Te MANUAL ON WATER SUPPLY AND TREATMENT THIRD EDITION - REVISED AND UPDATED Prepared by THE EXPERT COMMITTEE Constituted by THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA . CENTRAL PUBLIC HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING ORGANISATION MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT, NEW DELHI MAY, 1999© Alb rights veserved, No portion of this document may be reproduced/printed for commercial purpose without ‘the prior written permission of the Ministry of Uirhan Development, Governaient of fedin. 280, WARE ASLEEP Racca aceecétenaesernansmanenipser pron uate. ooFOPEWORD Water is 2 basic need. The provision of safe and adequate drinking water to the burgeoning urban popuiation continues to be one of the major challenging tasks. Lack of safe drinking water could undermine the health and well being of the people, particularly, the urbvan poor and economically weake. sections. The Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) in this Ministry had brought out the 3rd edition of the Manual on Water Supply nd ‘Treatment in March, 1991 with a view to provide valuable guidelines to the Public Health ngineering Departments, Water Boards and municipal bodies on the basic norms, standards and latest developments in this field. Subsequent to the publication of the said Manual, the CPHE had received comments and suggestions from field practitioners and manutaciurers for revising and updating certain aspects, such as water quality, per capita water supply aorns, water conservation, metering and avail lity 0. various kinds of pipes. A two member Expert Committee was set up by this Ministry in Novembe., 1997 fo look into thes. aspects. 1am pleased to acknowledge the contribution made by the Expert Committee in further revising and updating the Manual, which | ant sure would be of considerable help fo the Public Health: Engineers and field practitioners for proper planning, design and quality 0 Heth, bine (ASHOK PAH Wa) SECRETARY TO THE GOVERNMENT OF I'NDIA MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPIMENT control of water supply systems,TTPREFACE ‘The “Manual on Water Supply and Treatment” brought out by the Government of India in 1962 was revised and updated in the late seventies. However, in order to provide the field cngineers with information about the latest development in this field during the intervening period, the then Ministry of Urban Development, Government of India constituted an Expert Committee towatds the end of 1985 to further update the Manual. The composition of the Committee was 1. Shri ¥. Venugopalan = Chaieman Adviser(PHEB),Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi 2. Shei MR. Parthasarathy, - Member Deputy Adviser(PH),Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi 3. Shri S.D. Mundra - Member Director, Geo-Miller & Co. Pvt. Ltd., w Delhi 4. Shri B.P.C. Sinha, - Member icf Hydrogeologist & Member, Central Ground Water Board, New Dalhi Alternate Shri A.R. Bakshi, Scientist, Central Ground Water Board, New Delhi 5. Shi G. Raman - Member Director(Civil Engineering), Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi 9tsp hanan aap Alternate Shri A.K, Awasthi, Deputy Director(Civil Engineering), Bureau of Indian Standacds, New Del hi Shei R. Paramasivam Scientist & Head, Water Hingincering, Division, National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur. Dr. LC. Agarwal, Prafesoe, Deptt. of Civill Engineering, Motional Nehru Regional Engineering College, Allahabad Dr. AG, Bhole, Professor, Deptt. of Civd Engineering, Visvesaraya Regional Engineering College, Nagpur. Shri B.V. Rotkar Member Secretary, Maharashtea Water Supply & Sewerage Boacd, Bombay. Prof, V. Chandrashekat, Chartered Engineer & Consultant, Mysore. Dr. SK. Biswas Deputy Adviser(RWS),Department of Rural Development, New Delhi Shri S.A. Jagadeesan, Fagincering Director, Tamilaad, Water Supply & Drainage Board, Madras. Member atember Member Member: Member, Member Member «a13. 14, 16. 18. Dr, D.M. Mohan, Superintending Enginces, Hyderabad Metro Water Supply & Sewerage Board, Hyderabad De. R. Pitchai, Professor & Head, Centre for E Studies, Anna University, Guindy, Madras. vironmental Shri A.R. Mir, Secretary, Irrigation & Public Health Enginecring Department, Government of Jammu && Kashmur Shei S.L. Abhayankar, ‘Technical Adviser, Indian Pump Manufacturers Association, Bombay Shei V.B. Rama Prasad, Deputy Adviser(PHE), Central Public Health & Unyironmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi Shri B.B. Uppal, Assistant Adviser(PHE) Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi De S.R. Shukla Deputy Adviser(PHE), Central Public Health & Environmental Engineering Organisation, Ministry of Urban Development, New Delhi Member Member Member Member Member Member Member Secretary (i)‘The Committee held 11 meetings under the Chairmanship of Shei V. Venugopalan between April 1986 and August, 1989, and has drawa freely from all available literature, in finalising the revision of the Manual, ‘The Committee wishes fo thank che Union Ministry of Urban Development for rendering all the help needed for successfully revising and updating the Manual. The Commitize also wishes to thank National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur and the Maharashtra Water Supply & Sewerage Board for the arrangemenis made for the mi tings of the Committee outside Dethi ‘The Committee wishes to place on tecord their deep sense of appreciation for the unsparing and diligent efforts of Shei M.R. Parthasarthy and Dr. S.R. Shukla who ensured that the mwetings were held regularly to enable the Committee to complete its work in spite of theie heavy noumal duties. ‘The Commitice also places on record its appreciation of the services rendered by the various officers and staff of Central Public {ealth and Environmental Engincering Organisation and Public Health Ungineering Section of the Ministry without whose cooperation and active partici enormous task assigned to the Committee could not have been accomplished, on A SubCommitice for editing the draft Manual was constituted comprising of the Members Dr. 1.C. Agarwal, Shri M.R. Parthasarathy and Dr. D.M. Mohan, ‘The Sub Committee finalised the editing of the deaft Manual in four sittings beeween September and December, 1989. ‘The Committee also wishes to thank the Members of the Editing Sub Committee for the devoted and sincere work without which the final draft of the Manual would not have been completed. The 3" edition of the Manual was brought out by the CPHELO in March, 1991 for the benefit of Public Health Engineers, Consultants, Water ply Departments/Boards, Local Bodies, Educational Institutions, However, subsequent to the publication of the said Manual, a few suggestions, atious product observations and comments have been received from manufacturers, field engineers, consultants, ete. for revising and updating certain aspects, such as, water quality guidelines, per-capita water supply norms, water conservation measures, meteting, availability of various pipes, selection of pipes under different field conditions, etc @&)Accordingly, a two member Expert Committee, comprising Dr. LC. Agarwal, Director, Bundelkhand Institute of Engineering and Technology, Jhansi, Utiac Pradesh and Dr. DM. Mohan, Retired Director (Technical), Hyderabad Metropolitan Water Supply & Sewerage Board, was set up by the Ministey in February, 1998 with definite terms of reference to update certain chapters by inchiding latest developments in the field of water supply, treatment and distribution. Both the Expert Committee Members had completed their job to the satis the draft Manual (revised portion) was discussed thoroughly in the Chief Engincets' Conference held in November, 1998 at Chandigarh, The Expert Committee had reviewed the suggestions made by the Chief Engineers! Conference and modified the draft Manual accordingly so as to make it comprehensive and mote useful to the user agencies dealing with water supply sector. The contribution made by Shri V.B. Rama Prasad, Shei R Sethuraman, Shn B.B. Uppal, Deputy Advisers, Shri M. Sankaranarayanan, Sho M. Dhinadhayalen, Shri N.N. Hotchandani, Assistant Advisers and ta Kar, Scientific Officer, for successful completion of the task 18 Director, on of the Mi Shri Suka duly appreciated. ‘The services extended by De. LC. Agarwa Dt. Rajiv Srivastava, Shri Pankaj Rana and other staff of Bundelhand Institute of Engineering & Technology, Jhansi, for computerising the said manual is duly acknowledged. Last but not the least, the whole-hearted cooperation of the Ministry in completing this exercise is greatly acknowledged. Dr. S.R. Shukla, Adviser (PHEE) CPHBEO. Ministry of Urban Development Government of India Dated: May, 1999 New Delhi &)wre EE ina mente bcantinntrmt tite Sane ag en ll seatsCONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 2, PLANNING 2.1 OBJE 2.2 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 2.2.1 Water Quality And Quantity STIVE 2.2.1.1 Water Conservation 2.2.1.2 Increasing ‘The Water Availability And Supply & Demand Management Plant Siting Mechanization Service Building Other Utilities Design Period Population Forecast 2.2.7.1 General Considerations 2.2.7.2 Final Forecast 2.8 PER CAPITA SUPPLY 2.2.8.1 Basic Needs 2.2.8.2 Factors Affecting Consumption 2.2.8.3 Recommendations 2.2.9 Quality Standards 3. PROJECT REPORT 3.1 GENERAL 3.1.1 Project Reports JNTIFICATION REPORT EASIBILITY REPORT Contents 3.3.1.1 Executive Summary 3.3.1.2. Introduction 3.3.1.3 The Project Area And The Need For The Project 3.3.1.4 Long Term Plan For Wates Supply 6 6 9 9 10 10 13 19 19 19 20 2 22 23 26 wi)4 | 3.3.1.5 Proposed Water Supply Project, 3.3.1.6 Conclusions And Recommendations 3.4 FEASIBILITY REPORT 2.4.1 Contents 34.1.1 Background 3.4.1.2 Phe Proposed Project 34.1.3 Instiquronal And Financial Aspects 3.4.1.4 Conclusions And Recommendauons 4. MEASUREMENT OF FLOW 4.1 POIN ES OF MEASUREMENT 4.2 MEASUREMENT IN OPEN CHANNELS 4.2.1, Use of Hydraulic Structures 4.2.1.1. Notches 4212 Weirs 1.3 Fhumes (Bree lowing) 1.4 Drop: 4.2.2 Velocity Area Methods 4.23 Flectro Magnetic Probe Method 4.3 MEASUREMENT IN CLOSED CONDUITS 4.3.1 Differential Pressure Devices 43.1.1 Venturi Meters 4.3.1.2 Orifice Plares Aud Nozzles 4.3.1.3 Pitot Tubes 43.14 Water Meters +4 SPECIAL obs 44.1 General 44.2 Dilution Method 5. SOURCES OF SUPPLY 5.1. KINDS OF WATER SOUR 5.1.1 Water From Precipitation 5.1.2 Surface Waters 5.1.3 Groundwater ISTICS AND THEIR CHARA 5.L4 Saline Intrusion 5.4.5 Sanitary Survey 28 3 32 aL 32 32 3 36 37 37 38 38 38 40 40 43 at 4d5.2 ASSESSMENT OF THE YIELD AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOURCE 5.24 General 5.2.2 Factors In Estimation Of Yield 5.2.3 METHODS FOR ASSESSMEN'T OF SURFACE FLOWS 5.2.3.1 Computation Of Minimum And Maximum Discharges 5.2.3.2 Use Of Maximurn And Minimure Discharge Figures-Mass Diagram 5.2.4 Assessment of GroundWater Resource Potential 5.2.4. Rock Fypes 3.24.2 Occurence Of Groundwater In Racks 5.2.4.3. Methods For Groundwater Prospecting 5.2.5. Hydmulies OF Gruundwater Flow 5.2.6 Development Of Subsurface Sources 5.2.6.1 Classification OF Wells 5.26.2 Infiltration Galleries 5.2.6.3 Radial Collector Wells 5.264 Biker Basins 5.2.6.5 Syphon Wells 5.2.6.6 Detcrtninetion OF The Specific Capacity Of A Well 5.2.6.7 Maximum Safe Yield And Critical Yield 5.26.8 Maximum Safe Head Of Depression Or Critical {ead Of Depression 5.26.9 Other Influencing Factors $.2.6,10 Well Developement 5.2611 Failure Of Wells And The Remedial Measures 5.26.12 Design Criteria 5.2.7 Development of Surface Sources 5.27.4 Intakes §.27.2 Impounding Reservoirs 6, TRANSMISSION OF WATER 6.1 PREE FLOW AND PRESSURE CONDUITS, 1.1 Open Channels 641.2 Gravity Aqueducts And Tunnels 61.3 Pressure Aqueducts And Tunnels 6.14 Pipelines 6.2 HYDRAULICS OF CONDUITS 52 52 52 52 5 4 56 37 57 62 69 oy 18 81 83 83 83 85 85 8? 