l probably s t i l l o c c u r s i n c e .he c o n t a c t r e g i o n s a r e curved. A l l p o i n t s n these regions cannot be a t t h e same r a d a 1 d i s t a n c e from t h e a x e s of r o t a t i o n o f ;he r o l l i n g elements a t which t h e r e i s pure

,oiling.

I f a thrust-loaded b a l l b e a r i n g i s operi t e d a t high speed, t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s In t h e b a l l s may be an a p p r e c i a b l e f r a c t i o n )f the external ball loads, resulting i n a s i g n i f i c a n t change i n t h e ball-race c o n t a c t ~ n g l e .F u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s i n s p e e d e v e n t l a l l y r e s u l t i n a p p r e c i a b l e gyroscopic mom:nts on t h e b a l l s , s i n c e t h e i r axes of r o t a r e r e q u i r e d t o change d i r e c t i o n a s ;h-dalls r o l l around t h e r a c e . Both of ;hese e f f e c t s may i n c r e a s e t h e t a n g e n t i a l Forces a t b a l l - r a c e c o n t a c t s u r f a c e s and :hus promote f u r t h e r s l i p .
LUBRICATION OF SURFACES I N ROLLING CONTACT

From t h e f o r e g o i n g , i t can be seen t h a t t h e loads and motions a t t h e c r i t i c a l conta c t r e g i o n s between r o l l i n g e l e m e n t s and r a c e s a r e very complex. However, i f c e r t a i n s i m p l i f i c a t i o n s a r e made, t h e a v a i l a b l e l u b r i c a t i o n theory can be used t o g e t some idea of t h e l u b r i c a t i o n mechanisms i n t h e s e regions, and thus how t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t might a f f e c t t h e performance of r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s . L u b r i c a n t f i l m s o f appr e c i a b l e t h i c k n e s s e v i d e n t l y p e r s i s t under a wide r a n g e o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n rolling-element b e a r i n g s , s i n c e a percepti b l e voltage i s required t o d i e l e c t r i c a l l y break down t h e f i l m s between t h e r o l l i n g elements and t h e r a c e s (Ref. 1 , 2 ) . Theref o r e , i t seems t h a t we might d e s c r i b e t h e a c t i o n o f t h e l u b r i c a n t by hydrodynamic ap-Lysis. L , h e r e h a s b e e n a c e r t a i n amount o f t h e o r e t i c a l work through t h e y e a r s , prob-

a b l y t h e f i r s t by Martin (Ref. 3) i n 1916. L a t e r , s e v e r a l o t h e r t h e o r i s t s (Hef. 4-12), a s w e l l , a p p l i e d c l a s s i c a l hydrodynamic a n a l y s i s t o rolling-contact systems. A l l t h e s e t h e o r i e s d i f f e r s l i g h t l y , but genera l l y t h e u s u a l assumptions of hydrodynamic l u b r i c a t i o n a n a l y s i s were used a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , namely f i r s t , t h e assumption of an i d e a l l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t ( c o n s t a n t viscosi t y , m a s s l e s s , and i n c o m p r e s s i b l e ) , and second, t h e assumption of r i g i d b e a r i n g s u r f a c e s . ,These t h e o r i s t s d i d not i n i t i a l l y t a k e i n t o account t h e v a r i a t i o n i n viscosi t y o r t h e deformation of t h e s u r f a c e s , although t h e s e e f f e c t s have been t r e a t e d by some of t h e s e a u t h o r s . F u r t h e r , they worked w i t h c o n d i t i o n s of s t e a d y - s t a t e r o l l i n g , o r r o l l i n g w i t h g r o s s s l i d i n g , and u s u a l l y w i t h t h e two-dimensional c a s e o f an i n f i n i t e l y l o n g r o l l e r , t h u s n e g l e c t i n g end l e a k a g e , o r end e f f e c t s . The complex mathematics i n t h e s e t h e o r i e s h a s u s u a l l y preve n t e d broad s o l u t i o n s f o r any but t h e s i m p l e s t assumptions. Although t h e assumptions used i n t h e e a r l y t h e o r y d e v i a t e from many p r a c t i c a l b e a r i n g o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , some o f t h e p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e s and l u b r i c a n t v e l o c i t y profiles predicted are a t l e a s t qualitati v e l y i n t e r e s t i n g i n d e s c r i b i n g t h e fundamentals of l u b r i c a t i o n i n t h e a r e a s of n e a r c o n t a c t . F i g . 1 shows t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r a c e and t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e r o l l e r n e a r t h e very small region of n e a r contact. Imagine f o r a moment t h a t we a r e s i t t i n g on t h e cage and watching t h e a r e a o f c o n t a c t with t h e s u r f a c e of t h e r o l l e r g o i n g by t o t h e l e f t , a s shown i n Fig. 1, and t h e s u r f ace o f t h e r a c e going by a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same speed. The p r e s s u r e g e n e r a t e d i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m which f i l l s t h e s p a c e between t h e s e s u r f a c e s , a s p r e d i c t e d by e a r l y theory, i s shown i n Fig. l a , increasi n g g r a d u a l l y up t o a maximum and then dorm r a t h e r s h a r p l y . The p o i n t of minimum f i l m t h i c k n e s s occurs a f t e r t h e p o i n t of maximum p r e s s u r e . The motion o f t h e l u b r i c a n t t o generate these pressures tends f i r s t t o squeeze t h e l u b r i c a n t o u t i n f r o n t of t h e r o l l e r , creating the velocity profile. This s q u e e z i n g rnotion d i m i n i s h e s t o zero veloci t y , with respect t o t h e s u r f a c e s , a t the p o i n t o f maximum p r e s s u r e . Then t h e p r e s s u r e b u i l t up i n t h e o i l f i l m p u s h e s t h e

Pressure profile along lubricant film Lubricant films on metal surfaces

Velocity of race surface a. Assuming isoviscous lubricant and rigid surfaces ( high-speed, light- load conditions)

Lubricant pressure

b . Probable modification under high-load conditions

FIGURE I. SKETCHES

OF THE LUBRICANT FILM PRESSURES AND VELOCI PROFILES BETWEEN A ROLLER AND A RACE

lub-icant back through t h e s l i t of minimum f&thickness, and even h i g h e r s h e a r r a t e s a r e generated t h e r e i n t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n than i n f r o n t of t h e r o l l e r . Because o f t h e l i m i t i n g assumptions o f t h e e a r l y theory, t h e p r e s s u r e and v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s i n Fig. l a a r e rob ably n o t v a l i d except f o r very low l o a d , high-speed condi t i o n s . A t bearing loads t h a t a r e t y p i c a l of many p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e viscosi t y of the l u b r i c a n t i s a p t t o vary appreci a b l y w i t h p r e s s u r e and t e m p e r a t u r e , and t h e s u r f a c e s of t h e elements and r a c e s a r e a p t t o deform s i g n i f i c a n t l y under l u b r i c a n t p r e s s u r e . Thus, t h e f i l m p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e i s probably modified i n a manner s i m i l a r t o t h a t shown i n Fig. l b under many p r a c t i c a l l o a d c o n d i t i o n s . The c o n t r i b u t i o n of some of t h e more advanced t h e o r i e s t o o u r unders t a n d i n g of t h e s e f i l m shapes and p r e s s u r e s w i l l be discussed l a t e r . When t y p i c a l o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s f o r p r a c t i c a l bearings a r e s u b s t i t u t e d i n the theory, i t i s ~ r e d i c t e dt h a t very high f i l m p r e s s u r e s a r e g e n e r a t e d . hlaximurn p r e s s u r e s i n t h e hundreds o f thousands o f pounds p e r -.re i n c h a r e n o t uncommon under l o a d s u i n many a p p l i c a t i o n s . The s h e a r r a t e s , even under r a t h e r low speed c o n d i t i o n s of a few thousand r e v o l u t i o n s p e r minute, can be a s high a s a m i l l i o n r e c i p r o c a l seconds. I n high-speed a p p l i c a t i o n s of 10 o r 20 thousand r e v o l u t i o n s p e r minute f o r m e d i m s i z e d b e a r i n g s , s h e a r r a t e s might be i n t h e t e n s o f m i l l i o n s o f r e c i p r o c a l seconds. I n addi t i o n , t h e h i g h s h e a r r a t e s may p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t h e a t i n g of t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m , thereby a l t e r i n g t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e f i l m and p o s s i b l y inducing o t h e r important thermal e f f e c t s .

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p r e s s u r e s e n s i n g d e v i c e s . No measurements of the pressure p r o f i l e s i n rolling-contact systems e v i d e n t l y have y e t been made, a l t h ough t h e r e have been s a n e attempts. Minimum o i l f i l m t h i c k n e s s h a s been m e a s u r e d by v a r i o u s e l e c t r i c a l techniques. However, t h e accuracy o f such f i l m t h i c k n e s s d a t a i s sometimes q u e s t i o n e d , owing t o t h e unpredi c t a b l e v a r i a t i o n i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l propert i e s o f o i l under high p r e s s u r e s , temperatu r e s , and s h e a r r a t e s . Rolling-contact f a t i gue e x p e r i m e n t s have been conducted w i t h d i f f e r e n t l u b r i c a n t s , both i n f u l l b e a r i n g s and i n s p e c i a l rolling-contact f a t i g u e machines. G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t f a t i g u e l i f e does vary with the v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . For l u b r i c a n t s of t h e same g e n e r a l t y p e , l i k e m i n e r a l o i l s , t h e experimental data i n d i c a t e t h a t fatigue l i f e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o about t h e x t h power o f v i s c o s i t y (Ref. 1 3 , 1 4 ) . When l u b r i c a n t s o f widely d i f f e r e n t chemical s t r u c t u r e a r e viscosity run, however, t h e f a t i g u e l i f e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n o t q u i t e s o simple, and is v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t . Sometimes f a t i g u e l i f e i n c r e a s e s , and sometimes i t decr e a s e s , when l u b r i c a n t s of d i f f e r e n t s t r u c t u r e s b u t o f t h e same v i s c o s i t y a r e r u n ( R e f . 1 5 , 1 6 1 . Another r a t h e r i n t e r e s t i n g phenomenon t h a t has been discovered i s t h a t when c e r t a i n d r y filrn l u b r i c a n t s a r e used i n r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t systems, a much l o n g e r f a t i g u e l i f e i s o b t a i n e d t h a n w i t h any o f t h e l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t s i n v e s t i g a t e d (Ref. 1 7 ) . T h i s may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c r i t i c a l s t r e s s e s f o r b e a r i n g f a t i g u e with o l i q u i d l u b r i c a n t f i l m a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from, and perhaps g r e a t e r t h a n , t h o s e c a l c u l a t e d on t h e b a s i s o f H e r t z i a n c o n t a c t theory.

