3 Levelling and Applications Level Line

Level surface: It is any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth e.g. surface of a still lake. Since the earth is a oblate spheroid, a level surface may be regarded as a curved surface, every point on which is equidistant from the center of the earth. It is normal to the plumb line at all points.
Level line:

It is line lying in a level surface. It is therefore, normal to the plumb line at all points.

There are three fundamental lines in a level instrument . These are

Vertical axis Axis of the level tube Line of sight

Fig 3. 1 Fundamental Lines in a Level

In a properly adjusted dumpy level, desired relations among fundamental lines are

1. Axis of the level tube is perpendicular to the Vertical axis 2. Horizontal cross hair should lie in a plane perpendicular to the Vertical axis, so that it will lie in a Horizontal plane when the instrument is properly leveled. 3. The Line of sight is parallel to the axis of the level tube. Also, the optical axis, the axis of the objective lens and the line of sight should coincide.

Fig 3. 2 Desired Realations between Fundamental lines

Horizontal Line Horizontal plane: It is a plane tangential to the level surface at that point. It is perpendicular to direction of gravity (plumb line). Horizontal line: It is any line lying in the horizontal plane. It is a straight line tangential to a level line. Levels & Staves A schematic diagram of an engineer's level is shown in Figure 3.3. An engineer's level primarily consists of a telescope mounted upon a level bar which is rigidly fastened to the spindle. Inside the tube of the telescope, there are objective and eye piece lens at the either end of the tube. A diaphragm fitted with cross hairs is present near the eye piece end. A focussing screw is attached with the telescope. A level tube housing a sensitive plate bubble is attached to the telescope (or to the level bar) and parallel to it. The spindle fits into a cone-shaped bearing of the leveling head. The leveling head consists of tribrach and trivet with three foot screws known as leveling screws in between. The trivet is attached to a tripod stand.

Fig 3. 3 Schematic diagram of Engineer's level

Telescope : used to sight a staff placed at desired station and to read staff reading distinctly. Diaphragm : holds the cross hairs (fitted with it). Eye piece : magnifies the image formed in the plane of the diaphragm and thus to read staff during leveling. Level Tube : used to make the axis of the telescope horizontal and thus the line of sight. Leveling screws : to adjust instrument (level) so that the line of sight is horizontal for any orientation of the telescope. Tripod stand : to fix the instrument (level) at a convenient height of an observer.

Levelling Staff It is a self-reading graduated wooden rod having rectangular cross section. The lower end of the rod is shod with metal to protect it from wear and usually point of zero measurement from which the graduations are numbered. Staff are either solid (having single piece of 3 meter height) (Fig 3.4(a) ) or folding staff (of 4 meter height into two or three pieces) (Fig 3.4(b)). The least count of a leveling staff is 5 mm.

Fig 3. 4 (a) Sinfle Piece 3 m staff

(b) Folded staff

Spirit Level A spirit level or bubble level is an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is horizontal (level) or vertical (plumb). Different types of spirit levels may be used by carpenters, stone masons, bricklayers, other building trades workers, surveyors, millwrights and other metalworkers, and in some photographic or videographic work. Tilting level, dumpy level or automatic level [1] are terms used to refer to types of leveling instruments as used in surveying to measure height differences over larger distances. It consists of a spirit level in the above sense, mounted on a telescope containing cross-hairs, itself mounted on a tripod. The observer reads height values off two staffs, one 'behind' and one 'in front', to obtain the height difference between the ground points on which the staffs are resting. Starting

from a point with a known (absolute) elevation, by repeating 'behind', 'front' and intermediate 'front' readings, (relative) height differences can be measured cumulatively over large distances and elevations can be calculated of intermediate points An engineer's spirit level is generally used to level machines, although they may be used to level large workpieces on machines such as planers. Spirit levels are also used in building construction, by carpenters and masons. The upper image is a plain precision level used in the engineering field to level machines or workpieces, the lower image shows an adjustable precision level that has an accuracy of 1:10000. The adjustable nature of this level can also be used to measure the inclination of an object. The accuracy of a spirit level can be checked by placing it on any flat surface, marking the bubble's position and rotating the level 180. The position of the bubble should then be symmetrical to the first reading. Both levels have a "vee" groove machined along the base which enables the level to sit on a round bar while remaining parallel with the bar's axis. They also have a smaller cross level to enable the second axis to be roughly checked or corrected.