6 96 96 98 103 103 103 103 104 104 104 (vit)6.2.1 Formule 6.2.2 Coefficient Of Roughness 6.23 Hazen Williams Feraula 6.23.1 Discussion On Various Formulae For Estimation Of Frictional Resistance 6.2.4 Modified Hazen Williams Formula 6.25 Effect of Temperature on Coefficient of Roughsess 6.2.6 Experimental Estimation of Cx Values 6.2.7 Reduction in Carrying Capacity of Pipes with Age 6.2.8 Design Recommendations for use of Modified Hazen-Williams Formula 6.2.9 Resistance due to Speciais and Appurtenances 6.2.10 Guidelines for cost effective design of pipelines 63 PIPE MATERIALS 6.3.1 Choice Of Pipe Materials URE, SUPPLY, 1G PIPELINES 6.3.2.4 General 63.3 C TION’ FOR MAD SIONING PIPELINES AYING, JOINTING, T IRON PIPES 6.4.1 General 64.2 Laying And Jointing 6.4.2.1 Excavation And Preparation Of Trench 6.4.2.2 Handling Of Pipes 6.4.2.3 Detection Of Cracks In Pipes 6.4.2.4 Lowering Of Pipes And Fittings 6.4.2.5 Cleaning Of Pipes > 6.4.3 Joints 64.3.1 Catepories OF Joints nd Fittings 644 Testing of the Pipeline 6.44.1 Genera 6.4.4.2 Testing Of Pressure Pipes 644.3 Testing Of Non-Pressure Conduits 6.5 STEEL PIPES 65.1 General 6.5.2 Protection Against Corrosion 104 106 116 WT 117 120 120 TURE, SUPPLY, 121 123 123 124 124 424 124 125 125, 125 125 126 126 1266,53 Laying And Jointing 66 DU 6.6.1 General (ILE IRON PIPES 6.6.2 Ductile Iron Fittings 6.6.3 Joints 6.6.4 Laying And jointing 6.6.5 Testing Of Ductile Iron Pipelines 6.7 ASB -NT PIPES ‘Os 6.7.1 General 6.7.2 Handling 6.7.2.4 Laying And Jointing 6.1.3 Pipe je 6.74 Pressure Testing 6.8 CONCRETE PIPES 6.8.1 General 682 Laying and jointing 6.8.3 Pressure 69 PRESTRI 6.9.1 General 6.9.2 Laying And Jointing 6.9.3 Pressure Test 6.9.4 Bar Wrapped Steel Cylinder Concrete Pressure Pipes 6.9.4.1 General 6.9.4.2 Manufacture 69.4.3 Joints 6.10 PLASTIC PIPES 6.10.1 General 6.10.2 PVC Pipes 6.10.3 Precautions in Handling and Storage 6.104 Laying and jointing Procedures 6.10.41 Trench Preparation 6.10.4.2 Laying And Jointing 6.10.4.5 Pre-Babricated Connections 6.10.44 Standard Threaded Connections 130 130 130 130 130 130 131 131 134 132 132 132 133 134 134 134 136 136 136 136 136 136 137 137 137 138 138 138 138 139) 1406.10.5 Pressure Testing 611 POLYETHYLENE PIPES + GALA Medium Density Polyethylene (MDPE) Pipes 6.12 GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC PIPES OR G.R.P. PIPES 6.12.1 PRP Pipe Installation 6.13 STRENGTH OF PIPES 6.13.1 Structural Requirements 6.13.2 Temperature Induced Expansion and Contraction 6.13.3 Cross Section 6134 Depth Of Cover 6.14 BCONOMIC Sia OF CONVEYING MAIN 6.14.1 Gcacral Considerations E 6.14.2. evaluation OF Comparable Factors 6.14.3 Scope OF Sinking Fund GIA Pipesine Cost Vader Déferent Akernativ 6.445 Recuning Charges-Design Period Vs. Perpetuity 6.14.6 Capimlisation v/s Annuity methods GAT Selection 6.15 CORROSION 6.16 APPURTENANCUS 6.1641 Lise Valves 6.16.11 Sluice Valves 6.16.12 Butterfly Valves G6AGI3 Globe Valves 6.16.14 Needle And Cone Valves 6.16.2 Scour Valves 6.16.3 Air Valves 6.16.2. Aw Re 6163.2. Air tnlet Valves 6.164 Kinetic Aur Valves 6.16.5 Pressure Rebet Valves 6.16.6 Check Valves 6.16.61 Dual Plate Check Valves ast Valves 616.7 Surge Tanks6.16.8 Pressure Reducing Valves 6.16.9 Pressure Sustaining Valves 6.16.10 Bat! Valves Or Ball Float Valves 6.16.11 Automatic Shut-Off Valves 6.16.12 Automatic Burst Control 6.16.13 Venturimeters 6.16.14 Spacing Of Vah 6.16.15 Manoles s And Interconnections 6.16.16 Insulation Joints 6.16.17 Expansion Joins 6.16.18 Anchorages 6.17 WATER HAMMER 617.1 Ocenrence 6.17.2 Computations 6.17.3 Control Measures 6173.1 Causes Of Water Hammer And Remedial Measures 17.3.2 Rapid Closure OF V: 6.17.33 Remedial Measures For Sudden Shut Off Of Pumps ATA Air Vessels 6.17.44 Design Of Air Vessel O.ATAZ In-Line Reflux Valves 6,17.4.3 Release Valves 6.17.4.4. Shut-Off Effects On Suction Line 6.17.4.5 Reciprocating Pumps Or Hydraulic Rams 6.18 SPECIAL DEVICES FOR CONTROL OF WATER HAMMER 6.18.1 Zen Velocity Valve 6.18.2 Ait Cushion Valve 6.18.3 Opposed Poppet Valve 6.19 WORKING OF THE SPECIAL DEVICI 6.19.1 Choice Of Protective Device 7. WATER TREATMENT 7AMBTHODS OF TRI 7.2 AERATION 7.2.1 Limitations of Acration. AS A SYSTEM AND FLOW SHEETS 2987 UABE9?-—28 si7.2.2 Aeration Process 188 7.23 Types of Aerators it 7.23.1 Spray Aerators 191 7.2.3.2 Waterfall Or Multiple Tray Aerawors 192 7.2.3.3 Cascade Aerators 192 7.2.3.4 Diffused Air Acrarors 198 7.23.5 Mechanical Aerators 193 7.3 CHEMICALS HANDLING HANDLING AND FE 194 73:1 Solution Feed 194 4g, T3d1 Solution Tanks 194 73.1.2 Dissolving Trays Or Boxes io 7.3.1.3 Preparation Of Solutions : 195 7.3.14 Solution Feed Devices 195, 7.3.15 Solution Feeders 196 7.3.2 Dry Feed 199 7.3.3 Chemicals 200 7.3.3.1 Chemicals Used And Theit Properties 200 7.3.3.2 Chemical Storage: 200 7.33.3 Handling OF Chemicals 201 7.4 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION ont 7.44 Jntivencing Factors 02 74.4.1 Coagulant Dosage 202 74.1.2 Characteristics Of Water m2 7.4.1.3 OPTIMUM pH ZONE 203 7.4.1.4 Coagulant Aids 28 7.4.4.5 Choice OF Coagulant 203 7.4.2 Rapid Mixing 204 7.4.2.1 Gravitational Or Hydraulic Devices 208 7.4.2.2 Mechanical Devices 206 4.2.3 Pacumatic Devices 206 7.433 Slow Mixing or stirring 207 7.4.3.1 Design Parameters 207 7.4.3.2 Types Of Slow Mixers 208 7.5 SEDIMENTATION 219 (sit) 2862 VANE? —28 a |TE ETE TES Ee ST 7.5.1 Types of Suspended Solids 200 7.5.2 Settling Velocity of Discrete Particles 220 7.5.3 Removal Efficiencies of Discrete and Flocculent Suspensions 221 7.54 Types of Tanks 222 7.5.4.1 Hovzontal How Tanks 223, 7.5.4.2 Vertical Flow Tanks: 226 7.54.3 Clanifloceulators 226 7.3.5 Tank Dimensions 226 7.5.6 Common Surface Loadings and Detention Periods. 227 7.5.7 Knlets and Outlets 20 : 7.5.8 Weir Loading, 230 hee 7.5.9 Sludge Removal, 230 | 7 7.8.10 Setiling Tank Efficiency 231 i 7.5.11 Presedimentation and Storage 232 \ 75.12 Tube Settlers 232 : 75.121 Analysis Of Tube Settlers 233 : 7.6 FILTRATION 233 7.6.1.General 233 7.6.2 Slow Sand Filters 24 7.6.2.1 General Bd 7.6.2.2 Description 2H 7.6.2.3 Purification In A Slow Sand Filter 235 7.6.2.4 Design Considerations 236 7.6.2.5 Construction Aspects Bi 7.6.2.6 Operation And Maintenance 240 7.6.2.7 Cost Aspeces 241 7.6.3 Rapid Sand Filters 243, 7.6.3.1 Filtration Process om 7.6.3.2 Principal Mechanisms Of Partiicle Removal 244 7.6.3.3 Rate OF Filtration 248 7.6.3.4 Capacity OF A Filter Unit 245 3.5 Dimensions OF Filter Unit 245 6.3.6 Filter Sand 245, 7.6.3.7 Depth OF Sand 2467.6.3.8 Preparation Of Filter Sand 7.6.3.9 Filter Bottoms And Strainer Systems 7.63.10 Filter Grave 7.6.3.1 Wash Water Gutters 7.63.12 High Rate Backwash 7.63.13 Surface Wash 7.6.3.14 Operation Of Filters 7.63.15 Hydraulics Of Filtration 7.6.3.16 Hydraulics Of Backwashing 7.63.17 Optimum Backwashing 7.6.3.18 Appurtenances 7.6.3.19 Pipe Gallery 7.63.20 Limitations Of Rapid Sand Filters 7.6.4 Rapid Gravity Dual Media Filters 7.6.4.1 Constructional Features 7.6.4.2 7.6.4.3Design Of Media Depth And Media Sizes 7.6.44 Filtration Rates And Filtrate Quality 7.6.5 Multimedia Filters 7.6.6 PRESSURE FILTERS 7.6.6.1 General 7.6.6.2 Disadvantages 7.6.7 DIATOMACEOUS EARTH FILTERS 7.6.8 Additional Modifications of Conventional Rapid Gravity Filters 7.6.8.1 Constant And Dedining Rate Filtration 7.69 UP-Flow Filters Filtration Media 7.6.10 Grid Or Immedium Type Filters 7.6.11 Bi-flow Filters 7.6.12 Submerged Filters 7. 6.13 Radial Flow Filters 7.6.14 Automatic Valveless Gravity Filters 7.7 DISPOSAL OF WAS 5 FROM WATER TREATME! DISPOSAL METHODS FORMANCE CAPABILITIES 7.8 PE 246 247 249. 249 250 250 251 252 253 255 256 258 258 259 259 259 260 261 261 261 261 262 262 263 263 265 265 266 266 266 266 267 267 2677.8.1 Slow Sand Filters 7.8.2 Rapid Sand Filters 8. DISINFECTION &.£ INTRODUCTION 8.2 CRITERIA FOR A GOOD DISINFECTANT &3 MECHANISMS OF DISINFECTION 84 EACTORS AFFECTING EFFICIENCY OF DISINFECTION 8.4.1 Type, Condition and Concentration of Organisms to be Destroyed 8.4.2 Type and Concentration of Disinfectant 8.4.3 Chemica and Physical Characteristics of Water to be Treated 8.44 Time of Contact Available for Disinfection 8.4.5 Temperature of the Water 85 MATHEMATICAL RELATIONSHIPS ~GOVERNING VARIABLES. 85) 8.5.2. Concentration of Disinfectant 85.3 Temperature Of Water 8.6 CHLORINATION 8.6.1 Chlorine and its Properties 8.6.2. Chlorine-Water- Reactions 86.2.1 Free Available Chlocine 8.6.2.2 Combined Available Qhlorine 8.6.2.3 Chlorine Demand 8.6.2.4 Estimation Of Chlorine 8.6.3 Chlorination Practices 8.6.3.1 Ftee Residual And Combined Residual Chlorination. 8.6.4 Chlorine Residual 8.7 APPLICATION OF CHLORINE, 8.7.1 Safe Handling Practices 8.7.1.1 Storing Shipping Containers Contact Time 87.1.2 Exuptyping Containers 87.13 Connecting And Disconnecting Containers 2 Chlorinators 8.7.2.1 Types Of Feeders 8.7.3 Engineering Control of Hazards 267 268 269 269 269 270 210 210 am m am mn DISINFECTION am 22 272 m3 213 23 24 23 m4 25 275 m 27 280 280 281 281 281 282 282 283 (vi)8.7.3.1. Piping Systems 8.7.3.2 Number Of Cylinders Oe Containers 8.7.3.3 Maintenance 8.7.4 Chlorine Housing 8.7.5 Chlorine Evaporators 7.6 Ancillary Equipments 8.7.6.1 Weighing Machines 8.7.6.2 Personnel Protection Equipment 8.7.6.3 Chlorine Detectors 87.64 Automatic Changeover System 8.7.2 Safety Considerations 8.7.8 Handling Emergencies 8.7.9 Personnel Training 8.8 CHLORINE COMPOUNDS 8.9 DISINFECTION METHODS OTHER THAN CHLORINATION 8.9.1 Heat 8.9.2 Chemical Disinfectants 89.2.1 Matogens Other Than Chlorine 8.9.2.2 Ozone 8.9.23 Potassium Permanganate 8.9.24 Metal Ions 89.25 Acids And Bases 8.93 Radiation 8.9.3.1 Ultraviolet Radiation 9. SPECIFIC TREATMENT PROCESSES 9.1 INTRODUCTION 9.2 CONTROL OF ALGAE, 9.21 General 9.2.2 Causative Factors for Growth 9.2.2.1 Nutrients in Water 9.22.2 Butrophication 9.223 Effects OF Eutrophication 9.224 Sunlight 9.225 Characteristics OF Reservoirs 286 288 288 289 290 292 292 292 292 293, 293 295 296 296 298 298 298 299) 299) 300 300, 300 304 30L 303 303 303 304 304 304 304 S04 305 3059.2.2.6 ‘Temperature Effects 9.23. Remedial Measures 9.23.1 Preventive Measures 9.2.3.2 Control Measures-Algicidal Treatment 9.23.3. Relative Merits Of Chlorine And Copper Sulphate Treatment 9.3 CONTROL OF TASTE AND ODOUR IN WATER 9.3.1 Genera 9.3.2 Control of Taste and Odour 9.3.2.1 Preventive Measures 9.3.2.2 Corrective Measures 9.4 REMOVAL OF COLOUR 9.4.1 Causes of Colour 9.4.2 Colour Removal 9.4.2.1 Colour Due To Iron And Manganese 9.4.22 Colour Due To Algae 9.4.23. Colour Dae To Colloidal Organic Matter 9.4.2.4 Colour Due To Industrial Wastes 9.4.25 Oxidation Of Colour : 9.4.2.6 Treatment By Activated Carbon 9.5 SOFTENING 5.5.1 General 9.5.2 Method of Softening, 9.5.2.1 Lime And Lime-Soda Softening 9.5.2.2 Ton Exchange Softening 9.5.23. Combination OF Lime And Zeolite Softening 9.6 REMOVAL OF IRON AND MANGANESE 9.6.1 Sources and Nature 9.6.2 Removal Methods 9.6.2.1 Precipitation 9.6.2.2 Contact Beds 9.6.2.3 Zeolite 9.6.2.4 Catalytic Method 9.63. Simple Techniques for fron Removal mm Rural Areas for Small Communities 9.63.1 Package Iron Removal Plants For Fland Pump 305 305 305 305, ail 342 312 313 313 313 314 314 315, 315 315, 315 M5) 315 316 316 316 a7 37 321 324 324 325 325, 325, 327 328 JB 329 329 (svi)9.6.4 Iron Removal for Large Communities 329 9.7 DEBLUORIDATION OF WATER 331 9.7.1 Removal Methods 332 9.7.1.1 Fluoride Exchangers 332 | 971.2 Anion Exchangers 332 | 971.3. Activated Carbon 332 i 9.7.1.4 Magnesium Salts 333 | 9.74.5 Aluminium Salts 333 { 9.7.2 Simple Method of Defluosidation 334 | 9.7.2.1 Mechanism Of Defluoridation By Nalgonda Technique 339 | 9.7.2.2Rusal Water Supply Using Precipitation, Settling, Filteation Scheme Of Nalyonda i ‘Technique-Continuous Operation x 9.8 DEMINERALISATION OF WATER 341 ; 9.8.1 Disailation MM 98.1.1 Solar Stills 43 9.8.1.2. Singic-Effect Distillation 343 9.8.1.3. Multiple-Effect Evaporation 33 9.8.2. Freezing 345 9.8.3 Solvent Extraction 345 9.8.4 Osmosis 345 9.8.5 lon-Exchange Process 346 9.8.6 Performance of RD and ED plants 347 9.9 CORROSION 348 9.9.1 Mechanism of Corrosion M8 9.9.2 ‘Types of Corrosion 349 9.9.2.1 Galvanic Corrosion 349 9.9.22 Concentration Cell Corrosion: 350, 9.9.2.3 Stray Current Corrosion 351 9.9.2.4 Stress Corrosion 351 9.9.25 Bacterial (Biochemical) Corrosion 351 9.93. Physical and Chemical Factors of Water Affecting Corrosion 352 : j 9.9.4 Soil Nature and Conosion 352 } 9.9.5 Corvosion Testing 353 9.9.6 Corrosion control 354 9.9.6.1 Cathodic Protection 354 (xix)9.6.6.2 Protection By Sacrificial Anode 9.9.6.3 Control Of Internal Corrosion 16, DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 10.1 GE 10.2 BASIC REQUIREMENTS 10.2.1 Continuous Versus Intermittent System of Supply 10.2.2. System Pattern 10.23 Zoning 10.24 System of Supply 10.2.5. Location of Service Reservoirs 10.3 GENERAL DESIGN GUIDE LINES 10.3.1 Peak Factor 103.2 Fire Demand 10.3.3, Residual Pressure 10.3.4 Minimum Pipe Sizes 10.3.5 Layout 10.3.6 Flevation of Reservoir 10.3.7 Boosting 10.3.8. Location of Mains 10.3.9 Valves 104 SERVICE R 1041.1 Function ERVOIRS: 10.4.2 Capacity 10.438 10.44 Infets and Outlets 10.5 BALANCING RESERVOIRS 10.6 HYDRAULIC NETWORK ANALYSIS 10.6.1 Principles 10.6.2 Methods of Balancing 10.7 DESIGN OF PIPE NE 10.7.1 Approximate Methods ructure WORKS 10.7.2 Equivalent Pipe Method 10.7.3 Pipe Network Cost Minimization Problems 10.7.3. Formulation Of The Objective Function 355 336 359 359 359. 359 359 360 360 360 360 360 361 361 361 364 361 362 362 362 362 362 363, 363 363 364 364 364 365 312 372 372 373 374 6)i i | | | 1 aes, 10,7.3.2 Formulation Of ‘The Constraints 10.7.3.3 Amalysis 10.7.3.4 Constructing A Starting Solution 10.7.3.5 Constmeting A Penalty Function 10.7.3.6 Sequential Random Search Procedure 10.8 RURAL WATER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM. 10.9 HOUSE SERVICE CONNECTIONS 10.9.1 General 10.9.2 System of Supply 10.9.3 Downtake Supply System 10.9.4. Materials for House Service Connections 10.10 PREVENTIVE MAINTEN ANCE 10,10.) General 10.10.2 Waste Assessment and Detection 10.103 Cleaning of Pipes 10.11 PROTECTION AGAINST POLLUTON NEAR SEWERS AND DRAINS 10.114 Horizontal Separation 10.11.2 Vertical Separation 10.113. Unusual Conditions 10.12 PROTECTION AGAINST FREBZING 11, PUMPING STATIONS AND MACHINERY AL REQUIREMENTS 11.1.1 Selection of Pamps 11.1.2 Types and Constructions of Pumps 11.1.2.1 Pump Types Based On ‘The Undeslying Operating Principle 111.22 Pump Types Based On The Type OF Energy Input 11.1.2.3. Pump ‘Types Based On ‘The Method Of Coupling The Drive 111.24 Pump ‘Types Based On The Position Of The Pumnp Axis 11.1.2.5 Pumps Types Based On Constructional Features 11.1.3 Criteria for Pump Selection 314 375 375, 376 376 376 378 378 378 379 381 ‘38t 381 382 386 388 388 388 388 388 391 391 392 392 392 392, 393. 