EXPERIMENTAL S T U D I E S

ADVANCED L U B H I C A T I O N T H E O R I E S

I t might be asked what s o r t o f c o r r e l a t i o n e x i s t s between t h e t h e o r y and experiment. One f a c t o r t h n t h a s probably r e t a r ded a d e q u a t e c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h e x p e r i m e n t i s t h a t i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o measure c r i t i c a l p a r a m e t e r s , such a s f i l m p r e s s u r e s and temperatures, i n t h e r e g i o n s of n e a r conta c t i n r o l l i n g b e a r i n g s . I t i s much more d i f f i c u l t than i n j o u r n a l b e a r i n g s where r ~ l - a t i v e l yl a r g e a r e a s o f p r e s s u r i z e d lubmake a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h thermocouples and s t a n d a r d

Recent y e a r s have brought a few improvements i n t h e theory o f r o l l i n g - c o n t a c t l u b r i c a t i o n . P r o b a b l y t h e most n o t a b l e o f t h e s e i s by D d r r ( H e f . 18) i n which t h e d e f o r n ~ a t i o no f t h e s u r f a c e s i s t a k e n i n t o account. Dtirr d i d t h i s i n a m a t h e m a t i c a l l y proper manner i n t h a t h e combined t h e hydrodynamic a n a l y s i s o f t h e flow o f t h e l u b r i c a n t w i t h e l a s t i c t h e o r y f o r t h e deforma t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e s . I n o t h e r words, t h e pressures generated i n t h e l u b r i c a n t film were balanced a g a i n s t t h e s t r e s s e s induced

bearing metal. I n a d d i t i o n , Darr was k.10 reduce h i s r e s u l t s t o a s e t o f simp l e f o r m u l a s a p p l i c a b l e t o a f a i r l y wide range o f o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a1though u n f o r t u n a t e l y h i s theory does n o t extend t o very high load c o n d i t i o n s . Some of t h e resu l t s t h a t were found i n t h i s a n a l y s i s a r e i n f o r m a t i v e n e v e r t h e l e s s . For i n s t a n c e , a s t h e load i s increased, o r t h e r o l l i n g speed o r t h e v i s c o s i t y d e c r e a s e d , t h e amount o f deforniation i n t h e s u r f a c e s i n c r e a s e s , a s would be expected. Tile way t h a t t h i s modifi e s t h e p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e i s t h a t under i n c r a s i n g l y more s e v e r e o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s t h e maximum p r e s s u r e ~ e a kt e n d s t o broaden, b r i n g i n g t h e p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e up n o r e s h a r ~ , vi n f r o n t o f t h e r o l l e r . a s l shown i n F i g . 2 t a k e n from D o r r ' s p a p e r . The l i m i t i n g p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e e l a s t i c deformation c a s e a s deri v e d by H e r t z t h a t of the f a m i l i a r e l l i p t i c a l p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n . One i n t e r e s t i n g i m p l i c a t i o n of E r r ' s theory i s t h a t t h e maximum p r e s s u r e i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m can never exceed t h e maximum H e r t z i a n stre s s i n t h e u n l u b r i c a t e d c a s e . Indeed, f o r 3perating c o n d i t i o n s which produce p r e s s u r e p r o f i l e s verv near the H e r t z i a n . D o r r ' s theory i n d i c a t e s t h a t o i l v i s c o s i t y has .,e e f f e c t on maximum f i l m p r e s s u r e .

:c

However, t h e p r e s e n c e o f a s l i g h t d i p n e a r t h e t r a i l i n g edge o f E r r ' s f i l m t h i c k n e s s p r o f i l e , s h w n i n Fig. 3, may i n d i c a t e some s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e b e a r i n g caused bv t h e l u b r i c a n t . A more thoroueh a n a l v s i s " o f t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y of t h i s ' d i p may h e l p r e v e a l t h e manner i n which l u b r i c ant viscosity a f f e c t s fatigue l i f e . Other irnprovernents i n t h e theory account f o r t h e f a c t t h a t v i s c o s i t y is n o t c o n s t a n t i n t h e region of n e a r c o n t a c t between r o l l i n g e l e m e n t s and r a c e s . Very h i g h p r e s s u r e s , very high s h e a r r a t e s , and presumably r a t h e r high temperatures a r e generated, and t h e v i s c o s i t y changes with a l l o f t h e s e e f f e c t s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w h i l e Dijrr's analy s i s i s s o c o n ~ p l e t e from t h e d e f o r n l a t i o n s t a n d p o i n t , h e h a s n o t y e t been a b l e t o t a k e v a r i a b l e v i s c o s i t y i n t o account. Many i n v e s t i g a t o r s have i n t r o d u c e d t h e p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n of v i s c o s i t y i n t o t h e theory of t h e l u b r i c a t i o n of r i g i d r o l l i n g s u r f a c e s ( R e f . 8 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 , 1 9 , 2 0 ) . I n such t h e o r i e s , t h e v i s c o s i t y i s u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by a l o g a r i t h m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , namely p = po* e x p u p . , where c(, i s t h e v i s c o s i t y a t atmo s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , p i s t h e p r e s s u r e , and a i s the pressure c o e f f i c i e n t of viscosity. T h i s , of c o u r s e , i s n o t an e x a c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e v i s c o s i t y c h a r a c t e r Ls Ls

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I 2 3 Relative Position Along Film,

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FIGURE 3. FILM SHAPE UNDER A LUBRICATED, DEFORME ROLLER. ACCORDING TO DORR (18)

i s t i c s of l u b r i c a n t s . h u t i t i s c l o s e enough t o b e u s e f u l a s f a r a s t h e t h e o r y development i s concerned. The e f f e c t s found r e g a r d i n g p r e s s u r e - v i s c o s i t y were j u s t t h e o p p o s i t e t o t h a t which Dorr found f o r t h e d e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e s u r f a c e s . The h i g h p r e s s u r e p e a k s were narrowed i n s t e a d o f widened, and t l i e o r e t i c a l l y i n f i n i t e pressu r e s c o u l d be g e n e r a t e d i n t h e o i l f i l m . T h e e f f e c t o f t h e b a s e v i s c o s i t y on t h e maximum f i l m p r e s s u r e i s somewhat dimini s h e d from what would be t h e c a s e i f pressure.-viscosity were not taken i n t o account. T h e r e have been some t h e o r i e s i n which both t h e p r e s s u r e v a r i a t i o n of v i s c b s i t y and t h e e l a s t i c deformation of t h e s u r f a c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y (Ref. 21,22, 2 3 ) . However, t h e m a t h e n a t i c a l complexity o f such an a n a l y s i s e i t h e r r e q u i r e s t h a t b r o a d s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s b e made o r p e r m i t s s a t i s f y i n g s o l u t i o n s t o be o b t a i n e d f o r o n l y a few s p e c i f i c c a s e s , a s i n t h e p a p e r by P o r i t s k y (Ref. 2 1 ) . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h a t t h e d i p noted i n W r r ' s f i l m t h i c k n e s s p r o f i l e i s a l s o evide n t i n P o r i t s k y ' s more advanced t h e o r y , a s shown i n F i g . 4. It w i l l be noted t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n o f r o l l i n g i n Fig. 4 is o p p o s i t e t o t h a t i n Fig. 3. Grubin ( R e f . 22) s t a t e s t h a t t h e f i l m t h i c k n e s s between two r o l l e r s under l o a d i s e s s e n t i a l l y c o n s t a n t over t h e c o n t a c t a r e a , and under c o n d i t i o n s n e a r p u r e r o l l i n g , h e

i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s f i l m t h i c k n e s s h ecy.-1s

where P i s t h e l o a d ; L i s h a l f t h e r o l l e r l e n g t h ; R and F$ a r e r a d i i o f c u r v a t u r e of t h e u n d e f o r i e d r o l l e r s ; U1 and U a r e t h e t a n g e n t i a l v e l o c i t i e s of t h e r o l e r surfa c e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of r o l l i n g ; p,, and a a r e v i s c o s i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s a s b e f o r e ; and

0 = [ ( l - v f ) / n ~ ~ ] [ ( l- v 2 / n E p l t 2,
where 8 i s a c o n s t a n t depending on t h e e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e r o l l e r s ; U~ and v 2 a r e P o i s s o n r a t i o s ; and El and E2 a r e modu l i i of e l a s t i c i t y . T h i s formula p r e d i c t s t h a t the film thickness is proportional t o about t h e power of v i s c o s i t y , which is i n approximate agreement with E r r ' s theory.

CONCLUSIONS On t h e b a s i s o f t h e a v a i l a b l e theory, i t appears t h a t t h e l u b r i c a n t v i s c o s i t y h a s an a p p r e c i a b l e e f f e c t on t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e f i l m s between t h e e l e m e n t s and r a c e s i n r o l l i n g - e l e m e n t b e a r i n g s . The t h i c k n e s s of t h e s e films w i l l determine t h e e x t e n t t o which metal-to-rnetal c o n t a c t occurs. T he a b s e n c e o f good boundary l u b r i c a n t s .ti c u l a r l y , f i l m t h i c k n e s s should c o n t r o l t h e d e g r e e o f s u r f a c e damage and wear.

Position Along Film ,

inches

FIGURE 4. NET PASSAGE SHAPE FOR A LUBRICATED, DEFORMED ROLLER, ASSUMING VISCOSITY VARIATION WITH PRESSURE, ACCORDING TO PORITSKY (21)
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lling-element bearings u s u a l l y f a i l by e however, s o t h e e f f e c t on b e a r i n g s t r e s s e s should b e examined. Theory sugge s t s t h a t t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no e f f e c t o f v i s c o s i t y on maximum f i l m p r e s s u r e a t loads s u f f i c i e n t l y high t o cause f a t i g u e . However t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f a characte r i s t i c dip i n t h e film thickness p r o f i l e may vary with v i s c o s i t y . I n a d d i t i o n , visc o s i t y probably a f f e c t s t h e f i l m temperatu r e which may c o n t r i b u t e t o f a t i g u e f a i l u r e e i t h e r by means of t h e m o - e l a s t i c s t r e s s e s i n t h e bearing o r by temperature-sensitive c o r r o s i o n f a t i g u e . These e f f e c t s have y e t t o be analyzed i n any s a t i s f a c t o r y manner.
AREAS OF NEEDED FURTHER STUDY

There a r e s e v e r a l a r e a s o f t h e o r e t i c a l development needed b e f o r e l u b r i c a n t e f f e c t s i n rolling-element b e a r i n g s can b e accura t e l y p r e d i c t e d . F i r s t of a l l , t h e e f f e c t of temperature, and temperature v a r i a t i o n , i n t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m is important n o t only by means of i t s e f f e c t on l u b r i c a n t viscosi t y and s t a b i l i t y , but a l s o by i t s d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on t h e b e a r i n g , namely t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s and corrosion f a t i g u e . Presumably, f i l m temperature p r o f i l e s could b e approxi y t e d by same f l u i d f r i c t i o n re1 a t i a n s h i p s . ) e r h a p s some assumptions r e g a r d i n g t h e t dsfer of heat i n t h e film, since the t r a n s i t time o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s s o s h o r t and t h e f i l m i s s3 t h i n . However, t h e development o f t h e t h e o r y f o r t e m p e r a t u r e would be complicated by t h e feedback of i t s e f f e c t on v i s c o s i t y , and on t h e development of t h e p r e s s u r e s and t h e s h e a r r a t e s which i n turn a f f e c t the temperature generated. Another e f f e c t t h a t may b e i m p o r t a n t i n l u b r i c a t i o n theory i s t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t . Very high p r e s s u r e s a r e generated i n the film, and i t i s reasonable t o a s s u m t h a t t h e l u b r i c a n t i s going t o be compressed under t h e s e p r e s s u r e s . The f a c t t h a t t h e b u l k modulus f o r l u b r i c a n t s i s considerably l e s s than t h e e l a s t i c modulus for steels indim tes that, i f w feel that t h e e l a s t i c deformation of t h e s u r f a c e s i s i m p o r t a n t , perhaps c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e l u b r i c a n t i s even more important. One g r a t i f y i n g thought however i s t h a t t h e l u b r i c a n t f i l m i s v e r y t h i n , and a v e r y s m a l l amount of t h e l u b r i c a n t i s subjected t o the high pressures. I n comparison, the s o l i d i s e s s e n t i a l l y an i n f i n i t e mass, and even i f t h e voLume of t h e l u b r i c a n t i s d r a s t i c a l l y reduced, i t s t i l l may n o t b e as i m p o r t a n t $e generation of p r e s s u r e s a s t h e elasL d eformation o f t h e s u r f a c e s . A t h i r d important a r e a i s t h a t o f v i s c o - e l a s t i c i t y