Sensitiveness Definition The sensitivity of a level is defined as the change of angle or gradient required to move the bubble by a set distance (usually 2mm). If the vial has graduated divisions then the sensitivity refers to the angle or gradient change required to move the bubble by one of these divisions (often spaced at 2mm). Units The sensitivity can be defined as an angle or a gradient. As an angle, the standard units are degrees(), minutes(') and seconds(). 1 degree = 60 minutes and 1minute = 60seconds. (1 = 60' and 1' = 60"). As a gradient the standard units are mm/m (millimetres per metre), although sometimes inches/10 inches or a simple number gradient is used. For example a gradient of 1mm/m is the same as 0.01"/10 inches which is the same as 1:1000.

Principals For all spirit levels the sensitivity specification is determined by the sensitivity of the vials that are used. The sensitivity is determined by the radius of curvature of the vials which the bubble moves across. Even though it cannot always be seen, all spirit level vials are curved. The principal of operation is that the bubble will move to the highest point of the radius as gravity acts on the liquid inside the vial. See the picture to the right for a clearer explanation. See the range of bubble level vials produced by Level Developments See the range of circular levels produced by Level Developments Example If we assume that the bubble in this picture has moved 2mm off centre then we would say that this vial has a sensitivity of 5 degrees per 2mm bubble movement. This can also be expressed as a gradient where 5 degrees corresponds to a gradient of 87mm/m (millimetres per metre). That is to say that if this vial was placed on a 1 metre long beam, and one end was lifted by 87mm, this would create an angle of 5 degrees and would thus move the bubble by 2mm. Relationship Between Radius and Sensitivity The sensitivity is directly related to the radius of curvature of the vial; the longer the radius, the more sensitive the vial will be; the shorter the radius, the coarser the vial will be. We manufacture vials with radiuses from 30mm to 100 metres to suit a wide range of applications. On the right is a table showing the relationship between the radius of the vial and it's sensitivity. In this table we have represented degrees in decimal, and in degrees, minutes and seconds. Use the boxes at the bottom of the table to put in your own Radius Sensitivity per 2mm bubble movement mm Deg Deg Min ' Sec " mm/m 30 60 120 240 480 960 1920 4000 8000 3.8200 3 1.9100 1 0.9550 0 0.4775 0 0.2388 0 0.1194 0 0.0597 0 0.0287 0 0.0143 0 49 54 57 28 14 7 3 1 0 0 0 12 36 18 39 20 10 35 43 52 26 13 66.62 33.33 16.67 8.33 4.17 2.08 1.04 0.50 0.25 0.13 0.06

16000 0.0072 0 32000 0.0036 0

figures for conversion. Deciding Which Sensitivity In order to determine which sensitivity is best for a particular application, it is first necessary to decide how level the product needs to be. Another way of looking at this is to consider what is the maximum angle offlevel that the product will still work correctly. Lets say for this example that the product needs to be level within 0.1 (or 6). The next assumption we need to make is how accurately the user can centre the bubble between the divisions on the vial. We would normally assume that this is possible to within 0.5mm although in some applications it may be more or less than this. Based on these figures, we need a vial that will give at least 0.5mm bubble movement for a 0.1 (6) change in angle. This corresponds to 0.4 (24) for a 2mm bubble movement, so we would say that we need a vial with a sensitivity of 24minutes per 2mm bubble movement.

64000 0.0018 0 1000000.0011 0

0 0

6 4

0.03 0.02

Bench Marks The term bench mark, or benchmark, originates from the chiseled horizontal marks that surveyors made in stone structures, into which an angle-iron could be placed to form a "bench" for a leveling rod, thus ensuring that a leveling rod could be accurately repositioned in the same place in future. These marks were usually indicated with a chiseled arrow below the horizontal line. The term is generally applied to any item used to mark a point as an elevation reference. Frequently, bronze or aluminum disks are set in stone or concrete, or on rods driven deeply into the earth to provide a stable elevation point. The height of a benchmark is calculated relative to the heights of nearby benchmarks in a network extending from a fundamental benchmark, a point with a precisely known relationship to the level datum of the area, typically mean sea level. The position and height of each benchmark is shown on large-scale maps.

The terms "height" and "elevation" are often used interchangeably, but in many jurisdictions they have specific meanings; "height" commonly refers to a local or relative difference in the vertical (such as the height of a building), whereas "elevation" refers to the difference from a nominated reference surface (such as sea-level, or a mathematical/geodetic concept near sea level known as the geoid). Elevation may be specified as normal height (above a reference ellipsoid), orthometric height, or dynamic height which have slightly different definitions.

