J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. DOI 10.

1007/s11747-010-0227-0

Green marketing strategies: an examination of stakeholders and the opportunities they present
J. Joseph Cronin, Jr & Jeffery S. Smith & Mark R. Gleim & Edward Ramirez & Jennifer Dawn Martinez

Received: 31 December 2009 / Accepted: 15 September 2010 # Academy of Marketing Science 2010

Abstract As green marketing strategies become increasingly more important to firms adhering to a triple-bottom line performance evaluation, the present research seeks to better understand the role of green as a marketing strategy. Through an integration of the marketing, management, and operations literatures, an investigative framework is generated that identifies the various stakeholders potentially impacted through the environmentally friendly efforts of a firm. Specifically, the inter-connected nature of the core business disciplines of marketing, management (both strategy
This research was supported by the Institute for Energy Systems, Economics and Sustainability (IESES) at The Florida State University. J. J. Cronin, Jr (*) : J. S. Smith : M. R. Gleim The College of Business, Department of Marketing, The Florida State University, Rovetta Business Annex Room 307, P.O. Box 3061110, Tallahassee, FL 32306-1110, USA e-mail: jcronin@cob.fsu.edu J. S. Smith e-mail: jssmith@cob.fsu.edu M. R. Gleim e-mail: mgleim@fsu.edu E. Ramirez College of Business Administration, Department of Marketing and Management, The University of Texas at El Paso, Business Room 230, El Paso, TX 79968, USA e-mail: eramirez29@utep.edu J. D. Martinez Fogelman College of Business & Economics, Department of Marketing & Supply Chain Management, The University of Memphis, FAB 302, Memphis, TN 38152, USA e-mail: jmartine@memphis.edu

and human resources), and operations are examined as controllable functions within an organization from which strategies can be enacted to affect a firms stakeholders. The prior research in these areas is examined to identify potential research opportunities in marketing while also offering a series of representative research questions that can help guide future research in marketing. Keywords Green marketing strategy . Environmental strategy . Stakeholder analysis

Introduction As firms note the positive gains that can accrue through environmentally friendly marketing strategies (e.g., Luo and Bhattacharya 2006) and the potential pitfalls associated with non-environmentally friendly strategies, going green is beginning to take center stage in boardrooms around the world. There is a growing interest among top managers, stakeholders and academics regarding green marketing strategies and the potential impact on the triple-bottom line. Firms are increasingly adhering to a triple-bottom line performance evaluation, a concept coined to reflect the growing tendency of stakeholders to evaluate organizational performance on the basis of economic prosperity (i.e., profits), environmental quality (i.e., the planet), and social justice (i.e., people)1 (Elkington 1997). The recent BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico typifies the impact that an environmental disaster can have on a firms triple-bottom line. Not only has BPs stock price plummeted and credit rating been lowered (Guitierrez 2010), but
1 For the remainder of the paper, we use the triple-bottom line and people/profit/planet (or 3P) concepts interchangeably.

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consumer boycotts continue to spread while the environmental damage to the Gulf continues to devastate. Further, the recent miscues by BP have led to even greater scrutiny by governmental and other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as a consequence of the lack of environmental strategies. This example provides glaring evidence of the growing importance of going green as a viable organizational strategy with specific implications for marketing as well. Specifically, firms are expected to commit to green marketing strategies as (1) the cost of materials and energy continue to rise, (2) public pressure continues to increase, (3) there is increasing awareness that subscribing to triple-bottom line practices can increase consumer demand, and (4) consumers growing antipathy to globalization is leading to strengthening NGO activity relative to green performance (Kleindorfer et al. 2005). In addition, while the costs of such efforts can be substantial, improved environmental performance has been linked to greater financial performance, competitiveness, and innovation benefits (Kassinis and Vafeas 2006; King and Lenox 2002; Klassen and Whybark 1999; Majumdar and Marcus 2001). As a result, organizations worldwide are recognizing the appeal of environmentally friendly products and strategies. Organizations are increasingly focused on developing internal and external strategies that are green. Specifically, it is suggested that efforts will be made internally to recover pollution causing outputs, to develop substitutes for nonrenewable inputs, and to redesign products to reduce material content and energy consumption. Similarly, external strategies will likely focus on developing core competences in products, processes, and other supply chain activities that emphasize long-term sustainability throughout the entire supply chain (Kleindorfer et al. 2005). Given the prominence the green movement has risen to in recent years, it is surprising the marketing literature has paid relatively scant attention to the efficacy of green marketing strategies (see Baker and Sinkula 2005; de Ruyter et al. 2009; Drumwright 1994; Grinstein and Nisan 2009; Menon and Menon 1997 for notable exceptions). Defined as doing business while avoiding harm to people and the planet (Center for Sustainable Enterprise 2010), and identified as an actionable response to calls for organizations to focus on their triple-bottom line performance (i.e., measuring performance based on the effects of strategies on people, the planet, and profits), green is clearly an area of increased concern for organizations worldwide. Unfortunately, marketing research that evaluates such strategic initiatives is lacking in comparison to other disciplines. The need for additional green research is not limited to purely theoretical concerns as today more than 75% of consumers routinely report that they are green, or prefer

environmentally friendly products (Saad 2006). While the vast majority of consumers claim to be green, green products account for less than four percent of the global product market share (UNEP 2005). This alone suggests the need for marketing research to address the massive disconnect between attitudes toward green products and businesses and actual purchase behaviors. Early research on marketing orientation noted the important role marketing can play in developing the inter-functional coordination needed to meet the wants and needs exhibited in markets (Hurley and Hult 1998; Jaworski and Kohli 1993; Slater and Narver 2000). As the key link between organizations and markets, marketers represent the lynchpin in moving firms toward a true triple-bottom line orientation. Thus, the purpose of the current research is to review and integrate the literature surrounding green initiatives in various business disciplines and offer a series of guiding research opportunities to advance the marketing discipline. Given that green research in other academic disciplines exceeds the attention given to green strategies in the marketing literature, the central topical areas from the core business disciplines (i.e., management, operations, and marketing) are identified and utilized as a foundation from which a series of research opportunities are generated. To accomplish this goal, we generate an overarching framework (see Fig. 1) that is based on stakeholder theory in terms of the 3P concept as the basis for the literature investigation. More concretely, we denote how the research opportunities can be used in the generation of specific research questions that can act as a springboard for future marketing research on green marketing strategies. In other words, we offer a tangible guide as to how to recognize the gaps in the current literature while providing opportunities for future studies. We believe that this article can serve as encouragement for marketing scholars to undertake research that evaluates how best to satisfy market needs and wants for green products.