o r o t h e r rheological e f f e c t s i n t h e lubri c a n t . R e l a x a t i o n phenomena i n l i q u i d s a r e well known, and they may have an important i n f l u e n c e on t h e l u b r i c a t i o n mechanisms under some b e a r i n g o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Even a t r a t h e r moderate s p e e d s , t h e time r e q u i r e d f o r t h e l u b r i c a n t t o go t h r o u g h t h e region of n e a r c o n t a c t between a r o l l i n g e l e m e n t and a r a c e i s a v e r y s m a l l f r a c t i o n o f a s e c o n d . It may b e i n t h e o r d e r o f a thousandth o r a t e n thousandth o f a second, and may be even s m a l l e r t h a n t h a t i n high-speed b e a r i n g s . However, i n o r d e r t o account adequately f o r v i s c o e l a s t i c e f f e c t s a s f a r a s t h e o r y is concerned, would r e q u i r e an a d v a n c e d e q u a t i o n f o r l i q u i d s , perhaps not even i n v o l v i n g viscosi t y a s w e know i t , but r a t h e r some f u n c t i o n which would reduce i n t o o r d i n a r y v i s c o s i t y under steady-state, low shear and low press u r e conditions. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e t h e o r y development, experiments a r e needed t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e t h e o r y , t o s t u d y t h e d e t a i l e d mechanical b e h a v i o r o f l u b r i c a n t s , and t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o which chemical e f f e c t s e n t e r t h e l u b r i c a t i o n phenomena. The rheology of l u b r i c a n t s under t h e r a p i d l y changing stre s s e s and i n t h e o i l f i l m s found i n r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s may be q u i t e d i f f e r e n t from t h e o r d i n a r y b e h a v i o r o f l i q u i d s . Chemical d e g r a d a t i o n of t h e l u b r i c a n t and d i r e c t chemical r e a c t i o n with b e a r i n g surf a c e s c e r t a i n l y o c c u r s i n some high-tempe r a t u r e b e a r i n g s . However, t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e s e chemical e f f e c t s i n b e a r i n g f a t i g u e and l u b r i c a t i o n a r e l a r g e l y unknown. I n considering t h e s e many a s p e c t s of t h e l u b r i c a t i o n m c h a n i s m s i n rolling-element b e a r i n g s , i t can b e seen t h a t t h e p i c t u r e i s c o n f u s e d , a n d i n many i n s t a n c e s , i s l a c k i n g i n d e t a i l . However, with s u f f i c i e n t e f f o r t and ingenuity, i t should be p o s s i b l e t o develop a workable t h e o r y and a b e t t e r understanding o f l u b r i c a t i o n and v i s c o s i t y e f f e c t s . Then both l u b r i c a n t s and b e a r i n g s can be designed with more s c i e n t i f i c preci s i o n for the applications o f the future.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

T h e a u t h o r s w i s h t o t h a n k Mr. C. M. A l l e n , D i v i s i o n C o n s u l t a n t , B a t t e l l e Memo r i a l I n s t i t u t e , f o r h i s many h e l p f u l c o r n e n t s and suggestions during t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s paper. P a r t s of t h i s paper a r e based on t h e r e s u l t s o f r e s e a r c h sponsored by t h e Propulsion Laboratory, Wright A i r Development Center, U. S. Air Force. Tne autho r s express t h e i r appreciation t o the Air Force f o r permission t o publish t h i s paper.

REFERENCES

1 . S m i t h , F.W., F r i c t i o n a l P h e n o m e n a i n B a l l B e a r i n g s , P r o g r e s s R e p o r t No. 1 f r o m t h e Lubrication Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e o f T e c h n o l o g y ( N o v . 1 9 5 5 ) , P a r t 111, E l e c t r i c a l Conductivity of B a l l Bearings, p - 23-32. 2 . S i b l e y , L . B . , B e l l , J . C . , O r c u t t , F.K. e t a l , A Study of t h e Influence of Lubrica n t P r o p e r t i e s o n t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f Firc r a f t Gas T u r b i n e E n g i n e R o l l i n g - C o n t a c t B e a r i n g s , T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t No. 5 8 - 5 6 5 f r o m B a t t e l l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e t o W r i g h t ~ A i r D e v e l o p m e n t C e n t e r ( O c t . 1 9 5 8 ) , p. 9-15. 3 . M a r t i n , H.M., T h e L u b r i c a t i o n o f G e a r Teeth, Engineering, 102, 119 (1916). 4 . K a r l s o n , K.G., K o n t a k t p r o b l e m , T e k n i s k T i d s k r i f f . M e k a n i k , 5 6 . 1-6 ( 1 9 2 6 ) . 5 . Biiche, W . , E i n e H y d r o d y n a m i s c h e T h e o r i e der Fliissigkeitsreibung in Rollenlagern. Forschung, 5, 237 ( 1 9 3 4 ) . 6 . P e p p l e r , W., D r u c k i i b e r t r a g u n g a n g e s c h m i e r t e n z y l i n d r i s c h e n G l e i t f l a c h e n , VDI F o r s c h u n g s h e f t , 3 9 1 , 2-13 ( 1 9 3 8 ) . 7 . M e l d a h l , A., C o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e T h e o r y of t h e Lubrication of Gears and o f t h e S t r e s s e s of t h e L u b r i c a t e d Flamks of Gear T e e t h , T h e Brown B o v e r i R e v i e w , 2 8 , 3 7 4 382 (1941). 8 . Gatcombe, E.K., L u b r i c a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f I n v o l u t e S p u r G e a r s , T r a n s . ASME, 61, 177 (1945). 9 . Weber, C . , T h e o r e t i s c h e U n t e r s u c h u n g d e r S c h m i e r d r u c k s zwischen Walzen b e i k o n s t a n t e r u n d b e i d r ~ c k a b h l n g i ~ e rl h i g k e i t , Z ~ o r s c h u n ~ s s t e l ' lf ei r Z a h n r i i d e r u n d G e t r i e i b e b a u d e r T e c h n . H o c h s c h . Miinchen, B e r i c h t e N r . 1 0 8 , 1 1 3 , 1 1 6 und 1 2 3 ( 1 9 4 9 - 1 9 5 0 ) . 1 0 . C a m e r o n , A., H y d r o d y n a m i c T h e o r y i n Gea r L u b r i c a t i o n , J . I n s t . P e t . , 3 8 , 614 (1952). 11. L e w i c k i , W . , H y d r o d y n a m i c L u b r i c a t i o n o f R o l l e r B e a r i n g s , E n g i n e e r , 191, 920922 (1954). 1 2 . K a p i t s a , P.L., The Hydrodynamic Theory o f Lubrication During Rolling Friction, Z h u r . Tekh. F i z . , 2 5 ( 4 ) , 747-762 ( 1 9 5 5 ) ; USSR ( T r a n s l a t e d a n d i s s u e d Aug. 1 9 5 6 , by t h e T e c h n i c a l Information and L i b r a r y Servi c e s , M i n i s t r y of Supply, G r e a t B r i t a i n ) . 13. C a r t e r , T . L . , E f f e c t o f L u b r i c a n t Visc o s i t y on R o l l i n g - C o n t a c t F a t i g u e L i f e , R e p o r t No. T 4 1 0 1 f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l AdvN

i s o r y Committee f o r A e r o n a u t i c s ( 0 c t . l h ) . 1 4 . B a r w e l l , F.T. a n d S c o t t , D., E f f e c t o f L u b r i c a n t on P i t t i n g F a i l u r e o f B a l l Beari n g s , E n g i n e e r i n g , 1 8 2 . 9-12 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 1 5 . C o r d i a n o . H.V., C o c h r a n , E . P . , J r . , a n d Wolfe, R.J., E f f e c t of Combustion R e s i s t a n t H y d r a u l i c F l u i d s on B a l l - B e a r i n g F a t i g u e L i f e , T r a n s . ASME, 78. 989-996 ( J u l y , 1 9 5 6 ) a n d A S t u d y o f C o m b u s t i o n - R e s i s t a n t Hydra u l i c F l u i d s a s Ball-Bearing Lubricants, . L u b r i c a t i o n E n g . , 1 2 ( 4 ) . 261-266 ( 1 9 5 6 ) . 16. C a r t e r , T.L., E f f e c t o f L u b r i c a n t Base S t o c k on R o l l i n g - C o n t a c t F a t i g u e L i f e , Repo r t No. TN 4 1 6 1 f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l A d v i s o r y Committee f o r A e r o n a u t i c s (Feb. 1958). 1 7 . S c o t t , D . , S t u d y o f t h e E f f e c t o f Lubr i c a n t on P i t t i n g F a i l u r e o f B a l l s , P a p e r 5 8 ; a n d M i l n e , A.A. a n d N a l l y , M.C., Some S t u d i e s o f P i t t i n g F a i l u r e i n R o l l i n g Conta c t s , P a p e r 54; p r e s e n t e d a t t h e C o n f e r e n c e o n L u b r i c a t i o n a n d Wear, I n s t . Mech. E n g r s . (Oct. 1957). 1 8 . D G r r , J . , S c h m i e r m i t t e l d r u c k u n d Randv e r f o r m u n g d e s Rol l e n l a g e r s , Ing-Arch., 22 ( 3 1 , 171-193 ( 1 9 5 4 ) . 19. B e l l , J.C., Measurement o f P r e s s u r e V a r i a t i o n o f V i s c o s i t y i n an O i l F i l m Between Two C y l i n d e r s . S e e A F u n d a m e n t a l ,'= dy o f B e a r i n g B e h a v i o r , F o u r t h P r o g r e s s R , :t o n C o n t r a c t No. N5 O R I - 1 1 1 f r o m ~ a t t e l l e Memorial I n s t i t u t e t o t h e O f f i c e o f Naval R e s e a r c h ( A p r i l 3 0 , 1 9 4 7 1 , p. 6 6 - 8 0 . 2 0 . McEwen, E . , T h e E f f e c t o f V a r i a t i o n o f V i s c o s i t y w i t h P r e s s u r e on t h e Load-Carryi n g C a p a c i t y o f t h e O i l F i l m Between Gear T e e t h , J . I n s t . P e t r o l e u m , 38, 6 4 6 ( 1 9 5 2 ) . 2 1 . P o r i t s k y , H., L u b r i c a t i o n o f G e a r T e e t h Including the Effect of E l a s t i c Displacem e n t , p r e s e n t e d a t t h e F i r s t ASLE N a t i o n a l Symposium on F u n d a m e n t a l s o f F r i c t i o n a n d Lubrication i n Engineering (Sept. 1952). 2 2 . G r u b i n , A.N., a n d V i n o g r a d o v a , I . E., I n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e C o n t a c t of Machine C o m p o n e n t s , Moscow, T s N I I T M A S h , B o o k No. 3 0 ( 1 9 4 9 ) , ( D . S. I . R . , L o n d o n . T r a n s l a t i o n No. 3 3 7 ) . 23. P e t r u s e v i c h , A., Fundamental Conclusi o n s Fkom t h e C o n t a c t H y d r o d y n a m i c T h e o r y o f L u b r i c a t i o n , I z r e s t . Akad. Nauk S.S.S. R. O t d e l . T e k h . Nauk ( 2 ) , 2 0 9 - 2 2 3 ( 1 9 5 1 1 , ( M i n i s t r y o f Defence, London, T r a n s l a t i o n No. 2 9 3 ) .