Temporary and Permanent Adjustments At each set up of a level instrument, temporary adjustment is required to be carried out prior to any staff observation. It involves some well defined operations which are required to be carried out in proper sequence. The temporary adjustment of a dumpy level consists of Setting , Leveling and Focusing . During Setting, the tripod stand is set up at a convenient height having its head horizontal (through eye estimation). The instrument is then fixed on the head by rotating the lower part of the instrument with right hand and holding firmly the upper part with left hand. Before fixing, the leveling screws are required to be brought in between the tribrach and trivet. The bull's eye bubble (circular bubble), if present, is then brought to the centre by adjusting the tripod legs. Next, Leveling of the instrument is done to make the vertical axis of the instrument truly vertical. It is achieved by carrying out the following steps: Step 1: The level tube is brought parallel to any two of the foot screws, by rotating the upper part of the instrument. Step 2: The bubble is brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating both the foot screws either inward or outward. (The bubble moves in the same direction as the left thumb.) Step 3: The level tube is then brought over the third foot screw again by rotating the upper part of the instrument. Step 4: The bubble is then again brought to the centre of the level tube by rotating the third foot screw either inward or outward. Step 5: Repeat Step 1 by rotating the upper part of the instrument in the same quadrant of the circle and then Step 2. Step 6: Repeat Step 3 by rotating the upper part of the instrument in the same quadrant of the circle and then Step 4. Step 7: Repeat Steps 5 and 6, till the bubble remains central in both the positions.

Step 8: By rotating the upper part of the instrument through 180 , the level tube is brought parallel to first two foot screws in reverse order. The bubble will remain in the centre if the instrument is in permanent adjustment. Focusing is required to be done in order to form image through objective lens at the plane of the diaphragm and to view the clear image of the object through eye-piece. This is being carried out by removing parallax by proper focusing of objective and eye-piece. For focusing the eye-piece, the telescope is first pointed towards the sky. Then the ring of eye-piece is turned either in or out until the cross-hairs are seen sharp and distinct. Focusing of eye-piece depends on the vision of observer and thus required whenever there is a change in observer. For focusing the objective, the telescope is first pointed towards the object. Then, the focusing screw is turned until the image of the object appears clear and sharp and there is no relative movement between the image and the cross-hairs. This is required to be done before taking any observation. The permanent adjustment of a level is tested by finding the relative position of fundamental lines. Permanent Adjustment of Dumpy Level If any fundamental relation is found to be disturbed in a dumpy level, the cross-hairs and level tube are adjusted so that the fundamental relations get satisfied. The reference line for the adjustments in dumpy level is the vertical line which remain fixed in direction, as it depends upon the direction of gravity. Axis of the Level Tube is Perpendicular to the Vertical axis Test After setting and leveling the level, turn the telescope through 180 about its vertical axis. If the bubble remains central, the axis of the level tube is perpendicular to the Vertical axis. Otherwise, a displacement of the bubble from the central position indicates that the tube is not in adjustment. The amount of displacement is double the amount of error, by the principle of reversion (Fig 3.5).

Fig 3. 5 Adjustment of axis of Level tube

Adjustment Step 1: With the help of capstan screw, one end of the level tube is raised or lowered, as needed, so that the bubble is halfway back to the centre position. Step 2: With the help of leveling screws, the other half of the displacement is moved further to bring the bubble at centre. The steps are repeated until the adjustment is perfected. Horizontal Cross Hair Should Lie in a Plane Perpendicular to the Vertical axis Test A well-defined point is focused along the horizontal cross hair on one side of the field of view. The instrument (telescope) is then rotated about its vertical axis. If the point appears to travel along the horizontal cross-hair, the instrument is in adjustment i.e., the horizontal cross-hair lies in a plane perpendicular to the Vertical axis. Otherwise, there is a need for adjustment.

Let us rotate the instrument in such a way that the well defined point occupy a position on the opposite side of the field of view, say X' (Figure 12.4). The cross hair ring is then rotated by loosening two adjacent capstan screws. Repeat the process until the point travels along the horizontal cross hair

The Line of Sight is Parallel to the axis of the Bubble Tube Test Two pegs are set at some distance (of about 60 to 90 m) on a fairly level ground. A dumpy level is set up on a point which is equidistant from the pegs and preferably, in a line with the pegs. Staff readings are taken at the pegs, say the readings are a and b respectively. Then, the true difference in elevation between the points is h = (a b). Now, the instrument is set on the line joining the pegs near one of the pegs but opposite to the other peg, as shown in Figure 12.5. Let D1 and D2 are the distances of the near and far peg from the instrument position. Staff readings are again taken at the pegs, say the readings are c and d respectively. Then, the apparent difference in elevation between the points is h' = (c d). Now, if h' is found to be equal to h, the line of sight of the level is parallel to the axis of the bubble tube. Otherwise, an adjustment of the bubble tube is required. Adjustment Step 1: The amount of error (e) associated with the observation is determined from e = h h ' = (a b) (c d) Step 2: The error e occurs in a distance of D = D2 - D1. Assuming the error e is positive and the line of sight is inclined upward, the error in distance D2