Conceptual framework and methodology As noted above, the goal of this article is to advance the marketing discipline in investigations addressing the concept of green marketing strategies. To guide our investigation, we generated an overarching model (see Fig. 1) whereby research in the core business disciplines (i.e., marketing, management, and operations) is reviewed in order to identify the main themes that emerge. The themes are then integrated in order to determine what is known about each topic. We then employ a stakeholder analysis to determine how marketing research can address the gaps in the literature (i.e., what research opportunities exist) in terms of the 3P perspective. More specifically, we denote

J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. Fig. 1 Conceptual investigation framework

External Stakeholders Human Resources Society Internal Functions Competitors

Government and NGOs

Strategy

Consumers

Marketing

Operations Management

Investors

Supply Chain Partners

how the marketing discipline can reach the relevant stakeholders to increase emphasis on green-related issues. In the following sub-sections, we offer a brief overview of stakeholder theory and the 3P concept followed by a description of how we employed our framework as a tool to identify the research opportunities. We also outline the process we employed to identify the relevant studies that have been conducted on green concepts as they pertain to the business community. Stakeholder theory and the 3P perspective An overarching tenet has emerged that the organization should conduct business beyond the base consideration of only making a profit. In essence, the mindset has shifted from doing whatever it takes to make money to a more balanced approach whereby firms consider the multitude of possible effects a specific decision may have. This multifaceted perspective has been mainly addressed in terms of making decisions while addressing the needs of divergent groups of relevant stakeholders (Freeman 1984). The concept is broadly entitled stakeholder theory and suggests that a firm should pursue strategies that consider the parties affected by decisions while trying to minimize damage or maximize benefits to the representative groups (Freeman 1984). While there has been debate over the specifics of the theory (see Brummer 1991; Donaldson and

Preston 1995), it has become commonly accepted that organizations need to be aware of the totality of their decisions. The core tenet of stakeholder theory is to think beyond just financial performance. It can be seen that this meshes neatly with the 3P (or triple-bottom line) paradigm of doing business while avoiding harm to people and the planet (Center for Sustainable Enterprise 2010) as both propose considering the range of potential ramifications of environmentally related decisions. It is through the overlap of the 3P concept with stakeholder theory that the groups that could be affected by green strategies are identified. The core stakeholders that are considered within this study are consumers, competitors, government and NGOs, investors, supply chain partners, employees, and society as a whole (Donaldson and Preston 1995). These stakeholder groups are included as research suggests that the characteristics of specific groups impact their ability to influence organizational strategies, of which green is one (e.g., ability to generate political support, access to unique resources, expertise, and personal preferences or value) (Kassinis and Vafeas 2006). From the marketing perspective, previous research has not been effective at reaching these specific stakeholder groups. The dearth of research originating in marketing has focused mainly on the end consumer (e.g., Luchs et al. 2010). In contrast, other fields have begun to utilize aspects

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of the 3P-stakeholder overlap to guide investigations. For example, the operations literature has focused on sustainability across supply chain relationships that range from back-end purchasing (Carter and Carter 1998) through front-end distribution (van Woensel et al. 2001) and concluding with the retrieval and re-use of post consumer components (Guide 2000). Operations has even explored the internal aspects of employees (Gattiker and Carter 2010), managers (Klassen 2001; Pagell and Gobeli 2009), and systems (Melnyk et al. 2003) while also investigating the performance impacts of reducing waste (King and Lenox 2001; Rothenberg et al. 2001). In conjunction, the management discipline has addressed the larger-scale impacts of pursuing a green strategy. In particular, the potential impact of environmental technologies as a competitive force (Shrivastava 1995a), the linkages between environmental strategy and stakeholder management (Buysse and Verbeke 2003), and the impact of a firms competitive environment on the development of a business-natural environment interface (Aragn-Correa and Sharma 2003) have been addressed. Since marketing is currently lagging behind these other disciplines, it is imperative that marketers investigate how the different stakeholder groups can potentially affect and/or influence a firms green strategies. Framework utilization As research outside the realm of marketing, particularly management and operations, has focused greater attention on green strategies, it is our intent to use these studies, along with those in marketing, to help stimulate future work on the topic. In order to do so, we produced the investigative model (Fig. 1) to guide the generation of the set of research opportunities from which research questions can potentially flow. The model identifies both internal and external components in order to identify the relevant business literature while considering all the affected stakeholders (Banerjee 2002; Bohlen et al. 1993). The internal portion of the model demonstrates the inter-connected nature of the core business disciplines of marketing, management (both strategy and human resources), and operations. This portion of the diagram is intended to denote the facets that an organization can directly control and is the origin of the vast majority of the academic literature on green strategies within the firm. In contrast, the external section highlights all the relevant stakeholders that could be affected by the decisions an organization makes in regard to green issues. After the model was developed, the goal was then to utilize it as a tool in the generation of the specific research opportunities. In order to do so, we reviewed the literature across the business disciplines (the article identification