393 393 1.1.4 Considerations of the Parameters of Head, Discharge and Speed in the Selection of a Pump 11.L5 Consideration of the Suction Lift Capacity In Pump Selection 11.1.5.1 ‘The Meaning Of NPSHr 1L.1.5.2 Vapour Pressure And Cavitation 394 304,11.1.5.3 Calculating NPSHa 397 1.1.5.4 Guidelines On NPSHr 397 11.1.8.5 General Observations 397 11.1.6 Considerations of the System Head Curve in Pump Selection 399 114.7 Summary View of Application Parameters and Suitability of Pump 401 11.1.8 Defining the Operating Point or the Operating Range of » Pump 02 11.1.9 Drive Rating 404 114.10 Stability of Pump Characteristics 404 IAL Considerations while Selecting Pumps for Series or Parallel Operation 405 11.41.42 Considerations of the Size of the System and the Number of Pumps to be Provided 408 11.1.13 Considerations Regarding Probable Variations of Actual Duties from the Rated Duties 408 MAAS. Affinity Laws 408 11.1.13.2 Scope For Adjusting The Actual Characteristics 409 111.14 Pump Testing 409 UAL “Testing At Site 4 11.2 INTAKE DESIGN aul 1.2.1 The Objectives of Intake Design ait 11.22 Guidelines for intake Design 412 3 PIPING LAYOUT i 418 11.3.1 Suction Piping 415 1.3.2 Discharge Piping, 45 11.3.3 Valves 415 11.3.3.1 Suction Valves 1.3.3.2 Delivery Valves 11.3.3.3 Air Valves 11.3.4 Supports 11.3.5 Surge Protection Devices 11.4 SPACE REQUIREMENT AND LAYOUT PLANNING OF PUMPING SY 416 (LS INSTALLATION OF PUMPS a7 11.6 COMMISSIONING 420 11.7 OPERATION OF THE PUMPS 420 11.8 MAINTENANCE OF PUMPS 424 (xxii) eel11.8.1. Periodic inspection and Test 11.8.2 Daily Observations 11.8.3 Semi Annual laspection 11.84 Annual Inspection 11.8.5 Facilities for Maintenance and Repairs 1.8.5.1 Consumables And Lubricants 11.8.5.2 Replacement Spares 1185.3 Repair Work-Shop 119 TROUBLE SHOOTING 11.10 SELECTION OF ELECTRIC MOTORS 11.101 General 11.10.2 Selection Criteria 11.10.21 Constructional Features Of Induction Motors 11.10.22 Method OF Starting 11.10.23 Voltage Ratings 11.10.24 ‘Type Of Enclosures (Table 11.11) 11.10.25 Class Of Duty 11.10.26 Insulation 11.10.27 Selection Of Motor Rating 11.11 STARTERS ALiL1 TYPES 11.1.2 STARTERS FOR SQUIRREL CAGE MOTORS 11.11.21 Selection Of The Tapping Of Auto Transformer Type Starter 11.12 PANELS 11.12.1 Regulations 1112.2 Various Functions 11.123 Improvement of Power Factor 11.12.31 Selection Of Capacitors 11.12.3.2. Installation Of Capacitors 11.12.33 Operation And Maintenance Of Capacitors 11.43 CABLES 11.14 TRANSFORMER SUBSTATION Add 1114.2 Duplicate transformer may Be provided, where installation so demands sential Features aan 421 421 422 43 423 423 423 423 429 429 429 429 429 429 430 436 431 431 431 431 431 432 432 432 432 33 433 433 437 438 438 439 (xxii)11.15 MAINTENANCE AND REPAIRS OF ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT 439 11.15.1 Consumables Bo 1115.2 Replacement Spares 439 1115.3 Tools and Test Equipments 439 11.154 Preventive maintenance 439 11.15.4.1 Daily 439 11.15.4.2. Monthly 439 11.15.4.3 Quarterly 440 11.15.44 Semi-Annual 440 11.15.45 Annual 441 11.15.4.6 Bi-Annual 441 11.16 TROUBLE SHOOTING FOR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT at 1.16.1, Motor gets Overheated 441 1.16.2 Motor gets Over loaded: (drawing more than the rated current at the rated voltage) 44t 11.16.3 Starter/Breaker trips 442 1.16.4. Vibration in Motor 442 11.16.5 Cables Get Over-heated 442 ‘ 12, INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS IN WATER TREATMENT PLANT 443, 12.1 INTRODUCTION 443, 12.2 PURPOSE AND OBJECTIVE 443 12.2.1 Instruments & Control Systems 443, 12.3 SYSTEMS AVAILABLE 444 123.1 Mechanical 444 123.2 Pneumatic 444 123.3 Electric 444 12.3.4 Electropneumatic 444 123.5 Hydropneumatic 444 12.3.6 Method of Control 445 12.3.6.1 Manual 445 12.3.6.2 Semi Automatic 445, 123.63 Automatic 445 12.4 DESIGN PRINCIPLES AND PRACTIC 445 125 LEVEL MEASURENIENT 445iE ce tnecnnncriciernteeneniacnaein { | 12.5.1 Essential instruments 12.6 FLOW MEASUREMENT. 12.6.1 Flow Measurement In Closed Systems 12.7 FILTER FLOW CONTROL 12.7.4 Biter Flow Control Valve 12.8 RATE OF FLOW OF CHEMICALS 12.9 PRESSURE, MEASUREMENT 12.10 WATER QUAUITY 12.11 OPTIONAL INSIRUMENTATION AND CONTROLS 121LA Level 12.11.2 Flow 12.1.3 Pressure Switch Applications 12.114 Filter Console 12.1.5 Clarifier Destndging 12.11.6 Water Quality 12.12 INSTRUMENT-CUM-CONTROL PANEL 12,13 CONCLUSION 13. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WATERWORKS: 15.1 INTRODUCTION 13.2 OPERATION AND MAIN’ 13.3 COMMON FEATURES OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 13.3.1. Availability of Detailed Plans, Drawings and Operation and Maintenance Manuals 13.3.2. Schedule of Daily Operations 13.3.3 Schedule of Inspection of Machinery 13.34 Records 13.3.5. Records of Quality of Water 13.3.6 Records of Key Activities of O & M 13.3.7 Staff Position 13.3.8 Inventory of Stores 134 FEATURES OF OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF COMPONENTS OF WATER WORKS, 13.4.1 Source and Intake Works 13.4.2 Maintenance of Dams 13.4.3 Maintenance of Intakes 446 447 449. 451 452 455 458 459 459) 459 460 461 461 461 462 462 463 463 463 463 464 464 464 464 464 464 44 465 INDIVIDUAL, 465 165 465 466 (axv)LEE FTE CE EE TT ST ET 13.4.4 Maintenance of Pumps & Pumping Macbinery 466 13.4.5. Maintenance of Transmission Systems 166 13.5 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WATER TREATMENT PLANTS 467 13.5.1 Problems 461 13.5.2 Requirements 4G 13.5.3 Raw Water 468 3 13.5.4 Flow Measuring Devices 468 13.5.5 Chemical Feeding Unit 468 13.5.6 Rapid Mixer 469 Py 13.5.7 Slow Mixer 4169 { $34.8 Clarifier or Sedimentation Tank 469 1359 Rapid Gravity Filters 469. 135.10 Slow Sand Filters 472 {3.5.11 Chlorinators 472 135.12 Clear Water Sump & Reservoir 472 135.13. Treated Water 473 13.6 AERATORS 473 13.7 MASTER BALANCING RESERVOIRS AND ELEVATED RESERVOIRS 473 138 DISTRIBUTION SYST 414 139 CONTROL OF QUALITY OF WATER 5 13.10 ‘TASTE & ODOUR CONTROL, 416 13.41 STARP PAT 476 14, WATER WORKS MANAGEMENT 477 144 LS OF MANAGEMENT. 477 14.1.1 Government of India (G.O.1} Level 477 14.1.2 State Government level a7 14.3 Local Body Level 478 14.2 COMMON ASPECTS OF WATER WORKS MANAGEMENT 478 143. GENERAL ADMINISTRATION 478 14.3.1 Duties and Responsibitities 479 14.3.2 General Administration at Operating Level 480 pa 14.3.3 Persound AdMINIstrition 48i | Ld INVENTORY CONTROI. 481 k 14.5 ACCOUNTING & BUDGETING 481 (xxv)1.6 INSERVICE TRAINING 482 14.7 LONGTERM PLANNING 483 14.8 PUBLIC RELATIONS 484 15. LABORATORY TESTS AND PROCEDURES 485 15.1 GENERAL 485 15.2 TYPES OF EXAMINATIONS 485, 15.3 SAMPLING, 486 15.3.1 Sampling for Physical and Chemical Analysis 486 15.3.2 Sampling for Bacteriological Analysis 487 15.3.2.1 Sampling Bottles 487 15.3.22 Dechlorination 487 153.23 Sample Collection 487 (a) Sampling from Taps 487 (b) Sampling Direct from a Source 188 15.3.2.4 Size Of The Sample 488 15.3.2.5 Prescevation And Storage 489 15.3.3 Sampling for Biological Analysis 489 15.3.4 Frequency of sampling 489 15.4 STANDARD TESTS 490 15.4.1 Physical Examination 490 15.4.2 Chemical Examination 490 15.4.3. Bacteriological Examination 491 15.4.4 Schedule of Tests 491 15.5METHODS OF EXAMINATION 491 15.5.1 Reporting of Results 491 15.6 LABORATORY EQUIPME! 492 15.6.1 Recommended Minimum Tests and Equipment 492 15.6.2 Facilities 493 15.6.3 Equipment 493 15.7 RECORDS, 493 15.8 LABORATORY PERSONNEL 494 16. COMPUTER AIDED OPTIMAL DESIGN OF WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM 495 16.1 GENERAL 495 (xxvii)16.2, DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING 495 16.2.1 Concept 495, 16.3 APPLICATION TO WATER TREATMENT SYSTEM DESIGN 497 16.4 PERFORMANCE MODELS 497 16.4.1 Rapict Mix Unit 497 16.4.2 Slow Mix (locculation Unit) 498 16.4.3 Sedimentation Unit 500 16.44 Rapid Sand Filtration 501 164.5 Disinfection 503 16.5 COST MODELS 503 16.6 PROBLEM FORMULATION 503 17. FINANCIAL AND MANAGEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS 508 17.1 WATER SUPPLY FINANCING 508 ITAL Scope 508 17.2 CAPITAL AND REVENUE 509 17.3 SOURCES FOR RAISING CAPITA1 509 17.3.1 Authority Responsible. 510 17.3.2 The Relative Merits of the Various Methods Sil 17.4 METHOD OF RATISING REVENUE Sil 17.4.1 Water Tax $i 17.4.2 Water Rates Sit 17.5 WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT 513, 17.5.1 Scope 513, 17.5.2 Tasks 513 17.6 FINANCIAL APPRAISAL OP WATER SUPPLY PROJECTS St 17.6.1 Introduction Si 17.6.2 Pro le 515 17.6.3. Financial Appraisal ST 17.6.4 Financial Analysis Statements 520 17.7 STATUTORY WATER AND SANITATION BOARDS. 521 17.8 CONCLUSION 522, 18. LEGAL ASPECTS 526 18.1 GENERAL 526 (xxviif) 2052 UASEIGT=2A18.2 SYSTEM OF ACQUISITION OF WATER USE RIGHTS 526 18.2.1 Riparian Rights System 526 18.2.1.1 Natural Flow Doctrine 527 18.2.1.2 Reasonable Use Doctrine 527 18.2.1.3 Loss Of Riparian Rights 528 18.2.2 Prior Appropriation System, 528 18.2.2.1 Flements OF An Appropriation 528 18.2.2.2 Beneficial Uses 529 18.2.2.3 Quantity Of Water 529 182.24 Place Of Use 529 182.25 Preferences 18.2.26 Changes In Appropriation 18,2.27 ‘Transfers OF Appropriation 18.2.2.8 Loss Of Appropriation 18.2.3. System of Administrative Disposition of Water 183 SURPACE WATER, 18.3.1 Power of Legislation Regarding Water 183.2 National Water Policy 18.4 GROUND WATER 18.5 PREVENTION AND CONTROL, OF POLLUTION, APPENDICES A ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS. B CONVERSION FACTORS 537 C LIST OF INDIAN STANDARD RELATING TO WATER SUPPLY S41 2.1 ESTIMATION OF FUTURE POPULATION 559 3.1 CPM NETWORK DIAGRAM FOR A TYPICAL WATER SUPPLY AUGMENTATION SCHEME, 564 5.1 MASS DIAGRAM FOR IMPOUNDING STORAGE S75 5.2 GROUND WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION POTENTIAL 578 5.3 CLLASSIFICATION OF SOIL 583 4 VALUES OF THE WELL FUNCTION F(U) FOR VARIOUS VALUE OF U 584 5.5 TYPE CURVE, 586 (xxix) 2982 UARENO7—a5.6 YIELD TESTS FOR WELLS 5.7 RADIAL COLLECTOR WELL TION OF NEW OR RENOVATED WELLS,TUBE! n-Williams Chart 6.2. Mannings Chart 6.3 Modified Hazen's William Chart 6.4. HYDROSTATIC TEST PRESSURES FOR PIPES. 6.5 DESIGN FOR ECONOMIC SIZE OF PUMPING MAIN] 6.6 DESIGN OF THRUST BLOCKS 6.7 DESIGN OF AIR VESSEL 7.1 DESIGN OF SPRAY TYPE AERATOR 7.2 DESIGN OF MECHANICAL RAPID MIX UNIT 7.3. DESIGN OF CLARIFLOCCULATOR 7.4 DESIGN OF RECTANGULAR PLAIN SEDIMENTATION TANK 7.5 DESIGN FOR RADIAL CIRCULAR SETTLING TANK 7.6 DESIGN FOR TUBE SETTLERS 7.7 DESIGN FOR RAPID GRAVITY FILTER 7.8 PREPARATION OF FILTER SAND FROM STOCK SAND LS AND 604 609 612 616 621 623 626 630 632 634 639 7.9 INFORMATION TO BE INCLUDED IN THE TENDER SPECIFICATIONS FOR WATER TREATMENT PLANT. 7.10 COMMON CHEMICALS USED IN WATER TREATMENT 9.1 COMPUTATION OF CHEMICAL DOSAG: n 9.2 TYPE DESIGN OF IRON REMOVAL PLANT 9.3 DESIGN OF IRON REMOVAL UNITS 9.4 SOLAR RADIATION 10.1 CALCULATION OF CAPACITY OF SERVICE RESERVOIR 10.2 DETAILS OF BELL MOUTH FOR OUTLET CONNECTIONS IN SERVICE RESERVOIRS. IN WATER SOFTENING. 640 644 655 656 661 665 669 10.3. SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM ON HARDY CROSS METHOD OF BALANCING HEAD LOSSES BY CORRECTING ASSUMED FLOWS. 11.1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS FOR A PUMPING PLANT 670 673 (xsx)13.1 RECOMMENDED MENIUM OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE STAFF PATTERN SURAFAC OURCE: TYPICAL STAFF PATTERN (UPTO 5 MLD SYSTEM) WITH CONVENTIONAL TREATMENTS 682 13.2 RECOMMENDED MENIUM OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE STAFF PATTERN SURAFACE SOURCE: TYPICAL STAFF PATTERN (FOR 5 TO 25 MLD SYSTEM) WITH CONVENTIONAL TREATMENTS, 684 13.3 RECOMMENDED MENIUM OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE, STAFF PATTERN SURAFACE SOURCE: TYPICAL STAFF PATTERN (FOR 25 TO 50 MLD SYSTEM) WITH CONVENTIONAL ‘TREATMENTS 686 13.4 RECOMMENDED MENIUM OPERATION AND MAINTENANC: STAFF PATTERN SURAFA SOURCE: TYPICAL STAFF PATTERN (FOR 50 TO 75 MLD SYSTEM) WITH CONVENTIONAL ‘TREATMENTS 688 13.8 RECOMMENDED MENIUM OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE STAFF PATTERN ABOVE 75 MLD UPTO 150 MLD 690 13.6 RECOMMENDED MENIUM STAFFING PATTERN FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE SOURCE : BATTERY AND BOREWELLS/TUBEWELLS, OPENWELLS (EACH WELL YIELDS 5000 GPH MAXIMUM) 692 13.7 RECOMMENDED MENIUM STAFFING PATTERN FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE SOURCE : LARGE DIA, HIGH YIELDING TUBEY 694 13.8 SCHEDULE OF PRE! TIVE MAINT CLARIFLOCCULATORS & THEIR DRIVE 696 14.1 SUGGESTED STAFFING PATTERN FOR SUPERVISORY ENGINEERING DIVISION (WORKLOAD RS. 200 LAKE ANNUALLY 1988) AND SUBDIVISION (WORKLOAD RS. 50 LAKHS: ANNUALLY 1988) FOR O. & M. OF WATERWORKS: 697 14.2 REQUIREMENT OF STAFF FOR ~O& M 698 15.1 MINIMUM STAFF RECOMMENDED FOR WATER WORKS, LABORATORIES 699 PARTICULARS TO BE SUPPLIED WITH THE SAMPLES, 700 SPECIMEN FORM FOR SHORT PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL EXAMINATION 702 SPECIMEN FORM FOR COMPLETE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND EXAMINATION 704 15.5 SPECIMEN FORM FOR SHORT BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER 708 Gees)6 SPECIMEN FORM FOR SHORT BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER 709 15.7 MINIMUM EQUIPMENTS NEEDED FOR PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL TESTS 710 15.8 EQUIPMENT NEEDED FOR BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION BACTERIOLOGICAL MEDIA 71 15.9 TEST TO BE DONE BY WATER WORKS LABORTORIES 712 17.1 AVERAGE INCREMENT COST PER 1000 LITERS. 