Step 3: Calculate the correct staff reading at the distant peg as

Step 4: The capstan screws at the top and bottom of the diaphragm ring is then loosened and the ring is moved vertically so that the line of sight intersect the distant staff at d'. Step 5: To check the adjustment, read the staff reading on the near peg and it should read

If the near staff reading is not c', then repeat Step 4 and till Step 5 is satisfied. This method is known as two peg method. In this method, due account need to be taken about

sign throughout the test. Methods of Leveling Direct Leveling : Direct measurement, precise, most commonly used; types: Simple leveling : One set up of level. To find elevation of points. Differential leveling : Numbers of set-ups of level. To find elevation of non-intervisible points. Fly leveling : Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during reconnaissance survey. Precise leveling : Precise form of differential leveling. Profile leveling : finding of elevation along a line and its cross section. Reciprocal leveling : Along a river or pond. Two level simultaneously used, one at either end. Indirect or Trigonometric Leveling : By measuring vertical angles and horizontal distance; Less precise. Stadia Leveling : Using tacheometric principles. Barometric Leveling : Based on atmospheric pressure difference; Using altimeter; Very rough estimation.

Booking A field book, also called level book is being used for taking down each staff reading during leveling and subsequently, used for finding out the elevation of points/ stations. There are two types of level books. Usually, level book contains columns of both the types together and it is for a surveyor to use only the relevant columns only. Reduction The observed staff readings as noted in a level book are further required to be manipulated to find out the elevation of points. The operation is known as reduction of level. There are two methods for reduction of levels: 1. Rise and Fall method and 2. Height of instrument method. Rise and Fall method

For the same set up of an instrument, Staff reading is more at a lower point and less for a higher point. Thus, staff readings provide information regarding relative rise and fall of terrain points. This provides the basics behind rise and fall method for finding out elevation of unknown points.

Fig 3. 6 Differential Levelling

With reference to Fig 3.6, when the instrument is at I1, the staff reading at A (2.365m) is more than that at S1 which indicates that there is a rise from station A to S1 and accordingly the difference between them (1.130m) is entered under the rise column in Table 3.1. To find the elevation of S1 ( 101.130m), the rise (1.130m) has been added to the elevation of A (100.0m). For instrument set up at I2 , S1 has been treated as a point of known elevation and considered for backsight (having reading 0.685m) . Foresight is taken at S2 and read as 3.570m i.e, S2 is at lower than S1 . Thus, there is a fall from S1 a nd S2 and there difference (2.885m) is entered under the fall column in Table 13.1. To find the elevation of S2 ( 98.245m), the fall (2.885m) has been subtracted from the elevation of S1 (101.130m). In this way, elevation of points are calculated by Rise and Fall method. Staff Reading Points A S1 S2 B B.S (m) 2.365 0.685 1.745 F.S.(m) 1.235 3.570 2.340 Difference in Elevation Rise (m) 1.130 2.885 0.595 Fall (m) Elevation R.L (m) 100.000 101.130 98.245 97.650 Remark B.M. T.P.1 T.P. 2

Table 3. 1 Level book note for Rise & Fall Method

Height of Instrument Method In any particular set up of an instrument height of instrument, which is the elevation of the line of sight, is constant. The elevation of unknown points can be obtained by subtracting the staff readings at the desired points from the height of instrument. This is the basic behind the height of instrument method for reduction of level.

Fig 3. 7 Differential Levelling

With reference to Fig 3.7 and Table 3.2, when the instrument is at I1, the staff reading observed at A is 2.365m. The elevation of the line of sight i.e., the height of instrument is 102.365m obtained by adding the elevation of A (100.0m) with the staff reading observed at A (2.365m). The elevation of S1 (101.130m) is determined by subtracting its foresight reading (1.235m) from the the height of instrument (102.365m) when the instrument is at I1 . Next, the instrument is set up at I2. S1 is considered as a point of known elevation and backsight reading ( 0.685m) is taken . The height of the instrument (101.815 m) is then calculated by adding backsight reading ( 0.685m) with the elevation (R.L.) of point S1 (101.130m). Foresight is taken at S2 and its elevation (98.245m) is determined by subtracting the foresight (3.570m) from the height of the instrument (101.815 m). In this way, elevation of points are calculated by Height of instrument method. Staff Reading Points A S1 S2 B B.S (m) 2.365 0.685 F.S.(m) Height of Instrument R.L. (m) (m) 102.365 1.235 3.570 2.340 101.815 100.000 101.130 98.245 97.650 Remarks B.M. T.P.1 T.P.2

Table 3. 2Level book note for Height of Instrument Method

Curvature & Refraction Curvature of the earth: The earth appears to fall away with distance. The curved shape of the earth means that the level surface through the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the telescope as the line of sight proceeds to the horizon. This effect makes actual level rod readings too large by:

where D is the sight distance in thousands of feet. Effects of Curvature are:

Rod reading is too high Error increases exponentially with distance

Atmospheric Refraction: Refraction is largely a function of atmospheric pressure and temperature gradients, which may cause: the bending to be up or down by extremely variable amounts. There are basically three types of temperature gradient (dT/dh): 1. Absorption: occurs mainly at night when the colder ground absorbs heat from atmosphere. This causes the atmospheric temperature to increase with distance from ground and dT/dh > 0. 2. Emission: occurs mainly during the day when the warmer ground emits heat into atmosphere, resulting in a negative temperature gradient, i.e. dT/dh < 0. 3. Equilibrium: no heat transfer takes place (dT/dh = 0) and occurs only briefly in evening and morning. the the the the

4. The result of dT/dh < 0 is to cause the light ray to be convex to the ground rather than concave as generally shown. This effect increases the closer to the ground the light ray gets and errors in the region of 5 mm/km have resulted. The atmosphere refracts the horizontal line of sight downward, making the level rod reading smaller. The typical effect of refraction is equal to about 14% of the effect of earth curvature. The combined effect of curvature and refraction is approximately

Fig 3. 8 Curvature & Refraction

The formula for computing the combined effect of curvature and refraction is: C + R = 0.021K2

Where C = correction for curvature R = correction for refraction K = sighting distance in thousands of feet Correlations for various distances Distance 100' 200' 500' 700' 1 mile

Correction 0.00021' 0.00082' 0.0052' 0.01' 0.574'

How to eliminate error due to Curvature and Refraction 1. Proper field procedures (taking shorter shots and balancing shots) can practically reduce errors 2. Wherever possible, staff readings should be kept at least 0.5 m above the ground, 3. Using short observation distances (25 m) equalized for backsight and foresight 4. Air below is denser than air above Air below is denser than air above, Line of sight is bent downward which Negates earth curvature error by 14%. 5. Simultaneous Reciprocal Trigonometrical Heighting 6. Observations made at each station at exactly the same time, cancels the effects of curvature and refraction

Reciprocal Leveling This procedure is used for either differential or trigonometric leveling when along sight across a wide river, ravine, or similar obstacle must be made. This long sight will be affected by curvature and refraction and by any small error in aligning the line of sight with the bubble axis. The alignment error can be minimized by balancing the long sight and computing the curvature. The atmospheric conditions will vary so much over an open expanse that the refraction correction will be quite erratic. Reciprocal leveling is desired to minimize the effect of the atmosphere as well as the line of sight and curvature corrections. To do this, take the following actions: 1. In reciprocal leveling, balance the BSs and FSs as carefully as possible before you reach the obstacle. In figure 14-15, a TP, N, is selected close to the edge of the obstruction so that it is visible from a proposed instrument location, B, on the other side. A second rod is held on the other side of the obstruction at F. Point F should be selected so that

the equivalent distances, AN and FB, and AF and NB, are almost equal. The instrument is setup at point A and leveled carefully. A BS reading is taken on the N rod and an FS on the F rod. These readings are repeated several times. The instrument is moved to point B, set up, and carefully leveled. The rods remain at their stations. Again, a BS is taken on the N rod and an FS on the F rod, and repeated several times. Since instrument leveling is especially critical on reciprocal leveling, you need to check the bubble before each reading and center it carefully. If it is off-center a slight amount, the procedure must be repeated. The difference in elevation between N and F is computed from the readings at A setup and from the readings at B setup separately. Because of the errors in the long sight, the two results will have slightly different values. Note, however, that the long sight is an FS from A and a BS from B. The true difference in elevation is the average of both values, since the errors have opposite signs and will cancel each other.

2. For more accuracy, make several long sight readings for each short sight and average them. You should use a target on the rod and reset it for each reading. Average each series of long sights and combine this average with corresponding short sights for the computations. 3. Changes in atmospheric density and temperature affect the refraction of a line of sight. The longer the time interval is between reciprocal long sights, the greater the chance of an atmospheric change and a variation in the refraction value. For this reason, you should keep the time lapse between the long sights as short as possible. 4. An excellent method of avoiding the time lapse problem is simultaneous-reciprocal observation. The object is to read both long sight values at the same time. This requires two instruments and two observers and two rods and two rodmen. Some method of communication or sequence of operations must be agreed upon. 5. The note keeping for reciprocal leveling is identical to differential leveling. Take a series of either BS or FS readings on the far rod from one setup and take only one sighting on the rear rod. Average the series of readings, and use a single value to make the elevation computations Longitudinal and Cross Section

In many projects, terrain information transverse to the longitudinal section (through profile leveling) is also required such as for highways, railways, canals etc. In those cases, surveying is carried out at right angle to the central line, generally, at regular interval is being carried out and is termed as cross- sectioning. If, for any reason, a cross-section is run in any other direction, the angle with the centre line is required to be noted. The observations are then recorded as being to the left or right of the centre line. The notes of the readings are maintained as shown in Table 3.3 for taking a cross-section along the stake point 4. Reduction of levels, Plotting etc. can be done as in case of profile leveling. A plotting of the cross section at stake 4 is as shown in Figure 3.9.