4'

SESSION CHAIRMAN

C.C.Moore, G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c Co.

Chairman, R e s e a r c h T e c h n i c a l Committee

V. RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS TO APPZIEW ZUBRICATION


GEAR L U B R I C A T I O N A N D V I S C O S I T Y

E. E . S h i p l e y , G e n e r a l E l e c t r i c Co.
R E C E N T R E S E A R C H A N D D E V E L O P M E N T WORK I N R O L L I N G B E A R I N G S

H. Hanau, New D e p a r t u r e D i v i s i o n , G e n e r a l M o t o r s C o r p .
T H E E F F E C T O F T E M P E R A T U R E A N D P R E S S U R E ON V I S C O S I T Y A S R E L A T E D T O HYDRODYNAMIC L U B R I C A T I O N

Edward S a i b e l , R e n s s e l a e r P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e

GEAR LUBRICATION AND VISCOSITY By E.E. S h i p l e y , General E l e c t r i c Company


I n g e n e r a l terms, g e a r s f a i l i n s e r v i c e from gear t o o t h breakage, g e a r t o o t h p i t t i n g , l o n g r a n g e wear and s c o r i n g . F i g . 1 shows t y p i c a l examples o f e a c h o f t h e s e f a i l u r e s . I n p r a c t i c e , however, a g i v e n g e a r s e t may s u f f e r f a i l u r e s from a combi n a t i o n o f a l l o f t h e s e . The s e q u e n c e o f f a i l u r e may go s o m e t h i n g l i k e t h i s . T h e g e a r s commence t o wear and o v e r a p e r i o d o f t i m e enough m e t a l i s removed from t h e p r o f i l e t o p e r m i t t h e g e a r t o r u n rough. T h i s rough r u n n i n g c a u s e s dynamic o v e r l o a d s , which t e n d t o d e v e l o p p r e m a t u r e p i t t i n g . P i t t i n g will roughen up t h e conta c t s u r f a c e s which then may c a u s e a r u p t u r e o f t h e o i l f i l m , and metal-to-metal c o n t a c t and a s e v e r e c a s e o f s c o r i n g . With b o t h p i t t i n g and s c o r i n g t a k i n g p l a c e a t t h e same time, t h e g e a r p r o f i l e s w i l l b e compl e t e l y d e s t r o y e d and t h i s c o n d i t i o n w i l l l e a d t o broken g e a r t e e t h . Gear t o o t h breakage, a s s u c h , i s a beam ng f a t i g u e problem, and i s n o t genera a f f e c t e d by t h e l u b r i c a n t used on t h e g e a r mesh. Gear t o o t h p i t t i n g i s a s u r f a c e f a t i g u e problem, and i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d n o t t o b e a f f e c t e d by t h e l u b r i c a n t used. Recentl y , however, some information h a s been r e l e a s e d which r e l a t e s p i t t i n g - t y p e f a i l u r e s t o t h e l u b r i c a n t . Most of t h e d a t a seems t o therebe q u i t e c o n f l i c t i n g and confusing f o r e they o f f e r very l i t t l e i n regard t o a l t e r i n g the general d e f i n i t i o n . 'Ihe i n a b i l i t y t o measure small q u a n t i t i e s o f wear on g e a r t o o t h s u r f a c e s accurat~ l h a s l i m i t e d t h e amou~lto f development y ~ o r ki n t h i s a r e a . Wear t e s t s a r e g e n e r a l l y : o s t l y and time consuning, and consequently : h e r e i s a l i m i t e d amount o f work b e i n g lone. The r a d i o a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e f o r g e a r vear t e s t i n g h a s opened t h e door f o r a more l c c u r a t e and, p e r h a p s i n t h e l o n g r u n , a l o r e economical rnetllod o f p e r f o r m i n g wear . e s t s on l u b r i c a t e d g e a r s . The r a d i o a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e i s q u i t e s i m ~ l e .?he p i n i o n t o b e t e s t e d i s machined i l l he-normal o r usual manner. It i s then s e n t ! n e . r e s t atomic p i l e where i t i s irra d i a t e d w i t h n e u t r o n s . T h i s makes t h e pini o n r a d i o a c t i v e . 'The in ion i s then mounted i n t h e t e s t s t a n d , 8s i n d i c a t e d by F i g . 2. \ b i l e the t e s t stand is i n operation, the l u b e o i l i s c i r c u l a t e d through t h e g e a r box p a s t t h e Geiger t u b e and back i n t o t h e o i l s~unp. When t h e r a d i o a c t i v e p i n i o n convnences t o wear, t h e l u b e o i l t r a n s p o r t s t h e worno f f r a d i o a c t i v e articles p a s t t h e d e t e c t i o n t u b e . The l a b o r a t o r y c a n t h e n c o n v e r t t h e wear r a t e i n counts p e r minute t o m i l l igrams o f wear p e r minute, by a simple cali b r a t i o n technique. F i g . 3 shows some comparative wear d a t a o b t a i n e d by u s i n g a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t radi o a c t i v e t e c h n i q u e . O i l samples from a c o n v e n t i o n a l s e t were t a k e n e v e r y h o u r . These samples were then s u b j e c t e d t o a high r a d i o a c t i v e f i e l d . T h i s c a u s e d t h e wear p a r t i c l e s t o become a c t i v a t e d . 'Ihe c u r v e s u i n Fig. 3 s m up t h e r e s u l t s . The s i l i c o n e o i l t e s t was run f o r f o u r h o u r s a t a l i g h t l o a d b e f o r e t h e 700K-factor test began. The o t h e r o i l t e s t s were s t a r t e d o u t a t 700 K - f a c t o r . U s i n g t h e Mil-L-7808-C oil at 300F a s a b a s e f o r comparison, t h e s i l i c o n e o i l showed a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 t i m e s a s much wear. The h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e d i e s t e r showed 4 t i m e s a s much wear. I t s h o u l d b e noted t h a t t h e s i l i c o n e o i l and ' t h e d i e s t e r w e r e r u n a t 400F o i l i n and 500F g e a r blank temperature. 'Ihe a u t h o r would s u s p e c t t h a t t h e d i e s t e r o i l would show a b o u t t h e same amount o f wear a t 300F a s t h e fil-G 7808 o i l d i d . T h i s t e s t was n o t r u n , ]lowe v e r . A f t e r a b o u t 25 h o u r s o f o p e r a t i o n , t h e s i l i c o n e o i l showed a wear r a t e o f approximately 2 m i l l i g r a m s p e r hour, w h e r e a s t h e Mil-I..-7808 o i l had a wear r a t e o f 1 milligram p e r hour. The K e l l e y e q u a t i o n f o r Temperature Flash seems t o be t h e b e s t method o f r e l a t i n g s c o r i n g t e s t r e s u l t s of t h e l u b r i c a n t - metal combination t o t h e geometry of t h e g e a r d e s i g n . I t i s a u s e f u l t o o l from a g e a r t e s t i n g , a s well a s from a g e a r d e s i g n p o i n t o f view. Equation (1) shows t h e Kelley f o n n u l a f o r Temperature Flash, o r TF a s comnonly r e f e r r e d t o i n t h e g e a r t r a d e .

.-

bc

where: TF = f l a s h temperature. ti = temperature of blank; usually taken a s i n l e t - o i l temperature, OF. cf = m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t f o r c o n d u c t i v i t y , density, and s p e c i f i c heat. I f = c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n . Wt = tangent d r i v i n g load, l b . K, = overload f a c t o r due t o misalignment. V = r o l l i n g v e l o c i t y of pinion a t p o i n t of 1 c o n t a c t , fps. V 2 = r o l l i n g v e l o c i t y of gear a t p o i n t of contact, fps. v2) = s l i d i n g v e l ~ c i t y ,fps. (vl

4t=
F,

transverse pressure angle.

= e f f e c t i v e f a c e width, i n .

***

application factor. velocity factor. width of band of contact, i n . s u r f a c e f i n i s h , rms ( a f t e r i n i t i a l running i n ) . 'Ihe r o l l i n g v e l o c i t i e s may be o b t a i n e d from the rpm of t h e pinion o r gear by vl = (npnp1/360) o r v2 = (ngnp2/360). where: P = r a d i u s of c u r v a t u r e a t t h e p o i n t of contact. np = pinion rpm. n = gear rpm. *****g**
s

K = , C = , B = , s =

Temperature Flash i s defined a s t h e sur-

= s u r f a c e f i n i s h , rms ( a f t e r i n i t i a l

f ace temperature i n t h e a r e a of c o n t a c t
between t h e , g e a r t e e t h i n OF. A c t u a l l y , T e m p e r a t u r e F l a s h o r TF i s n o t t h e r e a l t e m p e r a t u r e , b u t t e s t s show t h a t TF i s p r a c t i c a l l y a c o n s t a n t f o r any given mate r i a l and l u b r i c a n t combination. From Equ a t i o n ( I ) , i t i s q u i t e evident t h a t most of t h e v a r i a b l e s p e r t a i n i n g t o gear s c o r i n g have been considered, such as: 1. Temperature of t h e o i l o r g e a r blank temperature. 2. Coefficient of f r i c t i o n . 3. Tooth p r e s s u r e on t a n g e n t i a l d r i v i n g load. 4 . V e l o c i t i e s o f t h e mesh. 5. Face width. 6. S u r f a c e f i n i s h . 7. Type of o i l . For any given design, f o r example, a s e t of l a b o r a t o r y t e s t g e a r s , equation (1) f o r T e m p e r a t u r e F l a s h can be s i m p l i f i e d a s show11 i n e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) below.

TF

[ti

+C

(W, / F,) 3/4 Pll/'I

[55/(55

- .)I

where: TF = f l a s h temperature, OF. t i = temperature of blank, usually taken a s i n l e t o i l temperature, OF. C = constant, dependent on t h e geometry of t h e t e s t gears. Wt = tangential driving load, lb. F, = e f f e c t i v e f a c e width, i n . N = pinion RPM.

running i n ) . From t h e preceding equation ( 2 ) , i t i s q u i t e easy t o s e e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p of t h e prime v a r i a b l e s . Temperature F l a s h i s comp r i s e d of t h e sum of t h e i n l e t o i l temperatu r e plus a quantity that is proportinnal rt o load and speed. T h i s sum i s then e a s e d by a f a c t o r r e l a t e d t o t h e surTace finish. For t e s t i n g purposes, usually one s e t of g e a r s i s run u n t i l a s c o r i n g type f a i l u r e occurs. TF i s then c a l c u l a t e d f o r the given s e t of f a i l u r e conditions. &ice t h e TF cons t a n t has been obtained, then the i n l e t o i l tenperature, t h e load and speed can be vari e d a s long a s tire t o t a l h e a t input t o t h e system d o e s n o t exceed t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l Temperature F l a s h constant. The r e s u l t s o f some s c o r i n g t e s t s made with c a s e carburized t e s t g e a r s and various grades of mineral o i l a r e shown i n Fig. 4. These t e s t r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t v i s c o s i t y p l a y s an i m p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e u l t i m a t e s c o r i n g r e s i s t a n c e of t h e gear and l u l r i c a n t combination. A s t h e v i s c o s i t y o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s i n c r e a s e d , t h e r e s u l t a n t TF constant i n c r e a s e s , a s i n d i c a t e d by scoring f a i l u r e s . I n o t h e r words, from a s c o r i n g p o i n t of view, g r a d e 1100 o i l h a s a much h i g h e r s c o r i n g r e s i s t a n c e than grade 1005 o i l . Note t h a t t h e K e l l e y e q u a t i o n would Id p r e d i c t t h a t t h e curves i n Fig. 4 . show up a s s t r a i g h t horizontal l i n e s . . ~ t s

e r i n d i c a t e t h a t they slope gently u p

c1ty.