procedure is explained below) with the goal of determining the main topics that have been studied. These core topics were then integrated in order to gain a full understanding of what is known about green related areas. Once established, we then considered each topical area in terms of how marketing could use what is already known to more fully address the research needs of each stakeholder group. Every core topic was considered in terms of how marketing could serve as the coordinating unit that links the specific organizational strategies to each stakeholder. For example (the complete explanation is included in the results section), one area that was identified was environmental certification (mainly noted in terms of ISO 14000). It was determined that most studies on the topic originated in the operations literature, where the crux of what is known mainly addresses why firms choose to pursue certification and what operational benefits accrue. In accordance with the framework, there appears to be a significant gap in the understanding of what certification means to an organization relative to the majority of stakeholders. We see that there is an opportunity to explore the potential marketing implications in that there is potential to use certification as a branding or promotional strategy for the general consumer base or for potential supply chain partners in a B2B setting. There is also the potential to use certification as a signal to investors or society as a whole that the organization is taking a proenvironmental stance from which the image of the firm could be enhanced. It is with this logic that each topic was investigated so as to denote the research opportunities highlighted below. Article identification To identify important issues surrounding sustainable business practices, a large-scale integrative literature review was conducted. First, to gather data for this review, a rigorous keyword search of the literature using ABI/Inform Global using Proquest Smart Search was undertaken. The keywords sustainability, green, and environmental were initially used to generate more than 500 articles for review. To ensure the validity of our review, we also searched the top-tier journals in the core business disciplines for any article that addressed a green concept. As our search procedure resulted in some un-related articles (i.e., those dealing with topics such as a sustainable competitive advantage or the environment in a traditional business sense), we trimmed the dataset to only the truly green investigations resulting in a total of 311 articles, spanning 105 unique journals, being used for the final integrative review. Each article was examined by at least two researchers with knowledge of the subject matter, and only the articles that were approved by both judges were

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accepted. If an agreement could not be reached, the article was discussed between the judges and a third member was asked to judge the article as well. In the second stage, two researchers grouped the articles according to multiple criteria, including the main subject matter, methodological approach, and business subdiscipline. With regard to the subject matter, the integration used our framework of relevant stakeholders considering people, the planet, and firm profits in identifying important themes across each business discipline. More specifically, the articles were grouped into three broad thematic categories (green performance, green strategy, and the green consumer) followed by the classifying into relevant sub-categories. For example, it was determined that inside the green strategy section, the topical areas of green innovation, green alliances, and internal greening of the organization emerged. Further sub-classifications were generated inside each of these categories in order to more fully recognize the themes in the environmentally-oriented literature. This classification scheme was then used as the basis for the generation of the presented research opportunities to guide marketing research in the future. Beyond the article classification scheme, it should be noted that any disagreements in the classification process were resolved by a third member of the research team. The inter-rater reliability for the classifications exceeded the recommended 0.70 level (Perreault and Leigh 1989). With a data set of this size, the analysis paralleled a grounded theory approach whereby we sought a saturation approach to indicate when the core set of themes had emerged (Strauss and Corbin 1998).

Research opportunities for marketing This section provides the result of the literature integration from which the main research topics were generated. Accordingly, a series of research opportunities are presented which denote specific areas that are ripe for investigation from the marketing perspective. As the link to the stakeholders of an organization, the marketing function is a key component in communicating green efforts. Therefore, it is imperative that marketers be knowledgeable of these topics while being able to effectively reach the intended stakeholder. Green performance Encouraging firms to utilize green as a marketing strategy would be a difficult task for practitioners and academics if financial incentives of going green were lacking. When examining the triple-bottom line, the benefit to people and the planet is evident through green marketing strategies;

however, if superior profits are not present as well, it is likely firms will choose to not engage in such a strategy. Thus, a vast amount of research in management has focused on the impact socially responsible initiatives (which encompass green concepts) can have on financial performance, with conflicting views resulting. The first view contends that organizations that employ socially responsible initiatives incur additional costs and are therefore at a financial disadvantage (Aupperle et al. 1985; Ullmann 1985; Vance 1975). The opposing view asserts that the costs of implementation are minimal and the benefit of improved employee morale and productivity offsets any additional costs that an organization may incur (Moskowitz 1972; Parket and Eilbirt 1975). Given the varying perspectives regarding the potential impact of social responsibility on financial performance, it is not surprising a plethora of studies on the topic exist. Research examining social responsibility and financial performance has yielded mixed results. Both short-term and long-term financial results suggest a negative relationship (McGuire et al. 1988; Wright and Ferris 1997), a positive relationship (Russo and Fouts 1997; Waddock and Graves 1997), a selective relationship (Jacobs et al. 2010) or no relationship (Aupperle et al. 1985; Teoh et al. 1999). Thus, early work by Narver (1971) suggests that such efforts may not be a strategy for increased short-run profits for organizations, but rather a strategy that firms may utilize to maximize the long-term welfare of the firm. Management must adapt to the demands of social pressure and regulation to maximize the present market value of the firm by instilling confidence in stakeholders that the organization will not encounter sanctions down the road. Similarly, more recent research provides an indication that socially responsible initiatives may not increase revenues for the firm, but rather decrease risk for an organization (McGuire et al. 1988). Potential risks, such as lawsuits, are expected to decrease due to the socially responsible initiatives of the firm. Further, research suggests that the impact of socially responsible initiatives on stock price are directly associated with any positive or negative effects of the initiatives (Alexander and Buchholz 1978). The findings suggest that the stock market is efficient, thus any positive or negative effects of socially responsible initiatives will be immediately reflected in the price of the stock. The recent oil spill by BP sheds light on the potentially devastating impact that the lack of green strategies can have on the short- and long-term performance of the firm, as BPs stock price and credit rating have plummeted (Guitierrez 2010). More recent findings related to social responsibility and firm performance suggest that the link may be more complicated than originally expected. Hillman and Keim (2001) suggest that building better relationships with