713 17.2 NET PRESENT WORTH AND BENEFIT COST RATIO OF THE PROJECT AT DISCOUNT RATE 8.5% AND INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN 714 17.3. ASSUMPTIONS FOR FINANCIAL FORECASTS: 716 17.4 INCOME AND EXPENDITURE STATEMENT OF WATER SUPPLY AND SEWERAGE /SANITATION PROJECT 718 17.5. FUNDING PATTERN 725 17.6 PROJECT SOURCES AND APPLICATION FOR FOUNDS (CASH. FLAW) STATEMENT 726 17.7 INTEREST ADDED TO THE CAPITAL DURING MORATORIUM PERIOD 730 17.8 CALCULATION OF ANNUITY CALCULATION OF PRINCIPAL & INTEREST IN ANNUITY 731 17.9 PROJECT BALANCE SI ON 318T MARCH BIBLIOGRAPHY 739 T (WATER SUPPLY & SANITATION) AS 732 (sxsii)CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Water constitutes one of the important physical environments of man and has a direct bearing on his health. ‘There is no gainsaying that contamination of water leads to health hazards. Water is precious to man and therefore WHO refers to “conteo! of Wates Supplies to ensure that they are pure and wholesome as one of the primary objectives of environmental sanitation”. Water may be polluted by physical, chemical and bacterial agents. ‘Thesefore, protected water supply is a sine qua non of public health of a community The population of India is likely to be around a thousand million by the end of the century. ‘The urban population would be around four hundred million by that time. ‘This means a very large demand on the civic amenities including water supply for domestic purposes and in addition more water would be needed for purposes such as irrigation, industry, etc., which have to keep pace with the increasing demands of rising population. ‘Therefore, identification of sources of water supply, their conservation and optimal utilization is of utmost impottance. Even the present scale of water supply to urban and rural population is grossly inadequate and not all communities are provided with safe water supply, let alone piped water system; hardly any metcopolitan city has a continuous water supply; and very few cities could boast of providing adequate water supply to meet their growing demands at adequate pressure Many facets are involved in tackling the problem of providing protected water supply to all communities at the minimum cost and in the shortest possible time. Emphasis has to be laid on both the aspects of the system namely, planning and management technical and financial. At present a number of decisions, both at policy and technical levels, are being based on empirical considerations and divergent practices are in vogue in the country in so far as designing the system itself is concerned. ‘The Manual would have to attempt at the unification of these practices and help to inculcate rationale to policy and managerial decisions apart from giving guidance to the public health engineers in achieving the target of providing safe water to all communities economically and expeditiously. Obviously, it would be in the interest of public health engineers to have a standard ‘manual in public health engineering and a code of practice which could serve as a guide in their day to day practice. ‘This Manual would discuss the basic principles such as planning, identification of source of supply, development and transmission, water treatment, distribution system, testing and other related administeative aspects and also explain int detail the proper approach to each problem. ‘This Revised Manual has taken into account the recent technical advances and trends in the development of protected water supply systems, some of the major changes and auditions as highlighted in the following areasGround water potential and its development in hard rock regions; 4% Well development, failure of wells and remedial measures; Ground water abstraction through tadial wells; ® Measurement of flow; ® Minimum requirements for domestic, non-domestic, institutional, fire fighting and industrial 20 Minimum residual pressute and quality standards including virological aspects, Concept of unit operations; © Chemical handling and feeding; © Recent concepts of coagulation and flocculation; ® Advances in filtration; Operation aud maintenance problems in various unit operations involved in water supply, from source development to the actual supply; ® Pumping stations and equipment; © Hydraulic network analysis, ditect design of networks and computer programming; % Preventive maintenance including detection and prevention of wastage; © Protection against pollution and freezing; © Corrosion and its prevention; @ Water hammer problems; 9 House service connections; © Optimal design of water treatment systems; % Instrumentation & controls in water treatment plants; Financing and management, © Legal aspects; 4 Laboratory tests and procedures with special ceference to the classification of the water works laboratories. In keeping with the changeover to the metric system, the various units of measurements, operational parameters and design criteria have all been confined to the metric system only, with deliberate omission of equivalents in the British System generally furnished alongside. ‘This has been felt necessary, since there is, still an apathy on the part of the field engineer to break away from the conventional, in which he feels at home, since tradition dies hard. 2However, a table of conversion factors has been appended to facilitate the verification of any of the parameters by conversion to the units he is accustomed to. ‘This Manual also contains @ set of appendices furnishing useful information helpful in solving day to day problems which the practicing engineer is likely to encounter. Model problems have been worked out which have a relevance in design, Useful references of the Bureau of Indian Standards, are siso listed in a separate appendix. Charts for Hazen Williams formula as well as Manning's formula, which are frequently used, are presented in the metsic system in separate appendices. A companion Manual on Sewerage and Sewage Treatment has been brought out by the erstwhile Union Ministry of Works and Housing (Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Osganization) which has been revised and published in 1993, The recommendations of this Manual and the provisions of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 should be followed wherever applicable,CHAPTER 2 PLANNING 2.4 OBJECTIVE The objective of a public protected water supply system is to supply safe and clean water in adequate quantity, conveniently and as economically as possible, ‘The planning may be required at national level for the country as a whole, or for the state or region or community “Though the responsibility of the various organizations incharge of planning of water supply systems in each of these cases is diffecesse, they still have to function within the ptiorities fixed by the national and state governments, taking into consideration, the areas to be provided with water supply and the most economical way of doing it, keeping in view the overall requirements of the entire cegion, The water present do not supply projects formulated by the various state authorities and local bodies at ntain all the essential elements for appraisal and when projects are assessed for their cost benefit ratio and for institutional or other funding, they are not amenable for comparative study and appraisal. Also, different guidelines and norms are adopted ky the central and state agencies; for example, assumptions regarding per capita water supply, design period, population forecast, measurement of flow, water treatment, specifications of materials, etc. Therefore, there is 2 need to specify appropriate standards, planning, and desiga criteria to avoid empirical approach. 2.2 BASIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS Engineering decisions are requised to specify the area and population to be served, the design period, the per capita rate of water supply, other water needs in the area, the nature and location of facilities to be provided, the utilization of centralized or multiple points of treatment facilities and points of water supply intake and waste water disposal. Projects have to be identified and prepared in adequate detail in order to enable timely and proper implementation. Optimization may call for planning for a number of phases relating to plant capacity and the degree of treatment to be provided by determining the capacities for several units, working out capital cost required, interest charges, period of repayment of loan, water tax and water sate. Uncertainties in such studies are: many, such as the difficulties in anticipating new technology and changes in the investment pattern, the latter being characterized by increasing financing costs 2.2.1 WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITY The waters to be handled may vary both in quantity and quality and in the degree of treatment required, seasonally, monthly, daily and sometimes even hourly. The public health engineer may use his ingenuity to mitigate the variations in quantity by provision of storage,which may be drawn upon during peak demand. Variations in quality can be managed by provision for the introduction of suitable process adjustments in the water treatment plant. 2.2.1.1 Water Conservation Rising demand for water in urban communities due to population increase, commerci and industria) development and improvement in living standards is putting enormous str on easily and economically exploitable water resources. Mot only the quantity of extractable fresh water resources is being depleted but also the quality is deteriorating, Grownd waters may be chemically contaminated, for cxample, due to excessive fluorides, toral dissolved solids, iron and manganese and even arsenic i. some cases. Due to over abstraction of ground waters for agricultural and industrial uses, this problem is further aggravated, Surface we bodies, being indiscriminately used for discharge of municipal and industrial tewaters, may have quality parameters which may require application of advanced water trcatment processes, It has therefore, become essential to initiate measues for effective and integrated approach for water conservation Water conservation may be possible through Bptimal use of available water resources; prevention and control of wastage of water and effective demand management. ®o 2.2.1.2 Increasing The Water Availability And Supply& Demand Management The measures requited to increase the water availability involve augmentation of water resources by storing rainwater on the surface or below the surface, Surface storage is usually contemplated cither in natural ponds, reservoirs and lakes ox actificially created depressions, s, impounding teservoirs or tanks. Subsurface storage of water is effected by structing subsucface dykes, attificial recharge wells, ete. For storing subsurface water in rocky areas, several rechniques have been developed indigenously like Jacket Well Technique, Bore Blast Techniques, Fracture Seal Cementation etc. These techniques have been deployed to improve porosity, storage vohume as well as interconnectivity between fractures/ fis and other types of pores. Artificial eecharge of ground water may be contemplated in: some areas. ures Water supply management aims at improving the supply by minimizing lo wastage and unaccounted for water (UFW) in the transmission mains and distribution 5 (Reference may also be made to section 10.10.) The unaccounted-for-water constitutes a significantly higher fraction of total water supplied in poorly managed water transmission and distribution systems. Measures like detection, control and prevention of leakage, metering of water supply, installation of properly designed waste-not-taps and prompt action to repair and maintain distribution system components should be adopted. Water demand management involves measures which aim at reducing water demand by optimal utilization of water supplies for all essential and desirable needs. It focuses on identification of all practices and uses of water in excess of functional requirement. Use of plumbing fixtures, such as low volume and dual flushing cisterns in place of conventional 12.5 litre capacity cisterns which conserve water may be encouraged. Practices like reuse and recycling of treated wastewater may be promoted for which references may be mace to 5chapter 19 & 20 of the Maaual on Sewerage and Sewage ‘Treatment. 