4..over a wide range i n p i t c h l i n e vel-

Tnis scoring resistance-viscosi t y r e l a t onship seems t o hold only f o r the mineral lils. The scoring r e s i s t a n c e of s y n t h e t i c lils seems t o be r e l a t e d more t o t h e chemcal composition of the o i l , and the s e c r e t rdditives contained therein, rather than t o ,he viscosity of the lubricant. Fig. 5 p r e ients some data taken from a recent A S L E )aper by T. F. Davidson o f Wright A i r Dev!lopment Center and P. M. Ku of Southwest \esearch I n s t i t u t e . These d a t a have been : a l c u l a t e d i n terms of t h e Kelley Tencperzture F l a s h constant TF, and they seem t o lgree with s i m i l a r data obtained from t e s t s :onducted by the author. The following con:lusions may be drawn by c a r e f u l examinat.on of Fig. 5. 1. Viscosity seems t o have l i t t l e , i f any, 3ffect i n c o n t r o l ling t h e s c o r i n g r e s i s t ince. 1. A l l of the synthetics had b e t t e r scoring resistance than t h e high v i s c o s i t y mineral )il. 3 n e lowest v i s c o s i t y l u b r i c a n t , Mil-Lhas the best scoring resistance. i. S i l i c o n e o i l No. 1, which has a lower r i s c o s i t y than s i l i c o n e o i l No. 2 , h a s a iigher scoring r e s i s t a n c e . j , Mil-L-7808 o i l and Mil-L-25336 o i l have ipproximately t h e same v i s c o s i t y and chem.cal composition, but have a big d i f f e r e n c e in scoring r e s i s t a n c e (undoubtedly due t o ;he d i f f e r e n c e i n a d d i t i v e s ) . Synthet,ics a r e not alone i n t h e i r disregard f o r viscosity e f f e c t s . A minor chan:e i n a t h i n mineral o i l can make a l a r g e :hange i n scoring resistance of the lubrict n t . Fig. 6 shows a coniparison o f g r a d e 1005 o i l doped up with 1%a d d i t i v e . The rdditive has l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e viscosity ) f t h e l u b r i c a n t , b u t a s compared w i t h itraight grade 1005 and grade 1065 o i l s , i t ias a tremendous e f f e c t on t h e u l t i m a t e icoring r e s i s t a n c e . Additives i n mineral o i l s , new synthetic lils, and a d d i t i v e s i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s , a l l 'how promise f o r a high scoring r e s i s t a n c e ubricant. Ifowever, they do not deserve a l l ~ f - - t h e r e d i t . A change i n gear m a t e r i a l c

!LJ,

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with c e r t a i n s y n t h e t i c o i l s can ~ r o d u c ea remarkable g a i n i n t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e s e combinations t o r e s i s t scoring. Some recent t e s t r e s u l t s by t h e a u t h o r show t h a t a chlorophenol s i l i c o n e o i l , when run with n i t r i d e d gear t e e t h , produces a high scori n g r e s i s t a n c e . Fig. 7 i n d i c a t e s t h e c o m p a r i s o n o f t h e s i l i c o n e o i l with n i t r i d e d gears and s i l i c o n e o i l with case carburized g e a r s . I n Fig. 7 , t h e p l o t t e d band indica t e s t h e e s t a b l i s h e d r e s u l t s of Mil-L-7808 o i l and c a s e carburized gears. More than 25 g e a r t e s t s make up t h i s band. The t e s t s with s i l i c o n e o i l and case carburized gears f a l l w i t h i n t h i s band. The same s i l i c o n e o i l and n i t r i d e d gears show a vast improvement i n scoring resistance. I n t h e search f o r new and improved lubr i c a n t s t o operate a t higher loads, speeds, and temperatures, t h e r e i s one p o i n t t h a t must be considered. A given l u b r i c a n t and metal combination has a d e f i n i t e temperatu r e l i m i t a t i o n above which s c o r i n g - t y p e f a i l u r e s w i l l occur. I t rnakes l i t t l e d i f f erence i f t h e c r i t i c a l temperature i s derived from t h e o i l temperature, t h e impressed l o a d o r t h e r a t e o f s l i d i n g . They a l l c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e u l t i m a t e f a i l u r e . You cannot a l t e r one without c o n s i d e r i n g t h e others. I f Mil-I.-7808 o i l has a Temperature F l a s h constant of 400F, then t h i s o i l w i l l not carry any gear load i n a 400F environment. You can compare t h i s s i t u a t i o n t o a rubber balloon t h a t has been t e s t e d f o r 400 l b . of water. I f you put 400 l b . water i n t h e balloon, i t w i l l not break. However, i f some gear designer adds a few more pounds o f water t o t h e system ( t o s i m u l a t e some gear load which he must transmit), then the system i s subject t o immediate f a i l u r e . In o r d e r t o c a r r y load with t h e 400F lubrica n t , t h e i n l e t o i l t e m p e r a t u r e must be reduced i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e l o a d t o be c a r r i e d and t h e r a t e a t which i t must be t r a n s ~ n ited. t All of the o i l manufacturers, and o t h e r s f o r t h a t matter who a r e working on l u b r i o a n t s to meet new high temperature specifica t i o n s , must be aware not orily of the high temperature problem h u t a l s o o f t h e l o a d carrying capacity problem. b e property has l i t t l e value without the o t h e r .

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FIGURE 4 SCORING TEST RESULTS


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FIGURE 5 SCORING T E S T RESULTS


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FIGURE 7 SCORING TEST RESULTS


CHANGES I N MATERIALS

RECENT RESEARCH A N D DEVELOPMENT WORK I N ROLLING BEARINGS


By H. Hanau, New Departure Division, General h b t o r s Corp.
R o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s have been i n u s e i n one form o r a n o t h e r f o r a t l e a s t 2000 y e a r s . Jurgensmeyer i n h i s book D i e Wtilzlager ( p . 5 ) r e l a t e s t h a t i n 1 9 0 9 , d u r i n g t h e r e n o v a t i o n of t h e Old T r i n i t y Church i n L a n c a s t e r - he o n l y s a y s North < America, b u t i t must have been Pennsylvania, t h e homestead of one of tlie o l d e s t b e a r i n g n ~ a n u f a c t u r e r s t h e y found t h e " weathervane t o be s u p p o r t e d on a r o l l e r b e a r i n g complete w i t h cage, manufactured i n 1794. The cage c o n s i s t e d of two copper rings connected by s i x b r a s s 10 nan b o l t s on which t h e bronze r o l l e r s turned. The r a c e s were bronze d i s k s . T h i s b e a r i n g had operated f o r 115 years without l u b r i c a t i o n during which time the bronze r o l l e r s wore from 30 mm t o 19 mm o u t s i d e diameter. The beari n g was s t i l l o p e r a t i v e upon disassembly. hlan had p r o b a b l y l o n g ago r e c o g n i z e d t h a t moving an o b j e c t by r o l l i n g r e q u i r e d l e s s e f f o r t than by s l i d i n g it. The inventi --of t h e wheel showed t h i s very convin::-.-:yeToday, t h e r o l l i n g e l a n e n t bearing C% u s t r y i s s t i l l very much concerned with in t h e problem of making r o l l i n g elements do more r o l l i n g and l e s s s l i d i n g . I t seems t h a t even a good slogan won't q u i t e accomp lish this. B e f o r e d e s c r i b i n g some o f t h e r e c e n t r e s e a r c h and developlnent work i n r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s , a b r i e f o u t l i n e o f t h e s t a t e of t h e a r t a s of about 1950 w i l l be presented. ' h e design of r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s i s based e s s e n t i a l l y on two t h e o r i e s . A. The e l a s t i c deformation of s o l i d bodies i n c o n t a c t , a s developed by Heinrich Hertz (Gesanmelte Werke, 1895). This e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s u r f a c e compr e s s i v e s t r e s s e s , t h e d e f l e c t i o n of t h e r o l l i n g elements, and t h e subsurface shear developed by a given l o a d ( F i g . 1 ) . T h i s t h e o r y presupposes: ( 1 ) Hooke's law t o b e i n e f f e c t , namely t h a t s t r e s s i s proportional t o s t r a i n , ( 2 ) i s o t r o p i s m , namely h a v i n g t h e same p r o p e r t i e s i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s , and )omogeneous m a t e r i a l . ';bcalixed p l a s t i c deformations and surf a c e imperfections make Hooke' s law only an approximation. N m a t e r i a l i s a v a i l a b l e o t h a t meets c o n d i t i o n s ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) . The u n i t l o a d i n g i n r o l l i n g e l e m e n t b e a r i n g s i s g e n e r a l l y much h i g h e r than i n most machine elements. Compressive o r Hertz s t r e s s e s i n t h e neighborhood of 350,000 p s i a r e n o t uncomnion. Conventional 52100 b a l l b e a r i n g s t e e l , when hardened t o 62-64 Rc c a n s u p p o r t 500,000 p s i mean compressive s t r e s s w i t h no more t h a n 0.00015 i n . p e r i n . b a l l d i a m e t e r i n d e n t a t i o n , which i s considered not d e t r i m e n t a l t o s a t i s f a c t o r y o p e r a t i o n i n most b a l l b e a r i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s . These a r e e s s e n t i a l l y s t a t i c l o a d c o n c e p t s . A r e l a t i o n s h i p between dynamic l o a d - c a r r y i n g a b i l i t y and b e a r i n g l i f e must be e s t a b l i s h e d . The high s t r e s s l e v e l puts r o l l i n g e l a n e n t bearings above the h o r i z o n t a l , o r theor e t i c a l l y i n f i n i t e , l i f e portion of the S N curve mainly because t h e imperfecti o n s contained i n t h e m a t e r i a l a c t a s stress concentrations. The importance of t h e i r e f f e c t appears t o be magnified because of t h e high s t r e s s l e v e l .