Fig 3. 9 Reduction Level

Pegs Distance(m) Direction A : 4

Staff reading (m) B.S. I.S. 3.005 F.S.

Difference in R.L elevation (m) H.I (m) Remark (m) Rise (m) Fall (m) 108.620 105.615 B.M. 0.320 106.515 0m 106.770 2m left 106.895 4m left 106.940 6m left 106.635 2m right 106.745 4m right 106.840 6m right 108.390 105.515 T.P.1

0+30

2.105 1.850 1.725 1.680 1.985 1.875 1.780 2.875 3.105

0+40

1.000

Table 3. 3 Feild book for reduction level

Plotting Plotting of profile leveling provides a graphical representation of the ground points on a longitudinal section along the alignment. It is being used to determine the depth of cutting or filling on the proposed gradient (for highways, railways, canals, etc.), to study grade crossing problems, to select appropriate grade, to locate depth of sewer, tunnels etc. In this, a datum line is drawn along which distance of the stakes are marked and reduced levels are plotted along vertical lines drawn on the marked points. Segmented straight lines joining the reduced level points represent the longitudinal profile of the ground surface. Profile is generally drawn so that the vertical scale is much larger than the horizontal scale in order to accentuate the differences of elevations. Fig 3.10 shows the longitudinal section of the profile leveling (Fig 3.9). In this, the datum and ground lines are drawn in black and the ordinates in blue. The value of the datum line is given and the reduced levels are written against ordinates.

Fig 3. 10 Profile of Longitudinal Section

Contour A contour is defined as an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface. It can also be defined as the line of intersection of a level surface with the ground surface. For example, the line of intersection of the water surface of a still lake or pond with the surrounding ground represents a contour line. A line joining points of equal elevations is called a contour line. It facilitates depiction of the relief of terrain in a two dimensional plan or map.

Contour Interval The difference in elevation between successive contour lines on a given map is fixed. This vertical distance between any two contour lines in a map is called the contour interval (C.I.) of the map. Fig 3.11(a) shows contour interval of 1m whereas Fig 3.11(b) shows 10m.

Fig 3. 11 Contour Lines Showing CI (a) 1 m (b) 10 m The choice of suitable contour interval in a map depends upon four principal considerations. These are:

Nature of the Terrain

Nature of Terrain The contour interval depends upon the nature of the terrain (Table 3.4). For flat ground, a small contour interval is chosen whereas for undulating and broken ground, greater contour interval is adopted. Sl. No 1 2 3 Purpose of survey Building site Scale 1/1000 or less CI (m) 0.2 to 0.5 0.5 to 2

Town planning, 1/5,000 to 1/10,000 reservoir etc.

Location Survey, 1/10,000 to 1/20,000 1 to 3 earthwork, etc. Table 3. 4 Contour Interval (CI) for different Types of Survey

Scale of the Map

The contour interval normally varies inversely to the scale of the map i.e., if the scale of map is large, the contour interval is considered to be small and vice versa (Table 3.5).

SI.NO Map Scale Large 1 (1:1000 less)

Type of CI(m) Terrain Flat 0.2 to 0.5

or Rolling 0.5 to 1 Hilly 1 to 2 0.5 to 1.5

Intermediate Flat 2

(1:1000 to Rolling 1.5 to 2 1: 10,000) Hilly 2 to 3 Small Flat 1 to 3

(1: 10,000 Rolling 3 to 5 or more) Hilly 5 to 10

Table 3. 5 CI for different Scales and type of ground

Accuracy

Accuracy need of surveying work also decide the contour interval. Surveying for detailed design work or for earthwork calculations demands high accuracy and thus a small contour interval is used. But in case of location surveys where the desired accuracy is less, higher contour interval should be used.

Time of Cost

If the contour interval is small, greater time and funds will be required in the field survey, in reduction and in plotting the map. If the time and funds available are limited, the contour interval may be kept large.

Horizontal Equivalent The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive contour lines for a given slope is known as horizontal equivalent. For example, in Figure 3.11 (b) having contour interval 10m, the horizontal equivalent in a slope of 1 in 5 would be 50 m. Thus, horizontal equivalent depends upon the slope of the ground and required grade for construction of a road, canal and contour interval.