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primary stakeholders (e.g., employees, customers, suppliers) leads to superior firm performance. However, investing in socially responsible initiatives that do not directly impact the primary stakeholders will likely not create additional value for the firm (Hillman and Keim 2001). Similarly, research suggests that socially responsible actions and firm performance are negatively related; however, the causal relationship is unknown (Bansal 2005). It is not clear if social responsibility leads to poor firm performance or if poorly performing firms are less likely to engage in socially responsible behaviors. Similarly, the impact of firm financial performance has been shown to impact perceptions of social responsibility as financially superior firms may appear to be more socially responsible than their economically-depressed counterparts (Brown and Perry 1994). Recent research in marketing suggests that organizations engaging in green practices may be able to benefit in multiple ways. First, firms that have a green orientation are likely to achieve greater financial gains and market share (Menguc and Ozanne 2005), high levels of employee commitment (Maignan and Ferrell 2001), increased firm performance (Pujari et al. 2003), and increased capabilities (Baker and Sinkula 2005). Further, results suggest that socially responsible actions lead to increased customer satisfaction and greater firm value (Luo and Bhattacharya 2006) and can reduce undesirable firm-idiosyncratic risk, which can lead to greater firm valuations (Luo and Bhattacharya Luo and Bhattacharya 2006). While benefits are noted, Mathur and Mathur (2000) find that green promotional efforts by firms yield negative stock returns. Organizations may also benefit from green practices through cost savings. As pollution is a sign of waste, firms that curb pollution and reduce inputs that may lead to waste should see cost saving advantages (Lash and Wellington 2007; Porter and van der Linde 1995). Improved energy efficiency and waste reduction can enable green firms to quickly recover the financial outlay needed to fund green initiatives. Through gains in energy efficiency and waste reduction, firms can quickly recover the financial outlay needed to fund green initiatives. For example, DuPont spent $50 million in 2008 on energy saving initiatives and was able to recover the financial outlay after only 12 months, thus creating future cost saving advantages for the firm (Winston 2009). Thus, given the results of green directed initiatives on firm performance, it is evident that green strategies can be a benefit to firms. However, a more thorough understanding of the effect green marketing strategies can have on firm performance is needed. Therefore, the following research opportunity is identified. RO1: Investigate the link between green marketing strategies and firm performance.

Green strategies When attempting to achieve the goals of an organization, there are various avenues by which firms can pursue green strategies in order to address the needs of the various stakeholder groups. Three main types of green strategies are gleaned from the literature: (1) green innovation, (2) greening the organization, and (3) green alliances. These three strategies, and related categories within each strategy, are detailed below. The first commonly utilized strategy is the development of new or innovative green products. It is believed that the development of new products or services sends a positive signal to each stakeholder that the organization is, indeed, a green company. Another potential strategy is to focus on environmental aspects within the firm itself. In this case, the initiatives are more focused on greening the processes associated with the production of a good or the delivery of a service. Beyond producing new, green products or greening the organizations processes, a company can also choose to utilize an alliance or partnership to enhance the green orientation, which is another way to send a signal that the company is going green. As these are three main strategic directions with specific sub-components, we use them as the overarching categories under which the more detailed topical areas are contained. However, the large-scale effectiveness of any of these strategies has yet to be addressed either as a stand-alone option or in specific bundles. Therefore, research is needed to assess which of these strategies is most effective in terms of affecting the orientation of a company as a green firm. Thus, the following research opportunity is offered: RO2: Investigate the relative effectiveness of various green marketing strategies. Green innovation Developing environmentally friendly goods and services is critical to the success of firms that are attempting to create innovative products to meet the needs of the everincreasing environmentally conscious consumer. As recent polls suggest that 77% of Americans are concerned about the environment (Saad 2006), it is not surprising that firms are introducing green products at a tremendous rate with over 1,500 new products in 2009 (Makower 2009). While environmental standards can trigger product innovation (Porter 1991), firms that utilize green as an innovative strategy are likely to develop effective ways to reduce waste, create new packaging and production processes, and develop better ways to deliver goods and services to consumers (Coddington 1993; Mirvis 1994). A concept that has been put forward to help firms better capitalize on green is the enviropreneurial marketing

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strategy (Menon and Menon 1997; Varadarajan 1992). Enviropreneurial marketing is an entrepreneurial and environmentally friendly strategy that organizations can utilize to satisfy economic and social objectives (Varadarajan 1992). Enviropreneurial marketing is based on the idea that green is a market opportunity rather than an obstacle that firms must merely overcome to operate in the marketplace (Coddington 1993; Hunt and Auster 1990). As such, enviropreneurial activities are proactive; that is, organizations are actively trying to stay ahead of the competition and accept the risk associated with being a market pioneer. Such a strategy likely generates innovative and technological advances that allow firms to capitalize on both the entrepreneurial and environmentally-friendly strategies rather than merely meeting legal or regulatory standards (Shrivastava 1995b). The development of green products, whether in the context of human resources, operations, or marketing, requires new ideas while dealing with added constraints of environmental and consumer pressures. Green innovation strategies are needed in order to satisfy the expectations of the wide range of stakeholders that have ambiguous, and sometimes conflicting, demands (Hall and Vredenburg 2005). All stakeholders stand to benefit from successful innovation. Whereas other literatures investigate the roles played by various stakeholders in green innovation (Shrivastava 1995b), the marketing literature fails to consider whether the development of green products or services is considered innovative by any organizational stakeholders (e.g., directors, investors, managers, or employees), let alone by consumers. As the roles played by various stakeholders in the development, evaluation, and implementation of innovative green products and strategies can dramatically impact the frequency and success of green product innovation, the following research opportunity is identified. RO3: Understand the developmental process, and associated performance (or outcomes), surrounding the generation of new green products. Greening of the organization Admittedly, the ability of an organization to move toward a more green orientation is a difficult task that can traverse a multitude of paths. For the sake of this review, we used the main points from our literature integration while grouping them into three general sub-categories; green champions, green processes, and supply chain management. Each of these is described below with the relevant research opportunities noted. Green champions The potential for an organization to truly be green requires that the company accept the mantra and

fully integrate green initiatives across all aspects of the business. However, this transition typically does not simply occur. Instead, there is an individual or group of individuals that drive program implementation. These individuals are known as green champions. Past research suggests that members within an organization play a critical role in the green efforts and success of the firm. In fact, Drumwright (1994) suggests that the policy entrepreneur (i.e., a green champion) within the firm plays a critical role in instituting organizational policies. Thus, policy entrepreneurs that are concerned with the state of the planet are likely to engage in behaviors that promote green strategies within the organization. However, it is quite common that the person or group leading the green initiative lacks the authority required to implement new environmental policy (Carter and Jennings 2004; Drumwright 1994). Unlike top management, often policy entrepreneurs lack the positional power to mandate strategic change related to the green efforts of the firm. Further, as new environmental policy often requires change to business practices and reward systems, it is often met with resistance from other functional areas within a firm (Carter and Dresner 2001; Carter et al. 2007). Thus, while research suggests managers with high levels of managerial responsibility demonstrating responsibility for environmental matters are the most effective in improving buy-in from others involved in the process (Aragn-Correa et al. 2004; Drumwright 1994; Ramus and Steger 2000), achieving such commitment from management is not always guaranteed. Unless management recognizes the importance of environmental issues to stakeholders, and the benefits offered from such a strategy, it is likely that they will not champion new environmental initiatives (Hunt and Auster 1990; Klassen 2001; Lawrence and Morell 1995). Thus, while it may be preferred for organizations to utilize the pressure of top management to encourage organizational buy-in, it may not be the case if there is no one within the organization with the rank required to champion the initiative. Accordingly, research suggests that acquiring buy-in from others within the organization is critical to the success of new environmental policy (Carter and Jennings 2004; Drumwright 1994; Handfield et al. 1997; Willard 2008). Therefore, firms may be well served in identifying the most logical champion prior to pursuing a green transformation. As research is scant regarding the methods of increasing organizational buy-in towards new environmental policy, research opportunities exist. RO4: Investigate the role of green champions in the initiation, enactment, and evaluation of new green strategies. Green processes Another aspect of moving the organization toward a green orientation is associated with the