B. Comprehensive theory of f a t i g u e f a i l u r e i n r o l l i n g element bearings, developed by Lundberg and Palrngren, a s p u b l i s h e d i n 1947 i n Acta P o l y t e c h n i c a under t h e t i t l e Dynamic C a p a c i t y o f R o l l i n g Bearings. I n s e t t i n g up a bearing l i f e formula, a c r i t e r i o n of f a i l u r e i s needed. It i s s t a t e d

t h a t f a i l u r e i s most l i k e l y t o occur i n t h e most h e a v i l y s t r e s s e d region o f t h e b e a r i n g namely a t d e p t h Z where t h e maximum subs u r f a c e s h e a r o c c u r s i n t h e form o f a micro-crack a f t e r a given number of s t r e s s r e v e r s a l s . These f a t i g u e c r a c k s s t a r t from c e r t a i n weak p o i n t s , namely i n c l u s i o n s , s t r i n g e r s , o r o t h e r i m p e r f e c t i o n s a s previousl y described. The s t r u c t u r e o f t h e m a t e r i a l c h a n g e s g r a d u a l l y under load r e p e t i t i o n with prast i c flow o c c u r r i n g i n t h e neighborhood o f t h e weak p o i n t s , namely i n c l u s i o n s , s t p i n g e r s o r other imperfections. n e s e tend t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e process of changing t h e mate r i a l s t r u c t u r e i n t h e v i c i n i t y of depth ZO i n t h e c a s e of 52100 s t e e l from martens t i t i c t o t r o o s t i t i c - a p p e a r i n g , which i s a much more l o o s e l y connected s t r u c t u r e . The s t a t i s t i c a l p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l endure N m i l l i o n s t r e s s cycl e s a t s t r e s s amplitude To, w i t h t h e s h e a r s t r e s s - a t a maximum a t d e p t h Zo f o r t h e volume s t r e s s e d , i s g i v e n by t h e r e l a t i o n
1% (1/S)

=F

(To,

N1%) V

from which t h e well-known b e a r i n g l i f e l o a d r e l a t i o n s h i p i s derived, namely L = (c/F)'. Exponent P i s d e t e r m i n e d e x p e r i m e n t a l l y from t h e s l o p e e o f t h e l i n e t h r o u g h t h e p l o t t e d p o i n t s , where P = C-h + 2/3e. T h e e f f e c t which m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a s on b e a r i n g f a t i g u e l i f e d i s p e r s i o n i s determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y . The p r o b a b i l i t y - S g i v e s t h e r e l a t i v e number of bearings which w i l l endure L m i l l i o n r e v o l u t i o n s . The t e s t

d a t a a r e p l o t t e d on a Weibull p l o t , ma14rlg t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of exponent e convel t f o r analysis. The major e f f o r t s o f most b e a r i n g rese a r c h up t o now have been t o i n c r e a s e t h e exponent e , t h a t i s t h e m a t e r i a l and proce s s i n g c o n s t a n t . The d e s i r a b l e value f o r i t would o f c o u r s e be i n f i n i t y . A l l b e a r i n g s would then f a i l a t t h e same time. L i f e rati n g s i n b e a r i n g manufacturer's c a t a l o g s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y based on t h i s p r i n c i p l e . T e s t i n g o f b e a r i n g s under r a d i a l , t h r u s t and contbined l o a d i n g h a s produced t h e modi f i c a t i o n f a c t o r s used f o r e v a l u a t i n g beari n g l i f e under such o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Except f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y minor d i f f e r e n c e s i n H e r t z s t r e s s produced by t h e s e methods o f loading, t h e l i f e modification f a c t o r s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y c a u s e d by f a c t o r s o t h e r than t h e f a t i g u e concept, t h a t i s s l i d i n g under t h r u s t and combined loading. I n order o f s e v e r i t y o f t h e i r e f f e c t on l i f e , nonr o l l i n g motion of a b a l l i n a raceway is a t a minimum under r a d i a l , and maximum under combined loading. These s l i d i n g e f f e c t s a r e minimized by e f f e c t i v e l u b r i c a t i o n , and a r e considered r e l a t i v e l y unimportant a t a ra t e speed. C o n s i d e r a b l e work on f r i c t i o n and h e a t generation f o r various bearing geometries h a s been done by S t r i b e c k , Tabor, P o r i t s k y and o t h e r s . H o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s worked we1 1 enough f o r most a p p l i c a t i o n s u s i n g s t a n d a r d d e s i g n s , and t h e above methods of l i f e p r e d i c t i o n , and no r e a l need was seen f o r any f u r t h e r research. b s t b e a r i n g malfunctioni n g was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s , namely mounting, l u b r i c a t i o n and misalignment, and t h e r e f o r e most t e x t books on t h e s u b j e c t o f r o l l i n g element b e a r i n g s d e a l main1 y w i t h t h e s e problems.
WHAT PROMPTED RESEARCH WORK?

Rev. x lo6

The r o l l i n g element i n d u s t r y h a s been f o r c e d t o speed up i t s r e s e a r c h and development e f f o r t s i n t h e l a s t 10 y e a r s mainly because o f t h e i n c r e a s i n g l y s e v e r e demands made by modern a i r c r a f t , b o t h manned and unmanned. High f l i g h t s p e e d s and accompany i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e s , a s w e l l a s lowweight and r e l i a b l e and p r e d i c t a b l e p-formance, h a v e triade e x i s t i n g t h e o r i , ~f beafing design inadequate.

fl

personic a i r p l a n e s a r e f u l l of e q u i p using b a l l bearings which a r e required t o operate under conditions heretofore considered impossible of achievement. I h e design of t h i s equipment r e q u i r e s t h e a i r c r a f t approacir, namely minimum weight and b u l k .. f o r maximum performance. Approximate solutions a r e no longer acceptable on presentlyworkable bearings, and new approaches a r e needed t o s o l v e requirements f o r ( a ) high speed, (b) high temperature, (c) high loading, (d) i n a b i l i t y t o l u b r i c a t e by conventi o n a l means, ( e ) space and weight l i m i t a t i o n s , and ( f ) unusual environmental condi tions.
R E C E N T RESEARCH A N D D E V E L O P M E N T

Research and development a c t i v i t i e s have been stepped up c o n s i d e r a b l y i n t h e l a s t e i g h t years t o t r y and meet t h e s e new requirements. They have r e s u l t e d i n p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n s t o some problems and some new developments, but above a l l they have served t o p o i n t out how l i t t l e i s known about t h e a c t u a l behavior of r o l l i n g element bearings. The following a c t i v i t i e s can be rG.z:rted on. &+,CLEAN STEEL - Attempts a r e being made t o minimize i n c l u s i o n s and o t h e r forms of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n b e a r i n g s t e e l by vari o u s melting techniques, such a s induction and consumable e l e c t r o d e , vacuum me1 t i n g , zone melting, and l e v i t a t i o n melting, which avoids a l l reaction with c r u c i b l e m a t e r i a l s by suspending t h e melt with an i n d u c t i o n c o i l . Sc f a r , the e f f e c t of clean s t e e l on f a t i g u e l i f e has shown up on doubled and quadrupled 10% f a i l u r e l i f e . ( 2 ) NONDESTRUCTIVE T E S T I N G - One o f t h e most important r e a s o n s f o r premature and unpredictable b e a r i n g f a i l u r e i s b e l i e v e d t o be t h e presence of imperfections i n t h e bearing s t e e l , i n t h e form of non-metallic i n c l u s i o n s and s t r i n g e r s . I f t h e s e imperf e c t i o n s could be detected a s t o frequency, l o c a t i o n , s i z e and t y p e i n a c o m p l e t e d b e a r i n g by n o n - d e s t r u c t i v e means, t h e i r e f f e c t on l i f e could perhaps be evaluated. I t might f u r t h e r be p o s s i b l e t o e v a l u a t e what t y p e o f i m p e r f e c t i o n i s d e t r i m e n t a l t o bearing l i f e . Several means of a c c o n ~ p $iqhing t h i s a r e now being i n v e s t i g a t e d . I HIGH S E E D CONSIDERATIONS ( a ) Class, , i c a l fatigue l i f e prediction. Centrifugal

<.

f o r c e e f f e c t of b a l l s a t high speed causes rearrang.ement of f o r c e s , a s a n a l y z e d by A . B . J o n e s i n h i s p a p e r on L i f e of High Speed Bearings. While t h e o u t e r raceway may b e more h e a v i l y loaded because of c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e e f f e c t , i n s o f a r a s h i g h speed bearings f a i l i n c l a s s i c a l fatigue a t a l l , t h e r e s t i l l appears t o be a predominance of i n n e r r i n g f a i l u r e s . L i f e t e s t i n g o f LOO, 208 and 322 bearings a t 1 x 1 0 ~ DN has proved t h i s t o be t h e case. It a l s o showed t h a t under a given l o a d , t h e number o f s t r e s s c y c l e s t o f a i l u r e does not decrease a s r a p i d l y a s p r e d i c t e d . It i s believed t h a t t h e hydrodynamic e f f e c t o f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s r e s p o ~ l s i b l ef o r t h i s l i f e improvement a t high speed, and t h e continued predominance o f i n n e r r i n g f a i l u r e s ( F i g . 2 ) . D r . A. Palmgren h a s w r i t t e n a paper on t h e l i f e of high speed bearings, vhich i n c l u d e s t h e hydrodynamic e f f e c t . ( b ) FRICTION - Several f a c t o r s a r e believed t o cause f r i c t i o n i n a high speed bearing. I n t e r f a c i a l s l i p (Heathcote e f f e c t ) of t h e r o l l i n g elements under r a d i a l load i s one f a c t o r , and i n a d d i t i o n t o t h a t , t h e r e i s b a l l s p i n n i n g under pure t h r u s t and combined loading. Bolen and Shevchenko i n t h e i r paper on Visual Study of E a l l Motion i n a High Speed T h r u s t Bearing t r i e d to demons t r a t e on what r a c e t h e b a l l r o l l s and s p i n s . A.B.Jones i n h i s paper on B a l l Moti o n and S l i d i n g F r i c t i o n i n B a l l Bearings h a s e s t a b l i s h e d a method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e f r i c t i o n moment and c o n d i t i o n of b a l l s l i d i n g i n a high speed b e a r i n g , i n terms o f f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e and b a l l i n e r t i a e f f e c t s using a Coulomb f r i c t i o n v a l u e of 0.06-0.07. See Fig. 3-6. E l a s t i c h y s t e r e s i s l o s s , defined a s t h e energy l o s t through p l a s t i c deformation of t h e c o n t a c t p o i n t under a g i v e n l o a d , i s c l a i m e d by Tabor a s t h e major s o u r c e o f r o l l i n g r e s i s t a n c e , i n h i s p a p e r on The Mechanism of F r e e R o l l i n g F r i c t i o n . Referr i n g t o Fig. 7 , tlie h o l e i n t h e b a l l measu r e s o u t a c i r c u l a r i m p r i n t on t h e s t r e t ched rubber which i n t h e undeflected s t a t e becomes an e l l i p s e . The s h a r p n e s s o f t h e o u t l i n e of the imprint precludes t h e prese n c e o f s l i p . No d i f f e r e n c e i n r o l l i n g f r i c t i o n i s observed on o i l e d o r dry surf a c e s . He concludes t h a t i n t e r f a c i a l s l i p p l a y s a t r i v i a l p a r t i n f r e e r o l l i n g and

t h a t r e s i s t a n c e t o r o l l i n g i s independent of l u b r i c a t i o n except where i t reduces surface a t t r i t i o n , which appears t o become t h e major problem a s speeds and l o a d s go up, and t h e q u a l i t y of l u b r i c a n t d e t e r i o r a t e s . 'Dr~itowskia t General Motors Research has conducted t e s t s with b a l l b e a r i n g s which show t h a t f r i c t i o n t o r q u e i s independent o f l u b r i c a t i o n b u t i s a f f e c t e d by r a c e geometry. Fogg and Webber i n t h e i r paper on Design F a c t o r s of B a l l and R o l l e r B e w i n g s have done considerable t e s t i n g on t h e effe c t of raceway conformity, c o n t a c t a n g l e , i n t e r n a l c l e a r a n c e , bearing speed a n d load on f r i c t i o n torque. Some t y p i c a l high speed bearing f r i c t i o n t o r q u e d a t a r e c e n t l y o b t a i n e d a r e shown below.