The method of establishing / plotting contours in a plan or map is known as contouring. It requires planimetric position of the points and drawing of contours from elevations of the plotted points. Contouring involves providing of vertical control for location of points on the contours and horizontal control for planimetric plotting of points. Thus, contouring depends upon the instruments used (to determine the horizontal as well as vertical position of points). In general, the field methods of contouring may be divided into two classes: Direct methods In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground. Points which happen to fall on a desired contour are only surveyed, plotted and finally joined to obtain the particular contour. This method is slow and tedious and thus used for large scale maps, small contour interval and at high degree of precision. Direct method of contouring can be employed using Level and Staff as follows: Vertical control : In this method, a benchmark is required in the project area. The level is set up on any commanding position and back sight is taken on the bench mark. Let the back sight reading on the bench mark be 1.485 m. If the reduced level of the bench mark is 100 m, the height of instrument would be 100 + 1.485 = 101.485 m. To locate the contour of 100.5 m value, the staff man is directed to occupy the position on the ground where the staff reading is 101.485 100.500 = 0.985 m. Mark all such positions on the ground where the staff reading would be 0.985 m by inserting pegs. Similarly locate the points where the staff reading would be 101.485 101 = 0.485 m for 101m contour. The contour of 101.5 m cannot be set from this setting of the instrument because the height of instrument for this setting of the instrument is only 101.485 m. Therefore, locating contours of higher value, the instrument has to be shifted to some other suitable position. Establish a forward station on a firm ground and take fore sight on it. This point acts as a point of known elevation, for shifting the position of the instrument to another position, from where the work proceeds in the similar manner till the entire area is contoured. Horizontal control : The horizontal control is generally provided by method of plane table surveying or locating the positions of points by other details in which will be discussed in later module (Fig 3.12).

Fig 3. 12 Direct Method of Contouring

Indirect methods In this method, points are located in the field, generally as corners of well-shaped geometrical figures such as squares, rectangles, and spot levels are determined. Elevations of desired contours are interpolated in between spot levels and contour lines are drawn by joining points of equal elevation. Indirect methods are less expensive, less time consuming and less tedious as compared to the direct method. These methods are commonly employed in small scale surveys of large areas or during mapping of irregular surface or steep slope. There are two different ways usually employed for indirect method of contouring:

Grid method In this method, the area to be surveyed is divided into a grid or series of squares (Figure 17.12). The grid size may vary from 5 m x 5 m to 25 m x 25 m depending upon the nature of the terrain, the contour interval required and the scale of the map desired. Also, the grids may not be of the same size throughout but may vary depending upon the requirement and field conditions. The grid corners are marked on the ground and spot levels of these comers are determined by leveling. The grid is plotted to the scale of the map and the spot levels of the grid corners are entered. The contours of desired values are then located by interpolation. Special care should be taken to give the spot levels to the salient features of the ground such as hilltops, deepest points of the depressions, and their measurements from respective corners of the grids, for correct depiction of the features. The method is used for large scale mapping and at average precision

Fig 3. 13 Contouring by Grid Method

Radial line method In this method, a number of radial lines are set out at known angular interval at each station and points are marked at the ground at convenient distance apart on the rays that are set. Spot levels of these points are determined by leveling. The points are plotted to the scale of the map and spot levels are entered. The contours of desired values are then located by interpolation. This method is convenient in hilly terrain with level stations chosen at high points so as to command a large area from each. Horizontal control may be obtained by taping

Fig 3. 14 Contouring by Radial Line Method

Characteristics & Uses of Contours The principal characteristics of contour lines which help in plotting or reading a contour map are as follows: 1. The variation of vertical distance between any two contour lines is assumed to be uniform. 2. The horizontal distance between any two contour lines indicates the amount of slope and varies inversely on the amount of slope. Thus, contours are spaced equally for uniform slope (Figure 17.2); closely for steep slope contours (Figure 17.3) and widely for moderate slope (Figure 17.4). 3. The steepest slope of terrain at any point on a contour is represented along the normal of the contour at that point (Figure 17.5). They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines. 4. Contours do not pass through permanent structures such as buildings (Figure 17.6)

5. Contours of different elevations cannot cross each other (caves and overhanging cliffs are the exceptions). (Figure 17.7) 6. Contours of different elevations cannot unite to form one contour (vertical cliff is an exception). (Figure 17.8) 7. Contour lines cannot begin or end on the plan. 8. A contour line must close itself but need not be necessarily within the limits of the map. 9. A closed contour line on a map represents either depression or hill (Figure 17.9(a)). A set of ring contours with higher values inside, depicts a hill whereas the lower value inside, depicts a depression (without an outlet) Figure 17.9(b). 10. Contours deflect uphill at valley lines and downhill at ridge lines. Contour lines in Ushape cross a ridge and in V-shape cross a valley at right angles. The concavity in contour lines is towards higher ground in the case of ridge and towards lower ground in the case of valley (Figure 17.10). 11. Contours do not have sharp turnings. Uses of Contours Nature of Grounds To visualize the nature of ground along a cross section of interest, a line say XY is being considered through the contour map (Fig 3.15). The intersection points between the line and contours are projected at different elevations of the contours are projected and joined by smooth curve. The smooth curve depicts the nature of the ground surface along XY.