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processes and practices utilized within the firm (Kassinis and Soteriou 2003; Montabon et al. 2007). Along this line, there are two main topics that have been extensively covered in the literature. Namely, past research has focused on the manner in which waste (when viewed as non-green activities) can be reduced to achieve improved environmental performance. The other main area in the process literature addresses environmental management systems (EMS) with a specific emphasis on the certification of these systems. The specifics of these two process-related themes are discussed below. Waste Reduction. As the problems associated with the disposal of waste become more visible and widespread, the reduction of waste grows in importance for academics and practitioners. Accordingly, the need to reduce operational by-products is a common point of interest. The predominant viewpoint in waste reduction stems from the belief that an organization can view environmentally unfriendly practices as a form of waste from which lean systems thinking can guide process improvement (Pil and Rothenberg 2003; Rothenberg et al. 2001). The lean is green concept has also been viewed as being part of a total quality management system (Angell 2001; Isbell 1991). Prior research has demonstrated that focusing on reducing waste through a lean systems approach has a positive effect on environmental performance (King and Lenox 2001). Similarly, King and Lenox (2002) note that managers underestimate the value of waste reduction strategies, thereby presenting a gap between actual strategies versus potential value-maximizing strategies. Thus, managers typically do not enact organizational strategies incorporating such concerns. However, improving organizational processes that reduce waste, as opposed to treating waste once produced, increases efficiency, thereby increasing demand from environmentally sensitive consumers (Ashford and Heaton 1983; Porter and van der Linde 1995). Essentially, the operations literature concludes that waste reducing processes are viewed as a more positive green strategy than simply recycling waste (Lapre et al. 2000). For example, hazardous waste disposal creates extreme environmental problems that, in turn, produce exorbitant costs for organizations, the government, and often society as a whole (Porter and van der Linde 1995). Green strategies that prevent damage to the environment and save the time and money typically invested in the disposal, storage, and clean up of waste are likely to be viewed with great favor in boardrooms around the world. Similarly, the operations and supply chain literatures consider how integrating waste reduction into green strategies can lead not only to pollution reduction and environmentally responsible behaviors, but also greater firm profitability (Hart 1995; Porter and van der Linde 1995; Reinhardt 1999; Russo and Fouts 1997). In the operations literature, King and Lenox (2002) dissect

pollution reduction into its component parts to identify the link between waste reduction strategies and positive financial results. Accordingly, marketing scholars can create value for organizations if research is undertaken to answer similar questions. Specifically, research that examines how consumers view waste reduction or whether organizations can create loyalty through the utilization of green processes and practices are potential avenues of research. RO5: Evaluate the effectiveness of waste reduction initiatives on the perceptions of stakeholders. System Certification. The second major theme associated with business processes is the manner in which the entire system is managed. Research has shown that firms with formalized environmental management systems (EMS) achieve significantly higher performance when compared to informal systems (Melnyk et al. 2003). The overarching belief is that providing formal guidelines for the EMS provides tangible accountability for the people and processes involved. Beyond simple formalization, firms have the option to have their systems certified by third-parties to add validity to the environmental efforts. The most commonly researched standardization is the International Organization for Standardizations ISO 14000 program while other, less common standards (e.g., XL, 33/50) exist as well. In accordance, research has shown that firms with certified systems outperform those that simply have formalized ones (Melnyk et al. 2003). Beyond the performance assessments of certified systems, past studies have investigated the antecedents to adoption (Melnyk et al. 2003), the affect of certified systems on practices (Sroufe 2003), the stakeholder sets that influence certification (Delmas 2001), the diffusion of certification (Vastag 2004), and even comparisons between US and German EMS (Klassen and Angell 1998). It has even been shown that certification of an organizations systems demonstrates that a company is acting socially responsible, thereby boosting a companys image (Chinander 2001). As a continuation of these findings, the operations literature suggests that the application of ISO 14000 shows that positive indicators of systemic approaches to green business practices are effective in enhancing the triple-bottom line of an organization (King and Lenox 2001; Klassen 2001; Melnyk et al. 2003). From a marketing standpoint, organizations should better understand the impact of adopting such standards on stakeholders perceptions of the firm and whether certification of green business practices creates value, differentiation, and loyalty among customers and other stakeholders. Examples might include the inclusion of certification in branding and promotion strategies. Organizations also need to know what determines the effectiveness of certification