BEARING TOI4OUE DATA

12

4
RPY

6
Lo-"

I0

LOO

200

300
1.8.

100

,011

TIIALST LOAD,

The gyroscopic e f f e c t s of t h e b a l l s a t high speed have not been i n v e s t i g a t e d . The r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f a l l t h e s e f a c t o r s i n terms o f b e a r i n g l i f e i s n o t u n d e r s t o o d , nor have r e l a t i o n s h i p s been d e v e l o p e d which would g u i d e h i g h s p e e d b e a r i n g d e s i g n . Reduced t o fundamentals,

t h e problem again becomes one of pres---re and s l i d i n g . I n t h i s connection, t h e . /k by Smith and Liu on S t r e s s e s Due t o 'fiGge n t i a l and Normal Loads on an E l a s t i c S o l i d w i t h A p p l i c a t i o n t o Some C o n t a c t S t r e s s Problems shows t h a t t h e sub-surface s h e a r s t r e s s e s r i s e t o t h e s u r f a c e , arid i n c r e a s e considerably a s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of f r i c t i o n between t h e rubbing bodies i n c r e a s e s (Fig. 8 ) . This w i l l g i v e r i s e t o s u r f a c e f a i l u r e s q u i t e comnion i n high speed bearings, parti c u l a r l y w i t h t h e p o o r e r l u b r i c a n t s and with o p e r a t i o n a t h i g h e r temperatures. (4) HIGH TEMPERATURE CONSIERATIONS Beari n g m a t e r i a l s should have a s many of t h e following p r o p e r t i e s a s p o s s i b l e , regardl e s s of t h e operating temperature range. ( a ) High t e n s i l e and y i e l d s t r e n g t h . ( b ) High hardness. ( c ) High wear and g a l l r e s i s t a n c e . ( d ) D i m e n s i o n a l l y and m e t a l l u r g i c a l l y stable. ( e ) Corrosion r e s i s t a n t . ( f ) Of b e s t homogeneous and i s e n t r o p i c quality possible. ( g ) Uniformly high s t a n d a r d of q u a l i t y . ( h ) Low h y s t e r e s i s l o s s . ( i ) Known c o e f f i c i e n t s of h e a t trar. . . r and thermal e x p a n s i o n . (j) High damping f a c t o r . (k) Low modulus of e l a s t i c i t y . (1) Ductile. ?he m a t e r i a l s which can be used a t t e m p e r a t u r e s above t h e 52100 and 440C s t e e l range are: 1050F max. ( a ) Tool s t e e l ( t ) High cobalt-chrorne-tungsten a l l o y s 1500F max. 1800F max. ( c ) Super a l l o y s (d) Sintered carbides 2000F max. ( e ) Ceramics - 2000F t o 2800F max. ( f ) Ceremets 2000F t o 2800F max. The h o t h a r d n e s s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t l i e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e shown i n F i g . 9-12. (5) LUBRICATION - rile function of l u b r i c a t ion i s t o provide cooling and separation of the r o l l i ~ ~ g elements t o avoid metal pickup. I t has been found t h a t very l i t t l e lubrica n t i s needed t o achieve t h e l a t t e r , provided t h e l u b r i c a n t has adequate v i s c o s i t y . A f u r t h e r f u n c t i o n o.f t h e l u b r i c a n t i s t o d i s t r i b u t e t h e contact pressure over a wider a r e a than t h e e l l i p s e . T h i s i p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r a t high

where t h e hydrodynamic e f f e c t o f t h e b e l i e v e d r e s p o n s i b l e f o r an i n c r ease i n l i f e over t h e c a l c u l a t e d values. A s t emperatures increase, t h e a v a i l a b l e l u b r i c a n t s e x h i b i t lower v i s c o s i t y and l u b r i c i t y c t ~ a r a c t e r i s t i c s , arid v i v i d l y dernons t r a t e t h e important r o l e which l u b r i c a n t s p l a y i n making t h e conventional b a l l beari n g work. It p o i n t s o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f more c l o s e l y a n a l y z i n g and d e s i g n i n g f o r minirnum n o n - r o l l i n g o f t h e r o l l i r l g eleme n t s . The good l u b r i c a n t which h e r e t o f o r e h a s c o v e r e d up d e s i g n a p p r o x i m a t i o n s i s no longer a v a i l a b l e . Some high temperature l u b r i c a n t s being c o n s i d e r e d and e v a l u a t e d a r e shown i n F i g . 13. Powdered l u b r i c a n t s such a s MoS2, P b O , P b I 2 , WS2 and g r a p h i t e h a v e been t r i e d . Lubrication a t 700F and h i g h e r by means of c o a t i n g wj t,h hydrocarbon f u e l d e p o s i t s i n an o x y g e n - d e f i c i e n t a t ~ n o s p l ~ e r ea s show11 h some s u c c e s s . The l u b r i c a n t s s o f a r d i s cussed s e r v e mainly t o minimize metal pickup, and no c o o l i n g o r l o a d c a r r y i n g can be expected from them. Bearings a r e being expected t o o p e r a t e l i q u i d m e t a l s , hydrocarbon f u e l s , i n "+.er, l i c , d hydrogen, n i t r o g e n and oxygen a t t e m p e r a t u r e s r a n g i n g from -423OF t o o v e r 1000F. B e a r i n g s o f M 2 t o o l s t e e l h a v e

2! c3

.-

been run dry a t 1050F. It is b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e oxide film c r e a t e d permitted a Hertz s t r e s s of 6 2 , 0 0 0 p s i w i t h o u t m e a s u r a b l e wear o f p a r t s . A t 100,000 p s i H e r t z s t r e s s l o a d i n g , 0.0006 wear i n 1%h o u r s was enco u n t e r e d . B e a r i n g s of c o b a l t b a s e a l l o y were o p e r a t e d a t 1200F d r y , w i t h t h e resu l t s shown below. (6) BEARING T Y P E S AND USAGE Although n o t r a d i c a l l y new, F i g . 14-15 show b e a r i n g t y p e s now i n f a i r l y f r e q u e n t usage i n h i g h speed, high t e m p e r a t u r e a p p l i c a t i o n s .

SUMMARY

( 1 ) Much n e e d s t o be l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l l y o p e r a t i n g r o l l i r l g element b e a r i n g a t room t e m p e r a t u r e , and a s s p e e d s a r e increased. (2) I n a l l work a t high speed, h i g h temp e r a t u r e and ur~rlsual environmental c o n d i t i o n s , a r e a l i s t i c c r i t e r i o n of f a i l u r e must b e e s t a b l i s h e d . For example; What i s f a i l u r e ? ; How t o d e t e c t f a i l u r e ? ; and How t o evaluate failure?. ( 3 ) I t h a s become q u i t e a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e t y p e o f a p p l i c a t i o n s i n (2) above must be t r e a t e d c o n ~ p l e t e l yi n d i v i d u a l l y a s rega r d s m a t e r i a l d e s i g n and l u b r i c a t i o n . Establishing generalized theories f o r soluti o n s o f t h e s e problems appears i m p r a c t i c a l .

FIGURE 1

DISTRIBUTION OF SUBSURFACE SHEAR O N CONTACT AREPCi

I
THRUST THRUST

THRUST

THRUST-

STATIC OR LOW SPEED OPERATION

HIGH SPEED OPERATION

FIGURE 2

NORMAL STRESS ELLIPSOID AT BALL CONTACT

FIGURE 3

LINES O F ZERO SLIDING

I E ~ S = A A = E ~ S ~ S,AA + E ~ ~ A
qr ZfSldA

+ qrEfSm

=0

Rotstion=0

DISTRIBUTION O F FRICTIONAL FORCE AT BALL CONTACT

FIGURE 4

c -

INSTANT CENTER OF ROLLING

- AXIS OF ROTATWN OF BALL

r = -2

rb

ri

)ri - rb

INSTANT CENTER OF ROI

' ,

FIGURE 5

DEFORMATION O F BALL

rno

RACES UNDER PURE RADIAL LOAD

i..

L I G H T LOAD, S T A T I C
HEAVY LOAD,ROLLING

IMPRINT:

IMPRINT:^

C 1 RCLE
ELLIPSE

ELASTIC HYSTERESIS

O F A ROLLING CYLINDER

O N RUBBER

COEF. FRICT.
P

LOCATION SUB-SURFACE SURFACE

MAX. PRINC. STRESS


Qmax.

MAX. SHEAR STRESS


Tmax.

"0 1/ 3

P
1 . 3 9 P (39%)

0.3 P 0 . 4 3 P (43%)

FIGURE 8 EFFECT OF COEFFICIENT OF FRICTION ON MAX. SHEAR STRESS


[SMITH A N D L I U , A S M E P A P E R , J U N E 1 9 5 3 1

FIGURE 1 0 HOT H A R D N E S S O F TOOL S T E E L S

100
HOURS

f4
f4 f4

- . . 0

U U U
4

R R R
CV

m m m

U U U

FIGURE 1 3 APPROACHES T O HlGH T E M P E R A T U R E BEARING LUBRICATION -

POTENTIAL BASE STOCK:

ORGANOMETALLlCS & S E MI-ORGANICS

ARYL S I L A N E S

POLYNUCLEAR AROMATICS

. ALKYL SILANES

HYDROCARBONS

Dl

- & POLYESTERS

T E M P E R A T U R E RANGE

I.) FLANCLD, J TYPE BCARINGS 2) GUIDED W R I N G S3 THRU-BORE W U S I N G 43 REVERSIBLE 7YRUST MOUNTING 53 LUBRICATFON S T S

HlGH SPEED TURBINE KaUNTlNG

L)GUIDED

1.) J T W E BEARINGS SPBlNG AN0 9 - E V E I.! THRU-BORE H O M I N G , ... . . . .-. . - . 6.) ASSEMBLY FLOATING IN O I L CUSHION TO MINIMIZE UNBALANCE LOADING ON BEARINGS

--- -

L. 0 I 0

CLEARANCE

HIGH SPEED TURBINE MOUNTING

BEARINGS I.) FLANCD. J 7 2 SPRING PRELOAD )

I)THRU-BORE HOUSING

43 REVERSIBLE THRUST W U N T I N G

HlGH SPEED PLANET PINION BEARING

F I G U R E 14

//
_ C

OIL I

THRUST

I---

--

-ll4mlsr

E TYPICAL J T ENGlHE BEARING M U N T I N G DUPLEX S.I.R. SET

TYPICAL PROPELLER THRUST BEARING M U N T I N G

FIGURE 15

(-

'L - /

THE E F F E C T O F TEMPERATURE AND P R E S S U R E ON V I S C O S I T Y A S RELATED TO HYDRODYNAMIC L U B R I C A T I O N