Fig 3. 15 Nature of Terrain From Contour Map

To Locate Route Contour map provides useful information for locating a route at a given gradient such as highway, canal, sewer line etc. Let it be required to locate a route from P to Q at an upward gradient of 1 in 100. The contour map of the area is available at a contour interval of 5 meter at a scale of 1:10000. The horizontal equivalent will therefore be equal to 100 meter. Then with centre at P with a radius of 2 cm draw an arc to cut the next higher contour, say at q. With q as centre, mark the next higher contour by an arc of radius 2 cm say at r. Similarly, other points such as s,t,u. etc are obtained and joining the points provides the location of route

Fig 3. 16 Contour Gradient on the Ground

Intervisibility between Stations When the intervisibility between two points can not be ascertained by inspection of the area, it can be determined using contour map. The intervisibility is determined by drawing a line joining the stations / points say PQ and plot the elevations of the points and contours intersected by PQ as shown in Fig 3.15. If the intervening ground is found to be above A'B' line, the intervisibility is obstructed. In the figure, the ground is obstructing the line of sight. To Determine Catchment Area or Drainage Area The catchment area of a river is determined by using contour map. The watershed line which indicates the drainage basin of a river passes through the ridges and saddles of the terrain around the river. Thus, it is always perpendicular to the contour lines. The catchment area contained between the watershed line and the river outlet is then measured with a planimeter (Fig 3.17).

Fig 3. 17 Shaded portion shows catchment area of a river

Storage capacity of a Reservoir The storage capacity of a reservoir is determined from contour map. The contour line indicating the full reservoir level (F.R.L) is drawn on the contour map. The area enclosed between successive contours are measured by planimeter (Figure 18.5). The volume of water between F.R.L and the river bed is finally estimated by using either Trapezoidal formula or Prismoidal formula

Fig 3. 18 Contours showing storage capacity of a reservoir

Plotting Points of desired elevation, at which contours are desired to be drawn, are interpolated in between observed points. Then, contours are drawn by joining points of equal elevation by smooth curves keeping in mind the principal characteristics of contour. They are then inked in, preferably in brown to distinguish them from other features. The contour value is written down in a gap in the line provided for the purpose. Every fifth contour is drawn bolder to make it distinguishable from the rest.

In a hydro-electric project, the reservoir provides a storage of 5.9 million cubic meter between the lowest draw down and the top water level. The areas contained within the stated contours and the upstream face of the dam are as follows : Contour (m) Area (104 sq m) 200 44 195 34 190 28 185 23 180 20 175 16 170 11 165 8

If the R.L. of the lowest draw down is 167 m, find the reduced level of water at the full storage capacity of the reservoir. Solution : The area contained in lowest draw down level i.e. at 167 m is as follows : Given, contour interval = 5 m The area contained between 165 m and 170 m level is (11 - 8) x 104 = 3 x 104 sq m i.e., For a height of 5 m, difference in area = 3 x 104 sq m Therefore between 165 m and 167 m, i.e. for a height drift of 2 m, the area difference

= 1.2 x 104 sq m The area contained in 167 m contour = (8 + 1.2 ) x 104 sq m = 9.2x 104 sq m Now from given and calculated data and using trapezoidal rule Contour 167 170 175 180 185 190 195 200 Area (104) 9.2 11.0 67.5 16.0 90.0 20.0 107.5 23.0 127.5 28.0 155.0 34.0 195.0 44.0 772.8 577.8 422.8 295.3 187.8 97.8 contained Volume contained Volume contained by 4 between (10 ) (104) 30.3 30.3

So, at full storage capacity, the height of water level lies between 195 m and 200 m. The volume of water beyond 195 m height is (5.9 x 106 - 5.778 x 106) = 1.22 x 105 cu.m Let h be the height of water level above 195 m height. Then area contained in (195 + h) m contour is

= 34 x 104 + The volume between 195 m and (195 + h) m contour is

or, h2 + 34 h -12.2 = 0 Solving, we get h = 0.355 m Thus the reduced level of water at the full reservoir capacity is (195 + 0.355) = 195.355 m