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programs and how certification impacts green perceptions of an organization and its products. This suggests the following research opportunity. RO6: Examine the role of certification in shaping the perceptions of stakeholders. Supply chain management In addition to the greening of internal processes, an organization needs to integrate green strategies into its entire span of supply chain activities. Research has shown that firms with wider arcs (i.e., those that have stronger ties to trading partners in both upstream and downstream directions) achieve superior performance (Frohlich and Westbrook 2001). It stands to reason that this would be the same for environmental initiatives. This concept was supported in past studies (Bowen et al. 2001; Handfield et al. 1997) where it was found that successful firms are ones that fully integrate environmental strategies across all supply chain activities. In reviewing the green supply chain literature, it can be seen that the studies fall broadly into two distinct groups: chain construction and closed-loop supply chain management. In this case, the former addresses the initial establishment of the supply chain while the latter addresses the concepts associated with bringing materials back into the organization that have previously been used outside the walls of the firm. Chain Construction. The importance of partnerships in green strategies is a critical component for organizations as business transitions from a firm versus firm orientation to a supply chain versus supply chain perspective (Barratt 2004; Bowersox et al. 2000). As noted, research demonstrates that both upstream and downstream partners influence the adoption of green strategies (Bansal and Hunter 2003; Vachon and Klassen 2006). In a supply network context, efforts to reduce, recycle, and reuse materials are noted as examples of such efforts (Carter and Carter 1998; Hart et al. 2000). Additional work suggests that channel partners assist in improving product quality, reducing costs, and staying ahead of future regulations (Markley and Davis 2007; Shrivastava 1995b). The supply chain literature also suggests that enacting a green approach to doing business, particularly within supply networks, benefits firms as a source of competitive advantage (Shrivastava 1995b). As a result, partners, and potential partners, build positive associations through joint efforts to go green. Because a firms resources and capabilities are finite, the supply chain literature suggests that it makes sense for companies to leverage suppliers and partners in order to take advantage of others knowledge and expertise (Lee and Klassen 2008). Thus, firms should choose partners that possess valuable environmental management capabilities or, at a minimum, should work in conjunction with them to develop a synergistic approach to green (Handfield et al.

2002). Such decisions allow a firm not only to increase their own capabilities through the proxy of the suppliers and partners, but also to use the time and resources that are typically invested in developing those capabilities in other areas, including environmentally friendly product and/or process innovation. As established in the supply chain literature, a green supply chain can create a potential advantage for an organization and, thus, bolster triple-bottom line performance by delivering economic, social, and environmental benefits (Norman and MacDonald 2004). Additionally, organizations are beginning to realize the importance of social responsibility concepts in the supply chain, including environmental management (Murphy and Poist 2002). Adding to the rich foundation in the supply chain literature is the establishment of corporate social responsibility categories that include the environment, diversity, human rights, philanthropy, and safety (Carter and Jennings 2004). Others include additional categories such as labor practices (Roberts 2003) and procurement (Razzaque and Hwee 2002). The marketing literature is in desperate need of research that addresses how these issues relate to and impact stakeholders, and specifically triple-bottom line performance when adopting a green strategy. To that end, the following research opportunity is posed in order to guide needed research as to the power of strategically choosing supply chain partners from a marketing management standpoint. RO7: Examine the impact of the construction of the supply chain on perceptions of stakeholders. Closed-Loop Supply Chains. Another theme identified involves the role of remanufacturing, remarketing, and closed-loop supply chains in the management of green strategies. Guide and Van Wassenhove (2001) identify a framework in the operations and supply chain literatures that provide managers with recommendations for maximizing profitability while promoting reuse activities. While Guide and Van Wassenhove (2001) provide useful insights and prescriptions for managers for how to manage the reuse of materials through remanufacturing, remarketing, and closed-loop supply chains (also see Blackburn et al. 2004; Debo et al. 2001; Guide et al. 2003), questions as to how best to communicate and implement return strategies remain largely unaddressed in the marketing literature. A reverse supply chain addresses the manner in which a product returns to the selling company, and the cycle is suggested to end when the company recovers the products maximum possible value (Kleindorfer et al. 2005). The cycle includes returns for reasons such as the end of a products life, recalls, customer returns, and the end of a lease, just to name a few. Literature in supply chain management reveals the many challenges in this area that

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companies must address in order to realize the best possible profit margin even when margins for returns are typically minimal. Forward and reverse supply chains create a cradle-to-cradle path for goods manufactured, sold, returned and reused, as opposed to a one-way cradle-to-grave flow that works against going green (McDonough and Braungart 2002). Supply chains must be carefully managed in order to (1) ensure maximum profit, (2) comply with regulatory requirements (e.g., waste reduction and disposal laws), and (3) provide excellent customer service to consumers and suppliers alike. The focus on going green in the management of supply chains has resulted in the identification of several areas of research that should be of interest to marketers. Remanufacturing is one such area. The increasing cost of raw materials and energy is leading firms to consider how products might be designed (e.g., recycled or reused) or distributed (e.g., modular construction) so as to maximize value to the firm. That is, contemporary operations and supply chain thought suggests that forward and reverse supply chains should form a closed loop and be coordinated to maximize profits. This can mean new markets are opened for firms to sell used equipment, production byproducts, and even spent resources that might be incinerated to produce energy. Remarketing is a related and similar strategy. Marketing scholars can assist in achieving the green goals of the firm by identifying market opportunities and marketing strategies that connect consumers with remanufactured and remarketed products. To encourage researchers to address these gaps in the marketing literature, the following opportunity is identified for marketing scholars. RO8: Investigate the impact of closed-loop supply-chain strategies on stakeholders perceptions of the firm. Green alliances As increasing attention is given to environmental management strategies, managers are including green initiatives as a criterion when searching for partners (Kumar and Malegeant 2006). Organizations attempting to increase green efforts may find it beneficial to work with other firms through less formal partnerships or alliances. Research examining partnerships is common in cause-related marketing (e.g., Ellen et al. 2006; Lichtenstein et al. 2004) and suggests that choosing the right partner is vitally important to the success of both firms. Organizations that are able to pair with a high-fit cause likely reduce the suspicion of consumers as they are likely to perceive the relationship as a strategic business move and as valuesdriven (Fein 1996). Fit may be defined as the perceived congruence of a firms socially responsible initiatives (e.g.,