By E.Saibe1, Rensselaer P o l y t e c h n i c I n s t i t u t e

The hydrodynamical t h e o r y of j o u r n a l o r t h r u s t b e a r i n g s s t e m s from t h e N a v i e r Stokes e q u a t i o n s f o r t h e laminar flow o f a Newtonian v i s c o u s l i q u i d . When o r d e r o f magnitude c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c a r r i e d o u t , and terms o f s m a l l e r o r d e r a r e dropped and t h e r e s u l t i n g e q u a t i o n s a r e used t o g e t h e r with t h e equation o f c o n t i n u i t y , t h e Reyn- " o l d s equation r e s u l t s . T h i s equation i s

much a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be p a i d t o each. I f o n l y t h e p r e s s u r e e f f e c t on t h e v i s c o s i t y were important, t h e problem would be r e l a t i v e l y simple. Charnes and S a i b e l (Ref. 1 ) , u s i n g a well-known t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

where c$ i s a f u n c t i o n o f p r e s s u r e , reduced e q u a t i o n ( 1 ) t o t h e form

i f the film thickness h is a function of x a l o n e , and i f t h e moving s u r f a c e h a s a v e l o c i t y U i n t h e x - d i r e c t i o n . The o t h e r q u a n t i t i e s entering i n equation (1) a r e p t h e p r e s s u r e and p t h e v i s c o s i t y . I n solving equation (1) f o r t h e pressu r e a s a f u n c t i o n of x and y , i t i s genera l l y assumed t h a t t h e process i s i s o t h e r m a l t h a t consequently t h e v i s c o s i t y is L t a n t , However, i n r e a l i t y , work i s done on t h e f l u i d by t h e i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n a n d t h i s work i s c o n v e r t e d i n t o h e a t which r a i s e s t h e temperature o f t h e f l u i d and t h u s changes the viscosity, since the viscosity is d e p e n d e n t upon t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . On t h e o t h e r hand, p r e s s u r e i s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e b e a r i n g , and t h i s i n t u r n a f f e c t s t h e visc o s i t y , s i n c e t h e v i s c o s i t y d e p e n d s upon pressure. I t can e a s i l y be seen t h a t t h e g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n t a k i n g i n t o account both t h e press u r e and temperature e f f e c t on t h e viscosi t y leads t o great d i f f i c u l t i e s i n effecti n g an a n a l y t i c a l s o l u t i o n , even under t h e assumption o f a d i a b a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . I n t h e r e a l s i t u a t i o n , conduction of heat t o t h e bounding s u r f a c e s i n c o n t a c t with t h e f l u i d a s w e l l a s conduction o f t h e h e a t i n t h e f l u i d i t s e l f , r e n d e r t h e s i t u a t i o n even more d i f f i c u l t t o handle. Even though exact s o l u t i o n s may not be o b t a i n a b l e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o h a v e some +wledge o f t h e o r d e r s o f magnitude o f e e f f e c t s i n o r d e r t o j u d g e j u s t how
L

T h i s means t h a t 4 may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e p r e s s u r e which would r e s u l t from a s o l u t i o n o f t h e Reynolds equation under t h e assumpti o n o f c o n s t a n t v i s c o s i t y b , and t h a t t h e a c t u a l p r e s s u r e collld be found from an i n t e g r a t i o n o f e q u a t i o n ( 2 ) . I n o t h e r words, t h e t r u e p r e s s u r e i s found from

Q=

loPp-l

dp

(4)

Knowing t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p and p, and i n t r o d u c i n g i t i n e q u a t i o n ( 4 ) , a l l o w s i n principle a t l e a s t for the finding of the pressure distribution. The c a l c u l a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t by Charnes a n d S a i b e l ( R e f . 1) show t h a t t h e t r r ~ e p r e s s u r e i s always h i g h e r t h a n t h a t found assuming t h a t t h e v i s c o s i t y i s c o n s t a n t . However, t h r e e o t h e r e f f e c t s g e n e r a l l y mask t h e e f f e c t o f p r e s s u r e . One is t h e e f f e c t o f a temperature r i s e and t h e o t h e r s , which w i l l n o t be t r e a t e d h e r e i n a r e ( a ) t h e deformation o f t h e s l i d i n g and b e a r i n g surf a c e s under p,ressure and ( b ) t h e d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e s e s u r f a c e s due t o h e a t i n g . Obviously i f t h e p r e s s u r e developed g e t s h i g h enough t o a f f e c t t h e v i s c o s i t y , a t t e n t i o n must be p a i d t o t h e o t h e r phenomena. I n g e n e r a l , t h e more i m p o r t a n t c a s e i s t h a t i n which t h e v i s c o s i t y depends on t h e temperature. I n o r d e r t o s o l v e t h i s c a s e , i t i s necessary t o use t h e conservation of energy p r i n c i p l e , r e q u i r i n g t h a t t h e i n t e n n a l energy s t o r e d i n t h e l u b r i c a n t b e equal t o t h e work done on i t by t h e viscous fore s , l e s s t h e h e a t energy conducted away.

Although no a n a l y s i s will b e c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p r e s e n t work, i t w i l l b e h e l p f u l t o see t h e b a s i c e q u a t i o n s i n v o l v e d , a n d t o d i s c u s s some o f t h e methods which have been u s e d t o e f f e c t s o l u t i o n s . S e e f o r example (Ref. 2 ) . The N a v i e r S t o k e s e q u a t i o n s reduce t o

equation is then

where c i s t h e s p e c i f i c h e a t and T i s t h e temperature. I n a d d i t i o n t o equations 5-8, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o have a r e l a t i o n s h i p conn e c t i n g v i s c o s i t y w i t h p r e s s u r e and tempera t u r e . The o n e most f i e q u e ~ i t l yused i n t h i s f i e l d is where a and p a r e c o n s t a n t s determined e x p erimentally. T h i s system o f e q u a t i o n s h a s been t r e a t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f a p p r o x i m a t e ways. Some o f them t r e a t v i s c o s i t y and d e n s i t y a s func t i o n s of distance along the s l i d e r . Others assume a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t e m p e r a t u r e and d i s t a n c e a l o n g t h e s l i d e r . These t r e a t ments have been u n r e a l i s t i c , s i n c e obviousl y t h e s e q u a n t i t i e s must b e c a l c u l a t e d a s p a r t o f t h e p r o b l e m . However, t h e y were f i r s t s t e p s toward a s o l u t i o n o f t h e probl e m , which was r e c o g n i z e d a s i n i p o r t a n t . I n most c a s e s , t h e ad h o c a s s u m p t i o n s used were t o r e p l a c e u s e o f t h e e n e r g y e q u a t i o n r which was r e c o g n i z e d a s b e i n g d i f f i c u l d e a l with. O t h e r s o l u t i o n s have been o f a n u m e r i c a l n a t u r e . C h r i s t o p h e r s o n (Ref. 3) f o r example u s i n g r e l a x a t i o n methods, e f f e c t e d a s o l u t i o n . T h i s was b e f o r e t h e wide s p r e a d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f d i g i t a l computing machines which now g r e a t l y r e d u c e t h e l a b o r i n v o l v e d . Although c e r t a i n terms w e r e m i s s i n g from h i s energy e q u a t i o n (Ref. 4 ) , h i s method was o f i n t e r e s t , and was c a p a b l e o f y i e l d i n g nume r i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i n p r a c t i c a l problems. A method o f s o l v i n g t h e problem t o any d e s i r e d d e g r e e o f e x a c t n e s s h a s been d e s c r i b e d and c a r r i e d o u t by O s t e r l e , C h a r n e s and S a i b e l (Ref. 2) where f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e ad hoc a s s u m p t i o n s were n o t u s e d , and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n was a c t u a l l y computed. Numerical s o l u t i o n s u s i n g t h e d i g i t a l c o m p u t i n g machine h a v e s i n c e b e e n c a r r i e d o u t , a s f o r example by S t e r n l i c h t (Hef. 5 ) . It s h o ~ ~ b d n o t e d however t h a t problems of le mesh s i z e , o r d e r i n which t h e s o l u t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t , e r r o r c o n t r o l , and t h e l i k e , a f f e c t t h e convergence o f t h e s o l u t i o n . Tt i s n o t enough j u s t t o r e p l a c e t h e s y s t e ~ .

and t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n i s

where qx = flow i n x - d i r e c t i o n per u n i t l e n g t h i n t h e y-directi,on. qy = flow i n y-direction p e r u n i t l e n g t h i n t h e x-direction. p = lubricant pressure. p = lubricant viscosity. h = film thickness. U = v e l o c i t y of moving s u r f a c e ( b e a r i n g ) i n t h e x-direction. Implicit i n t h i s formulation a r e t h e assumptions t h a t t h e i n e r t i a and w e i g h t of t h e l u b r i c a n t a r e n e g l i g i b l e , and t h a t t h e f i l m i s s o t h i n t h a t p r e s s u r e and v i s c o s i t y a r e e s s e n t i a l l y constant i n t h e thickness direction. I n the case o f adiabatic flow, t h e eqergy equation can be o b t a i n e d f rom

S,U = P qx a x
with

I]"

qy

i = e + (p/p) ( 7C) and where Sx = f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e p e r u n i t f i l m a r e a e x e r t e d on l u b r i c a n t by moving s u r face. P = lubricant density. e = l u b r i c a n t i n t e r n a l energy. i = lubricant enthalpy. The i n t e r n a l e n e r g y w i l l b e assumed t o b e independent o f p r e s s u r e , and l i n e a r l y r e l a t e d t o temperature. The i n t e r n a l energy

i o n s . The numbers s o o b t a i n e d may o r may n o t be m e a n i n g f u l . I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g i n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n t o o b s e r v e some o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a t t e n d a n t upon numerical s o l u t i o n s of t h e N a v i e r S t o k e s e q u a t i o n s even i f t h e system i s t r e a t e d a s i s o t h e r m a l (Ref. 6,7). I n t h e c a s e o f an a d i a b a t i c process, o r one with h e a t leakage, t h e I s i t u a t i o n i s even more c o m p l i c a t e d . With t h i s i n mind, G u i l i n g e r and S a i b e l (Ref. 8 , 9 ) s e t up p r o c e d u r e s f o r c a r r y i n g c o u t t h e numerical c a l c u l a t i o n s f o r p r e s s u r e s , temperatures, and o t h e r parameters i n slider-bearing c o n f i g u r a t i o n s f o r t h e adiab a t i c c a s e and f o r h e a t leakage. Most o f t h e work s o f a r shows t h a t i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r t h e energy b a l a n c e ,

c,

J e r e n t i a l equations by d i f f e r e n c e equatand c a r r y o u t t h e a r i t h m e t i c a l operat-

and t h a t t h e e f f e c t of t h e i n t e r n a l work i n changing t h e temperature of t h e l u b r i c a n t i s a very i m p o r t a n t one. I t i s on t h e s a f e s i d e t o c o n s i d e r t h e system t o be a d i a b a t i c b u t i t i s d e f i n i t e l y bad t o n e g l e c t s i d e 1eakage. S i n c e t h e means and t e c h n i q u e s a r e now a v a i l a b l e t o t r e a t t h r u s t and j o u r n a l beari n g s i n an a c c u r a t e manner, i t remains t o f i n d ways of implementing t h i s work so t h a t a wide v a r i e t y o f s o l u t i o n s can b e c a r r i e d o u t o v e r t h e f u l l range o f u s e f u l paramete r s , and t h e r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n g r a p h i c a l o r t a b u l a r form f o r ready u s e by t h e designer.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

'Ihis work was supported by t h e O f f i c e of Ordnance Research, U.S. Army.

REFERENCES

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Slicler- eari in^

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