2.2.2 PLANT SITING “Though the distribution fay out and the sources of supply and their development methods are important in siting the differen¢ units for optimal and economical utilization, factors like topography, soil conditions, and physical hazards should also be taken into consideration. Hillside construction may have an advantage in accommodating the headloss in the plant without excessive excavation andl may permit ground level entrance to several floors in service buildings. Wet sites must be dewatered and stauctures may have to be designed to overcome the hydrostatic uplift. On soils having low bearing capacities, structures may need to be placed on piles or tafts. Rocky sites may require costly excavation. Flooding is a common hazard for the treatment plants and pumping stations located near tivers. The highest flood level observed at the site selected should be taken into account and the treatment plant and pumping station structures may be built above the high water mark, of may be surrounded by dykes, to prevent damage due to flooding, Contact should be maintained with the Irrigation Department for the use of the Sood warning system 2.2.3 MECHANIZATION Mechanization, instrumentation, and automation are becoming more and more common in water works and this should also be taken into aecount in planning the system, subject to local availability and maintenance facilities. Mechanization replaces and serves the functions that cannot be performed efficiently by manual operations such as the cemoval of the sludge from sedimentation tanks. Instrumentation involves installation of various kinds of devices and gauges for monitoring and recording of plant flows and performance. Automation combines instrumentation and mechanization t effect head loss control for back washing and specific control for turbidity, colour, dissolved oxygen, pH, chlorine residual, conductivity and float conttols for pumping 2.2.4 SERVICE BUILDING Considerable attention is to be given to the service building tequired at treatment works and pumping stations such as houses, offices and laboratories, washing room and store rooms, chemical house, pump house etc,, In mild climates operating structures need to be protected against rain and sun while in adverse climates complete protection against such weather is advisable 2.2.5 OTHER UTTLATIES: Provision needs io be made for facilities such as electricity, water supply and drainage, roadways, parking areas, walkways, fencing, telephone facilities and other welfare services such as housing for operation and maintenance personnel, 2.2.6 DESIGN PERIOD ‘Water Supply projects may be designed normally «© meet the sequitements over a thirty- year period after their completion. The time lag between design and completion of the Project should also be taken into account which should not exceed two years € five yearsdepending on the size of the project. The thisty year period may however be modified in regard to certain components of the project depending om theic useful life or the facility for carrying out extensions when required and cave of interest so that expenditure far ahead of uiility is avoided. Necessary land for futare expansion/duplication of components should be acquiced in the beginning itself Where expensive tunnels and lage aqueducts are involved entailing large capital outlay for duplication, they may be designed for ultimate project requizements. Where failure such as collapse of steel pipes under vacuum put the pipe Hine out of commission for a long, time or the pipe location presents special hazards such as floods, ice, and mining ete., duplicate lines may be necessary. Project componems may be designed to meet the requirements of the following desigh periods: Design period in [it Electnic motors and pumps 1 Water treatment units peace eeeeteeteee test Pipe connection to several treatment "Raw water and clear water conveying mains 30 Clear water reservoirs at the head works, batancing tanks and service reservoirs | (overhead of ground level) 2.2.7 POPULATION FORECAST 22.7.1 General Considerations ‘The design population will bave to be estimated with due regard to all the factors governing the furuse growth and development of the project atea in the industrial, commercial, educational, social and administrative spheres. Special factors causing sudden emigration of infhax of populstion should also be foreseen to the extent possible. A judgement based on these factors would help in selecting the most suitable method of deriving the probable trend of the population growth in the area ot areas of the project from out of the folowing mathematical methods, graphically interpreted where necessary,helenae @) Demographic Method of Population Projection Population change cant occur only in three ways () by births (population gain) (i) by deaths (population loss) or (i) migration (population loss or gain depending on whether movement out Gr movement in occurs in éxcess). Annexation of an area may be considered as a special formn of migration, Population forecasts are frequently obtained by preparing and summing up of separate but celated projections of natura) increases and of net migration and is expressed as below, The net effect of births and deaths on population is termed natural increase (natural decrease, if deaths exceed births) Migration also affects the number of births and deaths én an area and so, projections of net migration axe prepared before projections for natural increase. ‘This method thus takes into account the prevailing and anticipated birth rates and death, rates of the region or city for the period under consideration, An estimate is also made of the emigration from and immigration to the city, growth of city area wise, and the ‘net incwease of population is calculated accordingly considering all these factors, by arithmetical balancing, ¥) Avithmetical Increase Method ‘This method is genceally applicable to large and old cities, In this method the average inctease of population per decade is calculated from the past records and added to the prevent population to find out population in the next decade. ‘This method gives a low value and is suitable for well-settled and established communities, ©) Incremental Increase Method In this method the increment in arithmetical increase is determined from the past decades and the average of that increment is added to the average increase. This method increases the figures obtained by the arithmetical increase method. ) Geometrical Increase Method In this methoxt percentage increase is assumed to be the rate of growth and the average of the percentage increases is used 10 find out future increment in population. This method gives much higher value and mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having vast scope for expansion ©) Decreasing Rate Of Growth Method In this method it is assumed that cate of percentage increase decreases and the average decrease in the rate of growth is calculated. “Then the percentage increase is modified by deducting the decrease in sate of growth. "This method is applicable only in suuch cases where the rare of growth of population shows a downward tend. P Graphical Method In this approach there are two methods. In one, only the city in question is considered and in the second, other similar cities are also taken into account.(3) Graphical Method Based On Single City In this method the population curve of the city (le. the Population vs. Past Decades) is smoothly extended for getting future value, This extension has to be done carefully and it requires vast experience and good judgement. The line of best fit may be obtained by the method of least squares (ii) Graphical Method Based On Cities Sn vhis method the city in question is compared with other cities which have already undergone the same phases of development which the city in question is likely to undergo and based on this comparison, a graph between population and decades is plotted §) Logistic Method ‘The ‘S’ shaped logistic curve for any city gives complete trend of growth of the city right from beginning to saturation limit of populabon of the city. I) Method of Density ich Similar Growth Pattern In this approach, trend in rate of density increase of population for each sector of a city is found out and population forecast is done for each sector based on above approach Addition of sector-wise population gives the population of the ost. 2.2.7.2 Final Forecast While the forecast of the prospective population of a projected area at any given time curing the period of design can be derived by any one of the foregoing, methods appropriate to cach case, the density and disteibution of such population within the several areas, zones or districts will again have to be made with a disceming judgement on the relat probabilities of expansion within each zone or district, according to its nature of development and based on existing and contemplated town planning regulations. Wherever population growth forecast or master plans prepared by town planning of other approptiate authorities are available, the decision regarding the design population should take into account their figures, Worked out examples for estimation of the future population by some of the methods are given in Appendix 2.1 2.2.8 PER CAPITA SUPPLY 2.2.8.1 Basic Needs Piped water supplies for communities should provide adequately for the following as applicable (8) Domestic needs such as drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, flushing of tollers, gardening and individual air conditioning (6) Institutional needs (© Public purposes such ‘wateting of puble pasks treet washing ot street watering, flushing of sewers, () Industrial and commercial uses including central air conditioningscene © (Requirement for livestock and (@ Minimum permissible UFW(Ref. Table. 2.1) 2.2.8.2 Factors Affecting Constmption a) Size of City Largee the size, more the consumption. b) Characteristics of Population and Standard of Living In the high value residential area of the city or in a suburban community, per capita consumption is high, Slum areas of large cities have low per capita consumption. A person staying in an independent bungalow consumes mote water compared to a person staying in a flat. Habit of person also affects consumption; the type of bath ie. tub bath or otherwise and material used for ablution ete, also affect per capita consumption. ¢) Industries and Commerce The type and number of different industries also affect consumption. Commercial consumption is that of the retail and wholesale mercantile houses and office buildings. d) Climatic Conditions In hot weather, the consumption of water is more compared to that curing cold weather. ¢) Metering ‘The consumption of water when supply is metered is less compared to that when the water chatges are on flat rate basis. 2.2.8.3 Recommendations The Environmental Hygiene Committee suggested certain optimum service levels for communities based on population groups. In the Code of Basic Requirements of Water Supply, Drainage and Sanitation (IS: 1172-1983) as well as the National Building Code, a minimum of 135 Iped has been recommended for all residences provided with full Aushing tem for excreta disposal. Though the Manual on Sewerage and Sewage ‘Treatment recommends a supply of 150 Iped wherever sewerage is existing/contemplated, with a view 1o conserve water, a minimum of 135 Ipcd is now recommended. It is well recognised that the minimum water requitements for domestic and other essential beneficial uses should be met through public water supply. Other needs for water including industries ete. may have to be supplemented from other systems depending upon. the consteaints imposed by the availability of capital finances and the proximity of water sources havinig adequate quantities of acceptable gualizy which can be economically utilised for public water supplies. Based on the objectives of full coverage of urban communities with easy access to potable drinking water in quantities recommended io meee dhe domestic and other essential non-domestic needs, the following zecommendations are made: 104) Domestic and non-domestic needs ‘The recommended values for domestic and non-domestic pucposes are given in Table 21 TABLE 21 RECOMMENDED PER CAPITA WATER SUPPLY LEVELS FOR DESIGNING SCHEMES Classification of towns/cities Recommended Maxime: ‘Water Supply Levels aeees Oped) ‘Yowns provided with piped water supply but 70 without sewefage system Cities provided with piped water supply 135 where sewerage system is ( | existing/ contemplated S a fe | Metropolitan and Mega cities provided with 150 | piped water supply where sewerage system is existing/ contemplated Note: {@ ts wiban areas, where water i provided through public standposts, 40 Ipcd should be considered; Gi) Figures exchide “Unaccounted for Water(UEW)" which should be limited to 15% Gi) Figures indude requirements of water for commercial, institutional and eninor industries. However, the bulk supply to such establishments should bbe assessed separately with proper justification. b) Institutional Needs ‘The water requirements for institutions should be provided in addition to the provisions indicated in (4) above, where tequired, if they arc of considerable magnitude and not covered in the provisions aleady made. "The individual requisements would be as follows : $50 fper bed), a =the __b) Ne "340 (per bed) | Hoids 180(per bed) Hostels “135 it 2982 UARET AA, heyes [StNo. | Institutions 2: Litres per head per day | [a [Junciioa Stations and intennediats stations } | where mail or express stoppage (both | | | ___| maihways and bus station HH 4 | 9. [Terminal stations J | 10. | Intermediate stations (excluding, 1 i | express stops) | (could be reduced to 25 where | | bathing facilities are not I i [Factores i (could be reduced to 30 where __no bathrooms are provided) ‘Cinema, concert c) Fire Fighting Demand L ¢ Jr is usual ( provide for fire fighting demand as a coincident draft on the distribution system along with the normal supply to the _ consumers as assumed. A provision in kilolitres per day based on the formula of 100/p where, p = population in thousands may be adopted for communities larger than 50,000. It is desirable that one third of the fire-fighting requirements form patt of the service storage. The balance requirement may be disteibuted in several static tanks at strategic points. These static tanks may be filled froma de s by water tankers wherever feasible. ‘The high rise buildings should be provided with adequate fire storage from the protected water supply distribution as indicated in 10.3.2. ) Industrial Needs nearby ponds, streams or can: While the per capita rates of supply recommended will oxdinatily include the requirement of small industeies (other than factories) distributed within a town, separate provisions will have to be included for meeting the demands likely to be made by specific industeies within the urban areas, ‘The forecast of this demand will be based on the nature and magnitude of cack sock industry and the quantity of water required per unit of production. ‘Tie potential for industrial expansion should be carefully investigated, so that the availability of adequate water supply may attract such industries and add to the economec prosperity of the community. As can be seen from the tabulation, the quantities of water used by industry vary widely. They ate also affeeted by many factors such as cost and availability of water, w: disposal problems, management and the types of processes involved. Individual studies of the water requirement of a specific industry should, therefore, be made for each location, the values given below secving only as guidelines. In the context of reuse of water in several iadustries, the sequirement of fresh water is getting reduced considerably. 