support of an environmental cause) and synergies in activities (i.e., what the firm is known for) (Ellen et al. 2006). Thus, it is important that firms attempting to form partnerships with other organizations, either profit or notfor-profit, consider the potential impact the partnerships may have on stakeholders perceptions. In addition, the use of strategic alliances, something rarely considered in a green context, could prove beneficial to firms for numerous reasons. While firms typically engage in alliances for many reasons (see Gulati 1998 for review), the distinct benefits afforded organizations in terms of sustainability are numerous. The Star Alliance, an alliance between 28 member airlines, is an example of the impact an alliance can have on a firm. While the goal of member airlines in the Star Alliance is to share resources and minimize the resource allocation of each airline, they are in essence acting green. If the alliance was not formed, and each airline had to act as a separate entity, the amount of waste would be vast. While going green may not be the end goal of the alliance, it is creating a more environmentally friendly system. The alliance is benefiting member airlines in numerous ways, though they may not be capitalizing on the benefits that may be offered for various stakeholders. The alliance between the member airlines creates a win-win situation; however, other marketing opportunities surrounding the potential benefits of green alliances still exist. While strategic alliances continue to proliferate the business landscape, social alliances have yet to receive similar attention. A social alliance is described as a partnership between an organization and a non-profit that is more than merely cause-related marketing, but rather a mutually beneficial, long-term partnership for both firms (Berger et al. 2006). Social alliances are long-term investments related to growing or transforming a business (Berger et al. 2006) and represent a tremendous opportunity for firms seeking to increase their green efforts. As such, alliances can lead to enhanced firm reputation, greater customer loyalty, and increased purchase behavior (e.g., Brown and Dacin 1997; Lichtenstein et al. 2004; Sen and Bhattacharya 2001). The opportunity for firms to utilize a social alliance for green strategies would likely yield similar results. Thus, the lack of research surrounding the various opportunities for partnerships and alliances represents a substantial gap in the literature. RO9: Investigate the role that green partnerships and alliances have both internally and externally on the perceptions of stakeholders. The green consumer When examining consumers relative to the environment, marketing research thus far has primarily focused on

J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. Table 1 Summary of green marketing research opportunities and research questions Research opportunity Representative research question(s) concerning consumers Representative research question(s) concerning alternate stakeholders

RO1: Investigate the link between green marketing strategies and firm performance.

Does incorporating a green marketing strategy Does the use of a green marketing strategy capture greater market share? Greater share of increase market share relative to the wallet from consumers? competition? Or can it be used as a What role does government intervention regarding differentiating factor? environmental regulation have on market share? How can a green marketing strategy bridge the gap between operations within the firm and governmental regulation? What can organizations espouse to society to minimize expectations regarding future environmentally-friendly actions? Which green marketing strategies are more effective at maximizing stock returns? Minimizing risk? RO2: Investigate the relative effectiveness Can organizations use one of the three strategies Which of the three green strategies is most effective of various green marketing strategies. to reshape consumer perceptions of the firm? at satisfying the government and NGOs? Which individual strategy significantly impacts Which of the three strategies do investors consumer perceptions? Or does it take perceive as less risky? Or most rewarding? multiple strategies used simultaneously to Which strategy is likely to engender impact consumers? Is there an ordering effect organizational (e.g., employee, management) between the alterative strategies? commitment? RO3: Understand the developmental process, Should consumers be involved in the development How can a firm leverage the unique capabilities and associated performance (or outcomes), of green products? If so, at what stage? of its supply chain partners in the surrounding the generation of new green development of green products? How can firms market green products as products. innovative? Do consumers care if they are Does the development of green products differ innovative? What aspects of green products from the developmental process of standard should be stressed? What aspect of green products? If so, how? products do consumers deem important? In the case of acquired green products, how is the Are green products that are developed acquiring firm affected? The acquired firm? internally perceived more positively than externally acquired (i.e., products developed by another company)? RO4: Investigate the role of green champions Can a firm use its internal green champion as What position in the company do policy in the initiation, enactment, and evaluation of the face of its green marketing campaign? If entrepreneurs or green champions tend to hold? new green strategies. so, who should it be? If they do, how does In that position, do they tend to have the power that affect consumer perceptions of the firm to mandate sustainability strategies? (e.g., trust and credibility)? What are the most effective characteristics of green champions (e.g., position, personality)? What are the mechanisms used by successful green champions to increase organizational buy-in? Which are more effective? RO5: Evaluate the effectiveness of waste Can firms utilize waste reduction strategies to Are firms that reduce waste rather than merely reduction initiatives on the perceptions of increase consumer perceptions of the green recycle likely to be viewed more positively stakeholders. orientation for the firm? by investors? Do consumers recognize or reward waste Can waste reduction strategies used by firms reduction strategies utilized by firms? What create greater levels of organizational marketing campaigns can communicate commitment? internal strategies to consumers? Are internally directed waste reduction strategies more effective than off-the-shelf strategies at staving off the competition? Reducing mimicry? Can an organization use waste reduction strategies to enhance its public image? RO6: Examine the role of certification in shaping the perceptions of stakeholders. Can environmental certifications be used to shape the perceived green orientation of a firm? How can environmental certifications be implemented in promotional strategies? Does meeting environmental certification requirements (e.g., ISO 14000) allow greater freedom from governmental regulation? Do environmentally certified firms require similar certifications from supply-chain partners?

J. of the Acad. Mark. Sci. Table 1 (continued) Research opportunity Representative research question(s) concerning consumers Representative research question(s) concerning alternate stakeholders Can an organization use environmental certifications as a marketing tool in a B2B setting? If so, how? Can an organization leverage its supply-chain relationships to enhance investor perceptions of a firm? Does the selection of supply-chain partners affect organizational (e.g., employees) perceptions of a green orientation?

How do consumers evaluate environmental certifications? Is one received better than others? RO7: Examine the impact of the construction Can an organization leverage its supply-chain of the supply chain on perceptions of relationships to enhance consumer percepstakeholders. tions of a green orientation? Are firms held responsible for environmental mistakes made by their supply-chain partners? If a firm is held responsible, what actions do consumers take (e.g., boycott, negative word of mouth)? RO 8: Investigate the impact of closed-loop Can firms differentiate their products based on supply-chain strategies on stakeholders per- the fact that they utilize high-recycled conceptions of the firm. tent? Do customers perceive them positively? Does the perception of a green orientation change as a company uses more recycled products or engages in remanufacturing? Can these be used in promotional strategies? How can firms increase consumer participation in recycling or remanufacturing efforts? RO9: Investigate the role that green Does an alliance affect consumer perceptions of partnerships and alliances have both firms involved? If so, is the effect equal? internally and externally on the perceptions Do the environmentally friendly outputs gained of stakeholders. from alliances lead to enhanced perceptions of the firm or all of the firms in the alliance? What impact do consumer perceptions of fit regarding a firm and its green partnerships have on behavioral intentions? RO10: Clarify the characteristics of consumers Are there innate forces within consumers that that affect environmental consumption drive environmentally friendly behaviors? behaviors. What types of messages are likely to increase PCE for consumers in order to increase green consumption? What role does an individuals sustainability competence have on sustainability efforts? What are the barriers consumers face when attempting to make environmentally-friendly product purchases? RO11: Investigating the effects of consumer What impact do consumer perceptions of firm perceptions of green marketing strategies greenness have on behavioral intentions? toward green behaviors. How much information should be presented to consumers in order to promote the green efforts of a firm? What specific information should be given? Are accusations of firm greenwashing a death sentence for firms attempting to compete on green? Are there strategies to overcome consumers distrust?

Does utilizing a closed-loop supply-chain strategy impact the perceptions of society? How do firms convince supply-chain partners to participate in these initiatives? Are there mechanisms to facilitate participation?

How do investors perceive financial costs or benefits of social alliances for firms? How should firms select organizations for an alliance or partnership? Once selected, how should the performance be evaluated (e.g., life cycle effects, profitability, perceptual impact)? N/A

N/A

The consumer column was inserted as many marketing studies address consumer issues, while the alternate stakeholder column is used to denote opportunities that still exist in marketing. No opportunities were generated for alternate stakeholders in the consumer section as is noted by the N/A

examining green consumers, or consumers that choose to purchase environmentally friendly products when given the opportunity. As such, the effects of culture (Anderson and Cunningham 1972; Mostafa 2007; Webster 1975), personality (Kinnear et al. 1974), impression motivation (Yoon et al. 2006), and socio-demographic characteristics (Shrum et al.

1995; Diamantopoulos et al. 2003; Tanner and Kast 2003) on consumers attitudes and behaviors toward environmentallyfriendly product consumption have been investigated. Further, research suggests that perceived consumer effectiveness (PCE), or an individuals belief that s/he can make a difference or impact by purchasing environmentally friendly

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products, is an important predictor of green consumption (e.g., Kinnear et al. 1974; Roberts 1996; Webster 1975). Similarly, the positive impact of social norms has been shown to motivate environmental conservation in hotel guests (Goldstein et al. 2008). However, the marketing literature has yet to examine the barriers facing consumers. The negative effects of greenwashing, and the general lack of trust felt by consumers toward green firms has been noted as an obstacle that many firms must attempt to overcome (Kangum et al. 1991). In addition, a lack of green credibility, along with consumer cynicism and confusion, are issues associated with green marketing strategies (Carlson et al. 1993; Davis 1993). Too often consumers are left wondering which firms are genuinely green, versus those that are merely paying it lip service. Therefore, strategies aimed at the reluctant consumer are critical if firms seek to advance, and reap the benefits of, green marketing strategies (Zinkhan and Carlson 1995). RO10: Clarify the characteristics of consumers that affect environmental consumption behaviors. Picking the right green marketing strategy is an important step for firms that aim to compete on green (Ginsberg and Bloom 2004). Research suggests that it is important for organizations to consider the potential green market of consumers, as well as ways to differentiate products from the competition (Ginsberg and Bloom 2004). When examining socially-responsible messages, research suggests corporate hypocrisy after a firm has deployed said messages is very detrimental (Wagner et al. 2009). Similarly, research suggests that firms seeking to protect the planet through green business practices are challenged by consumers receptivity to these efforts. In particular, many consumers doubt whether a firms activities and offerings are truly environmentally friendly (Mohr et al. 1998). In order to overcome consumer skepticism, operations suggests firms should systematically strive to make their business activities more sustainable and transparent, and include the reduction of environment-threatening waste (Marshall and Brown 2003). The lack of research examining consumer perceptions of green actions is apparent throughout the literature, thus the following research opportunity is noted. RO11: Investigating the effects of consumer perceptions of green marketing strategies toward green behaviors.

Conclusion A summary of the areas that marketing scholars might explore in research efforts is offered in Table 1. As is noted

in the table, this research highlights a number of opportunities gleaned from an integrative review of the management, operations, and marketing literatures. No doubt, the extensive number of research opportunities identified is exceeded by the challenges that will confront scholars in their efforts to address the surprising and evident gap in the marketing literature relative to the efficacy of green as an organizational imperative. As research notes the numerous benefits offered to firms utilizing socially responsible strategies, it is likely that the number of firms enacting such strategies to increase their triple-bottom line performance will continue to rise. Research suggests that companies need to become agile, adaptive, and aligned in balancing people and the planet with profitability (Kleindorfer et al. 2005). As is noted, a number of green strategies, or general categories of research opportunities, appear relevant. The main types of green strategies gleaned from the literature are: (1) green innovation, (2) greening the organization, and (3) green alliances. The development of new or innovative green products is a commonly utilized strategy by firms attempting to go green. Another green strategy implemented by firms is a focus on environmental aspects within the firm itself. Greening the organization may be accomplished through green champions, green processes, and green initiatives toward supply-chain management. Beyond greening the organizations processes, a firm may also choose to utilize an alliance or partnership to enhance the green orientation of the firm. Further, no study is without limitations. We acknowledge that the green paradigm may span beyond the definition employed herein (e.g., public policy, planning, anti-consumption), which could have alternate effects on organizations. However, we employed a narrow definition in order to constrain our analysis to the more manageriallyrelevant concepts discussed in the business literature. In addition, the review concentrated on mainstream journals, therefore leaving many books and international journals out of the review. This fact could have biased the results slightly, but by integrating the mainstream research, we believe the review is comprehensive. All the themes identified conclude with the ultimate goal of meeting the wants and needs of various stakeholders. In particular, meeting the needs and wants of consumers is critical for firms that are attempting to compete on the basis of green. Without a greater understanding of stakeholder and consumer perceptions, firms are not likely to reap the financial rewards associated with green strategies. Thus, the resounding conclusion is that there is much left to be discussed and evaluated relative to the use of green marketing strategies to maximize the triple-bottom line performance demanded by stakeholders worldwide.

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