2962 VALET 48{Tndusey | Water requirement} { \ | in Kilotitzes por unit | [Automobile ai Keg (ann Pape: I [on “Paper Fone, Special quality | LL t | —}- Tonne Sugae ine (C Texiile r 100 Ke pods) gia 1 #) Pressure Requirements Piped water supplics should be designed on continuous 24 hours basis to distribute water 10 consumers at aclequate pressure at all points. Intermittent supplies are neither desirable from the public bealth point of view nor economical, For towns where one-storeys buildings are common and for supply 10 the ground level storage tanks in multi-storeyed buildings, the scinimum cesidual pressure at fernde point should be Tm for direct supply. Where two-storeyed buildings are common, it may be 12m and whese three-storeyed ‘buildings ate prevalent 17 m or as stipulated by local byelaws. ‘The pressure required for fire fighting would have to be boosted by the fire engines. 2.2.9 QUALITY STANDARDS ‘The objective of Water Works Management is to ensure that the water supplied is free from pathogenic osganisins, cleas, palawcble and free from undesimble taste and odour, of reasonable temperature, neither cosrosive nor scale forming and free feorn minerals which could produce undesirable physiological effects. ‘The establishment of minimum standazds of quality for public water supply is of fandamental importance in achieving this objective Standards of quality form the yardstick within which the quality control of any public warer supply has to be assessed. Sanitary inspections are intended to provide a range of information end to toi potential problems, ‘The inspections allow for an overall appraisal of many factors with a water supply system, including the water works and the disttibution Moreover such an appraisal may later be verified and confirmed by microbiological an: which will indicate the severity of the problem. Sanitary inspections thus provide a direct method of pinpointing possible problems and sources of contamination, ‘They ate also important in the prevention and control of potentially hazardous conditions, including epidemics of water bome diseases. ‘The data obtained may identify Failures, anomalies, operator ettors and any deviations fom normal that may affect the production and B ELMS OE LL LLL LETTE,distribution of sate drinking water. When the inspections are properly carried out at appropriate cegular intetvals and where the inspector has the knowledge necessary to detect problems and suggest technical solutions, the production of good quality water is ensured. “Phe evolution of standards for the quality control of public water supplies has to take into account the timitations imposed by focal factors in the Several regions of the country. “The Environmental Hygiene Committee (1949) recommended that the objective of a public water supply should be to supply water "that udsolutely free from risks of transmitting, diseases, is pleasing to the senses and i suitable for culinary and laundering purposes” and added that "feeedom from risks is comparatively mote important than physical appearance or hardness” and that safety i an obligatory standaed and physical and chemical qualities ace optional within a range. ‘These observations are relevant in the development of a coun- try-wide programs of protected water supply systems for communities big and small, making use of the available water resources in the different regions, with a wide variation in thee physical, chemical and! aesthetic qualtties, that can be achieved by communities in due course “within the limits of their financial resources. ‘The immediate need is for minimum standards, consistent with the safety of public water supplies. Considering the standards prescribed in the catlies Manual and further development in the international standardization and the conditions in the county, the following guidelines are recommended. @) Physical And Chemical Quality Of Drinking Water ‘The physical and chemical quality of drinking water should be in accordance with the recommentied guidelines presented in Table 2.2. ‘TABLE 2.2 RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES FOR PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PARAMETERS Characteristics *Acceptable Cause for issusaaes eee i Metecuon oe YL. “Turbidity (NTU) 1 0 42 Colour Units on Platinum 5 25 Cobalt scale} 73, Taste and Odour Unobjectionable Objectionable vai pH FOS <65 00> 9.2 5. ‘Total dissolved solids (mg/!) 500 2000 6 Toral hardness (as CaCO.) 200 600 (mg/t) 7. Chlorides (as C1) (mg/) 200 4900 8. Sulphates (as SO,) (mg/!) 200 400 2, Fluorides (as F) (mg/') 10 1s 1. Nitrates (as NO) (mg/l) 45 48 1h, Calcium (as Ca) (mg/N) 75 200 __12,__ Magnesium (as Mg) (mg/}) S30 150 4— Si, Characteristics *Acceptabie Cause for No. Rejection If there are 250 mg/l of sulphates, Mg content can be increased to a maximum of 125 mg/l with the reduction of sulphates at the rate of 1 unit per every 25 units of sulphates 13. Tron (as Fe) (mg/) 04 10 14, Manganese (as Mn) (ang) 0.05 05 15. Copper (ts Cu) (mg/l) 0.05 415 16, Aluminium (as AD) (mg/l) 0.03 02 17. Alkaliniey (mg/l) 2 600 18, Residual Chlozine (mg/1) 0.2 21.0 19. Zine (as Zn) (mg/l) 5.0 15.0 20. Phenolic compounds (as Phenol) 0.001 9,002, (me/t) 21. Anionic detergents (mg/l) (as a2 10 MBAS) 22 Mineral Oi (mg/l) 0.01 0.03, ‘TOXIC MATERIALS 23 Arsenic (as As) (ong/') 001 0.05 24. Cadmium (as Cd) (eng/t) oat O08 25. Chromium (as hexavalent C2) 0.05 0.08 (mg/l) 26, Cyamides (as CN) (mg/l) 0.05 0.05, 27. Lead (as Pb) (mg/), 0.05 0.05 28. Selenium (as Se) (mg/I) oot Bat 29. Mercury (total as Hg) (rmg/1) 0.001 0.001 30. Polynuclear aromatic 02 02 hydrocarbons (PAH) (ang) 31. Pesticides (total, mg/l) Absent Refer 10 WHO guidelines for sinking water quality Vol 1. — 1993 RADIO ACTIVITY+ 32 Gross Alpha activity (Bq/1) o4 od 33._ Gross Beta activity (Bq/!) 1 10 NOTES ‘The figures indicated under the column ‘Acceptable’ ate the limits upto which water is genetally acceptable to the consumers, Figures in excess of those mentioned undes ‘Acceptable! render the water not 13acceptable, but still may be tolerated in the absence of an alternative and berter source but upto the limits indicated under column "Cause fot Rejection” above i which the sources will have to be rejected. + Iris possible that some mine and spring waters may exceed these radio activity limits and in such cases it is necessary to analyze the dividual sadio-nuckdes +n the acceptability or otherwise for public consumption. arder to asses b) Bacteriological Guidelines The recommended guidelines for bacteriological quality are given in Table 2.3. TABLE 2.3 BACTERIOLOGICAL QUALITY OF DRINKING WAT Organisms Guidetine vaiue All water intended for drinking E.coli of themmotolerant coliform Must not be derectable in any 100-m bacteria” ced water entering the distribution system ‘Trea E.coli or theamotoleeant coliform Must not be detectable ia any 100-ml veria® sample i “Total coliform bacteria Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample ‘Treated water in the distribution { system E.coli or thermotolerant coliform Must not be detectable in any 100-ml bacteria’ sample otal coliform bacteria Must not be detectable ia any 100-mi sample, In case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95% of samples taker throughout any 12 ath period Souree : WHO guidelines for Trinking Water Qualuy Voll ~ 1993. Immediate investigative action must be taken i either E.cod or total coliform bacteria are detected. The miniraum action iu the case of total coliform bacteria is repeat sampling; if these bacteria are detected in the repeat sample, the cause must be determined by immediate further investigation. Although E.coli is the moze precise indicator of faecal pollution, the count of thermotolerane coliform bacteria is an acceptable alternative, If necessary, proper confirmatory test must be carried out. Total coliform bacteria are not acceptable indicators of the sanitary quality of rural water supplies, particulasly in tropical areas where many bacteria of no sanitary significance oecur in almost all untreated suppl 16 oe© Ie is recognized that, in the great majority of rural water supplies in developing counties, faecal contamination is widespread, Under these conditions, the national surveillance agency should set medium term targets for progressive improvement of water supplies, as recommended in volume 3 of W.HLO, gyuidelines for drinking-water quality! 993. ©) Virological Quality Drinking water must essentially be free of human enteroviruses to ensure negligible risk of transmitting viral infection. Any drinking-water supply subject to faecal contamination presente a risk of a viral disease to consumers. ‘Two approaches can be used to ensure that the tisk of viral infection is kept 10 a minimum: providing drinking water from a source verified free of faecal contamination, or adequately treating faecally contaminated water to reduce enteroviruses to a negligible level Virological studies have shown that drinking, water treatment can considerably reduce the levels of viruses but may not eliminate them completely from very large volumtes of water. Virological, epidemiological, and risk analysis are providing important information, although it is still insufficient for deriving quantitative and direct virological criteria. Such criteria can not be recommended for routine use because of the cost, complexity, and lengthy nature of virological analysis, and the fact that they can-not detect the most relevant viruses. ‘The guideline criteria shown in Table 24 are based upon the likely viral content of source waters and the degree of treatment necessary to ensure that even very large volumes of drinking water have negligible risk of containing viru Ground water obtained from a protected source and documented to be free from faecal contamination from its zone of influence, the well, pumps, and delivery system can be assumed to be virus-free. However, when such water is distributed, it is desirable that it is disinfected, and that a sesidual level of disinfectant is maintained inthe distribution system 10 guard against contamination. ‘TABLE 2.4 RECOMMENDED TREATMENT FOR DIFFERENT WATER SOURCES TO PRODUC WATER WITH NEGLIGIBLE VIRUS RISK" ‘Type of Source Recommended Tisatment Ground water Protected, deep wells; essentially Disinfection” free of faecal contamination Unprotected, shallow wells; faecally Filtration and disinfection contaminated Surface water Protected, impounded upland water; Disinfection, essentially free of faecal contamination Unprovected impounded water or Filtration and disirfection upland river, faecal contamination "7 SORTER ETO TLL TLL LN} ‘Type of Source Recommended Treatment ‘Unprovected lowland tivers; Taccal Pre-disinfection oF storage, Altration, contamination disinfection Unprotected watershed; heavy Predisinfeedion or storage, filtration, faecal contamination additional treatment and disinfection Unprotected watershed; gross Not recommended for drinking faecal contamination water supply * For all sources, the median value of turbidity before terminal disinfection must ot exceed 1 nephelometric eurbidity unit(NTL) ancl must not exceed 5 N’TU in single sample, Veeminal disinfection must produce a residual concentration of free chlorine of 20.5 mg/litre after atleast 30 minutes of contact in water at pI < 8.0, or must be shown to be an equivalent disintection process in terms of the degree of enterovirns inactivation(> 99.994). Filtration must be either slow sand flmation or capid filtration (sand, dual, or mixed media) preceded by adequate coagulation-flocculation (with sedimentation or floatation). Diatomaceous catth filtration of filtration process demonstrated to be equivalent for virus reduction can also be used. ‘The degree of vitus reduction must be >90%, Additional treatment may consist of sow sand filteation, ozonation sith geanular activated cathon adsorption, or any other process demonstrated to achieve = 99% enietovirus reduction, * Disinfection should be used if monitoring has shown the presence of E. cxf or thermo: tolerant coliform bacteria, SOURCE ; W.FLO. guidelines for Drinking Water Quality - 1993. 18, pune RG enenchse enact saene cman acreSEAL MTA, CHAPTER 3 PROJECT REPORT 3.1 GENERAL All projects have to follow distinct stages between the period the; completed. These various stages are: are conceived and # Pre-favestment Planning ® Identification of a project ® Preparation of project + Appraisal aud sanction Construction of facilities and carrying out support activities @ Operation and Maintenance Monitoring and feed back 3.1.4 PROJECT REPORTS Project reports deal with all the aspects of preinvesiment planning and establishes the need as well as the feasibility of projects technically, financially, socially, culturally, environmentally, legally and institutionally, For big projects economical feasibility may also have to be examined, Project tepotts should be prepared in three stages viz. () identification report; (i) pre feasibility report and (ii) feasibility wpont. Projects for small towns oF those forming parts of a programme may not require preparation of feasibility teports. Detailed engineering, and preparation of technical specifications and tender documents ate not necessary Jor taking investment decisions, since these activities can be carried out during the implementation phase of projects. For small projects, however, x may be convenient to inchide detailed engineering in the project report, if standard design and drawings can be adopted. Since project preparation is quite expensive and time consuming, all projects should normally proceed through three stages, and at che end of each stage 2 decision should be taken whether 1 proceed to the next planning stage, and commit the necessary manpows and financial resources for the next stage, Repost at the end of each stage should include a time table and cost estimate for undertaking the next stage activity, and a realistic schedule for all future stages of project development, taking into consideration time required for review and approval of the report, providing funding for the next stage, mobilising personnel or fixing agency (for the next stage of project preparation), data gathering, physical surveys, site investigations ete. 19‘The basic design of @ project is influenced by the authorities/organizations who ate involved in approving, implementing and operating and maintaining the project. Therefore, the instiutional arrangements (hough which a project will be brought into operation, must be considered at the project preparation stage, Similarly responsibility for project preparation fay change at various stages. Arrangements in this respect should be finalized for each stage ‘of project preparation. Sometimes more than one organisation may have a role to play in the various stages of preparation of a project. It is, therefore, necessary to identify a single entity to be tesponsible for overall management and coordination of each stage of project preparation, It is desirable that the implementing authority and those responsible for operation of a project are consulted at the project preparation stage. 3.2 IDENTIFICATION REPORT Identification re ott is basically a "desk study", #0 be carried cut relying primarily on the existing information. {t can be prepared reasonably quickly by those who ace familiar with the project area and needs of project components. ‘This report is essentially meant for establishing che need foe a project, indicating likely alternatives, which would mect the tequirements. It also provides an idea of the magnitude of cost estimates of @ project to facilitate bringing the project in the planning and budgetary evele, and makes out a case or obsaining sanction t incur expenditure for carrying out the next stages of project preparation, The report should be brief and include the following information: % — Identificadion of project area and its physical environment 4 Commercial, industrial, educational, cultural and scligious importance and activities in and around the project area (also point out special activities or establishment like defence or others of national importance) & Existing, population, its physical distribution and socio-economic analysis @ Present wate supply arrangements and quality of service in the projece area, pointing out deficiencies, if any, in quality, quanticy and delivery system 4 Population projection for the planning period, according to existing and futuce land use plans, or master plans, if any Water requirements during planning any other uses period for domestic, industsial, commercial and % Establish the need for taking up a project in the light of evisting and furuce deficiencies in water supply services, pointing out adverse impacts of non-implementation of the project, on a time scale % Bring out, how the project would fit in with the national /regional /sectoral strategies and with the general overall development in the project arca # Identify a strategic plan for long term development of water supply scevices in the project atea, in the contest of existing regional development plans, water rescutces studies and such other reports, indicating phases of development 204 State the objectives of the short term project under consideration, im terms of population to be served, other consumers, if any, setvice standard to be provided, ‘and the impact of the project after completion; clearly indicate the design period © Identify project components, with alternatives if any; both physical facilities and supporting actwitees © Preliminary estimates of costs (Componentwise) of construction of physical facilities and supporting activities, cost of operation and mainten: financing capital works, and operation and maintenance, w (debt servicing + operational expenditure} ., identify source for out annual burden % Indicate institutions responsible for project approval, financing, implementation, opetation and maintenance (¢g, National Government, State Government, Zilla Parishad, Local Body, Water Supply Boards) % Indicate organisation responsible for preparing the project (pre-feasibility report, feasibility report), cost estimates for preparing project report, and sources off funds 40 finance preparation of project reports © Indicate time table for carrying out all future stages of the project, and the carliest date by which the project might be operational ® Indicate personae! strength required for implementation of the project, indicare if any pasticular/peculiar difficulties of policy or other mature are tikuy to be encountered for implementing the project and how these could be resolved # Recommend actions fo be taken to proceed further. “The following plans may be enclosed with the repost (@) An index plan 10 a scale of 1 em = 2. km showing the project area, existing w proposed works, location of community / township or institution to be served. (b) A schematic diagram showing the salient levels of project components 3.3 PRE-FEASIBILITY REPORT After dearance is received, on the basis of identification report from the concerned authority and/or owner of the project, and commitments are made to finance further studies, the work of preparation of pre-feasibility report should be undertaken. by an appropriate agency, which may be a central planning and designing cell of a Water Supply Department/ Board, Local Body, or professional consultants. working in the water supply-sanitation-enyironmental ateas. In the latter case, terms of references for the study its scope should be carefully set out. Pee-feasibility stady may be a separate and disctete stage of project preparation or it may be the first stage of a comprehensive feasibility study. In either case it is necessary that it proceeds with taking up of a feasibility study because the pre-feasibility study is essentially carried out for screening and ranking of all project alternatives, and to select an appropriate, alternative fox carcying out detailed feasibifity study. ‘The pre-feasibility study helps in selecting a short-term project which will fit in the long term 2strategy for improving services in the context of overall perspective plant for developracnt of 7 the project area. % 3.3.1 CONTENTS A pre-feasibility report can be taken to be a preliminary Project Report, the structure and component of which are as follow Executive summary Introduction ‘The project area and the need for a project Long tetm plan for water supply Proposed water supply project, eevee Conclusions and recommendations ' 4 ‘Tables, figares/maps and annexes. 3.341 Executive Summary Jt is a good practice to provide an Exeewsive Summary at the beginning of the sepost, giving its essential features, basic strategy, approach adopted in developing the study project, and the salient features of financial and administrative aspects. 3.3.1.2 Introduction “This section explains the origin and concept of the project, how it was prepared and the scope and status of the teport. These sub-sections may be detailed as under : (@) Project Genesis 4 Describe how the idea of the project originated, agency responsible for promoting, the project, list and explain previous studies and reports on the project, including the project identification report, and agencies which prepared them, j % Describe how the project fits in the regional development plan, long term sector plan, land use plan, public health cate, and water resources development ete. (0) How Was The Study Organised 4 Explain how the study was carried out, agencies responsible for carrying out the vatious clements of work, and their tole in preparing the study, % Time table followed for the study (o) Scope Ana Status Of The Report @ How the pee-feasibility report fits in the overall process of project preparation # Describe data fimitation. List interim reports prepared during the study, ne shen artnasuepan oc.° Explain if the pre-feasibility report is intended to be used for obtaining approval for the proposed project. 3.3.1.3 The Project Area And The Need For The Project “This section establishes the need for the project. It should cover. the following : (a) Project Area * Give geographical description of the project area with reference to map / maps, describe special features such as topography, climate, culture, religion, migration, ete. Which may affect project design, implementation and operation © Map showing administeative and political jurisdiction © Describe, if any, ethic, cultural of religious aspects of the communities which may ‘have a bearing on the project proposal. (b) Pollution Pattern 4 Estimate population in the project acea, indicating the source of data or the basis for the estioate © Review previous population data, historic growth rates and causes 4% Estimate future population growth with different methods and indicate the most probable growth rates and compare with past population growth erends Compare growth trends within the project area, with those for the tegion, state and, the entire country Discuss factors likely to affect population growth rates Estimate probable densities of population in different parts of the project arca at future intervals of time e.g, five, ten, and twenty years ahead # — Discuss pattems of seasonal migration, if any, within the area — Indicate implication of the estimated growth pattern on housing and other local infrastructure. (c) Economic and Social Conditions * ° Describe present living conditions of the people of different socio-economic and ethnic groups Identify locations accorcking to sncome levels or other indications of socio-economic studies Show on the project area map locationwise density of population; poverty geaups and ethnic concentrations, and the present and fusure land uses (as per development plan) Toformation on housing conditions and relative proportions of owners and tenants 2eels 4 Provide data on education, literacy and unemployment by age and sex @ Provide data and make projection on housing standards, and average household occupancy in various parts of the project area % Describe public health status within the project area, with particular attention to diseases related to water and sanitary conditions; provide data on crude maternal and infant mortality rates, and life expectanc 4 Discuss the status of health care programmes in the area, as well as other projects which have bearing on improvements in envitonmental sanitation. (a) Sector Institutions Identify the institutions (Government, Semi-Government, Non-Government) which are involved in any of the stages of water supply and sanitation project development in the atea, (planning, preparing projects, financing, implementation, operation and maintenance, and evaluation). % Comment on roles, responsibilities and limitation (territorial or others) of all the identified institutions, in relation to water supply and sanitation (I'his may also be indicated on a diagram). (e) Available Water Resources © Summarise the quantity and quality of surface and ground water resources, actual and potential, in the project atca and vicinity (give sources of information) © Indicate studies cartied out or being carried out conceming development of poten- tial sources, and their findings Mention th dome: the us: .¢ existing patterns of water use by all sectors (irrigation, industsial energy, ic etc,), comment on supply surplus of deficiency and possidle conflicts over of water, at present and in future 4% Comment 0» pollution problems, if any, which might affect available surface and geound water resources % Mention the role of agencies /authorities responsible for managing water resources, their allocation and quality control (P Existing Water Supply Systems and Population served @ Describe each of the details as under sting-water supply systems in the projece area, indicating the % Source of water, quantity and quality available in various seasons, components of the ystem such as head works, transmission mains, pumping stations, treatment works, balanei s, distribution system, reliability of supply in all seasons .g/service reservoi % — Atcas supplied, hours of supply, water pressures, operating problems, bulk meters, metered supplies, un-metered supplies, supply for commercial use, industrial use, and domestic useANNETTE A NETTIE TT % Private water supply services such as, wells, bores, water vendors ete & Number of people served accending to water supply systems of the following category © Unprotected sources like shallow wells, rivers, lakes, ponds, etc. © Protected private sources like wells, bores, rain water storage tanks etc., Piped waver system, & Number of house connections, number of stand pipes © Consumers opinion a time ete.) crak stand-pipe supply, fe.g, Distance, hours of supply, waiting ater from more than one source, note these sources, and. g» Drinking, bathing, washing ete. and reasons for their % How many people obtain how their waters are wu: preferences »plain un-accounted for water, probable causes and trends and efforcs made to reduce losses + Comment on engineering and social problems of existing systems and possible measures to resolve these problems and the expected improvement (g) Existing Sanitation Systems aud Population served Even if the proposed project may be for providing a single service ie. water supply and Or sanitation, she existing sanitation arrangements should be described, giving details of the existing sanitation and waste disposal systems in the project area, and the number of people served by each system, Comment on the impact of existing system on drinking water quality and environment (h) Drainage and Solid Wastes Briefly describe existing systems of s disposal. ‘I'his discussion should be focus: environment nem water drainage and solid waste collection and ed in terms of their impact 0 water supply and () Need for a Project Comment as to why the existing system cannot satisfy the existing and projected demands for services with reference to population te be sewed and the desired service standards, other demands like commercial and industrial. Desctibe the consequences of not ‘aking up a project @vhich may include and/or de habitation /augmentation of the existing spstem cloping a new system), indicate priosities to improvement of existing syster, expansion of system, construction of new system, supply for domestic use, industrial and commercial use; assessment of the seed for consumer education in hygiene; and comments on wgency of project preparation and implemen ation 25| \ { 4 4 | | | | } 3.3.1.4 Long Term Plan for Water Supply @ b) @ Improvement it water supply services has to be planned as a phased development program and any neae-term project should be such as would fit in the long term strategy. Such a long teem plan or the strategic plan should be consistent with the future overall development plans for the areas. A long term plan may be prepared for a period of 25 to 30 years, and alternative development sequences may be identified to provide target service coverage and standards at affordable costs From these alternative development sequences, a priority project to be implemented in near-term can be selected, It is this project which then becomes the subject of a comprehensive feasibility stad. Alternative development sequences should be identified in the light of the service coverages 9 be achieved during the planning period in phases. ‘Tis calls for definition of the following: % Population to be covered with improved water supply facility, © Other consumers to be covered (industrial, commercial, government, institutions, etc.) © Service standards to be provided for various section of population (eg. House connections, yatd-taps, public stanc post and point sources) ‘Target dates by which the above mentioned service coverage would be extended within the planning period, in suitable phases Tt must be noted that service standards can be upgraded over a pesiod of dime. Therefore, vasious options can be considered for different areas. While selecting, service standard, community preferences and affordability should be ascertained through dialogue with intended beneficiasies. Only those projects which are affordable to the people they serve, must be selecied, This calls for careful analysis, of the existing tariff policies and practices, cost to the users for various service standards and income of various groups of peaple in the project area Having decermined the service coverage in stages over a planned period, requirements of water can he worked out for each year (or in suitable stages). adopting different standatds; at different stages. ‘To this may be added the demand Jor iadkrsetial, commercial and institutional users. “Thus, water for the projected needs throughout the planned petiod can be quantified, (duly considering realistic allowances for unaccounted for water and dhe daily and seasonal peaking factors) for alternative service standards, and service coverage. ‘These demands form the basis for planning and providing system requirements. The annual water requirements should also take into consideration water demands for upgrading sanitation facilities, if peoposals to that effect are under consideration, Consistency and coordination has to be maintained between projections for both water supply and sanitation services. 26(©) It must be noted that availability of funds is one of the prime factors which will ultimately decide the scope and scale af a feasible project, —) Selection of a Strategic Plan Each of the alternative development sequences, which can overcome the existing deficiencies and meet the present and furure needs, consists of a series of improvements and expansions to be implemented over the planned period. Since all needs cannot be satisfied in immediate future, it is necessary to carefully determine priorities of target groups for improvement in services and stages of development and thus restrict the number of alternatives. (g) Planning For Systent Requirement Includes Consideration Of The Following @ Possibilities of rehabilitating and/or de-bottlenecking the existing systems # Reduction in water losses which can be justified economically, by deferring development of new sources % Alternative water sources, susface and ground water with particular emphasis on maximising the use of all existing water sources ¢ Alternative transmission and treatment systems and pumping schemes Distribution system including pumping station and balancing reservoirs ¢ Providing alternative service standards in future, including upgrading of existing facilities and system expansion (h) Need Assessment For Supporting Activities It may also be necessary to ascertain if suppoxting activities like health education, staff training and institutional improvements etc. are necessary 10 be inchuded as essential components of the project. All the physical and supporting input need to be carefully costed (capital and operating) after preparing preliminary designs of all facilities identified for each of the alternative development sequences. These alternatives may then be evaluated for least cost solution by net peesent value method; which involves 4 Expressing all costs (capital and operating) for each year in economic terms; % Discounting future costs to present value; © Selecting the sequence with the lowest present value (i) Costings And Their Expressions As stated above, costs are ta be expressed in econamnic terms and not in terms of their financial costs, This is because the various altematives should reflect resource cost to the economy as a whole at different furure dates. Costing of the selected project may however, be done in terms of financial costs, duly considering inflation during peoject implementation. 3962 UABE/O7—5A3.3.1.5 Proposed Water Supply Project (a) Details Of The Project ‘The project to be selected are those components of the least cost alternative of development sequence, which can be implemented during the next 4 years. Cornponents of the selected project may he as follows: # Rehabilitation and de-bottlenecking of the existing facilities 4 Construction of new facilities for improvement and expansion of existing systems @ Support activities like training, consumer education, public motivation etc Baquipment and other measures necessary for operation and maintenance of the existing and expanded systems % Consultancy services needed (if any) for conducting feasibility study, detailed eagineering, construction supervision, socio-economic studies, studies for reducing ‘water losscs, tariff-studies, studies for improving accounts support activities, (b) Support Documents Required All project components should be thoroughly described, duly supported by documents such as: % — Locarion maps @ Technical information for each physical component, and economic analysis where necessary + Preliminary engineering designs and drawings in respect of each physical component, such as head works, transmission mains, pumping stations, treatment plants, balancing reservoits, distribution lines (0 Implementation Schedule A tealistic implementation schedule should be presented, taking into consideration time required for all further steps to be taken, suck as conducting, feasibility study, appraisal of the project, sanction to the project, fund mobilisation, implementation, trial cuns and commissioning, In preparing this schedule, due consideration should be given to all authorities/ groups whose inputs and decisions can affect the project and its timing, (d) Cost Estimates Cost estimates of each component of the project should be prepared and annual requirement of funds for each year should be worked out, taking into consideration the likely annual progress of each component. Duc allowance should be made for physical contingencies and annual inflation. ‘This exercise will result in arciving at total funds required annually for implementation of the peoject (e) Environment And Social Impact ‘The pre-feasibility report should bring out any major environment and social impact the project is likely to cause and if these aspects will affect its Feasibility(P Institutional Responsibilities ‘The pre-feasibility report should identify the vatious organisations/departments/ agencies who would be responsible for further planning and project preparation, approval, sanction, funding, implementation and operation and maintenance of the project and indicate also the strength of personnel needed to implement and later operate and maintain the project. It should also discuss special problems likely to be encountered during operation and maintenante, in respect of availability of skilled and technical staff, funds, transport, chemicals, communication, powét; spare parts etc, Quantitative estimates of all these resources should be made and included in the fieoject report. (g) Financial Aspects ‘The capital cost of a project is a sum of all expenditure required to be incurred to complete design and detailed engineering of the project, construction of all its components inclucling support activities and conducting special studies. After estimating component-wise costs, they may also be worked out on annual basis, throughout the implementation period, taking into consideration construction schedule and allowances for physical contingencies and inflation. Basic item costs to be adopted should be of the current year. Annual cost should be suitably increased to cover escalation costs during the construction period. Total of such escalated annual costs detetmines the final cost estimate of the project. Financing plan for the project should then be prepared, identifying all the sources from which funds can be obtained, and likely annual contribution fom each source, until the project is completed. The possible sources of funds include: 6G reserves available with the project authority Cash generated by the project authority from sale of water from the existing facilities Grant-in-aid from government Loans from government oo se Loans from financing institutions like Life Insurance Corporation, Banks, HUDCO. ete. * Open market borrowings Loans/grants from bilatetal/international agencies — Capital contribution from voluntary organisations or from consumers (h) If the lending authority agrees, interest payable during implementation period can be capitalised and loan amount increased accordingly. (‘The next step is to prepare recurrent annual costs of the project for the next few years (say 10 years) covering operating and maintenance expenditure of the entire system (existing and proposed). This would include expenditure on staff, chemicals, energy, spare parts and other materials for system operation, transportation, up-keep. of the systems and administration.