THE UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, ST.

AUGUSTINE

Who Should You Choose? A look at the demographic factors of sex, gender and race on Heterosexual Human Mate selection

SHELLEY-ANN HART STUDENT ID#: 806003853

DR. GABRIELLE HOSEIN SEXUALITIES, BODIES AND POWER GEND 6104 THURSDAY 16TH DECEMBER 2010

Hart 2

SEXUALITIES BODIES AND POWER Lecture Outline

Topic: Mate Selection

Content:

What is mate selection and its place in the wider context Relation of Mate Selection to sexuality, bodies and power Theories of Mate Selection Factors that impact on mate selection namely race and gender (from assigned readings) Concepts underlying mate selection

Learning Objectives: Knowledge of mate selection and need for research with a Caribbean Context. Identify Existing Theories on mate selection Understanding how mate selection relates to Sexuality, Bodies and Power. Discuss the ways bodies are gendered, raced, and sexualized in mate selection Apply course readings to the topic of mate selection List, define, and summaries key concepts associated with mate selection o Patriarchy and mate Selection o Heteronormative mate selection o Racialization of Bodies

Hart 3 Assigned Readings: Eagly, Alice H and Mary C. Johannesen-Schmidt . "Another Look at Sex Difference in Prefered Mate Characteristics: The Effects of Endorsing the Traditional Female Gender Role." Pyschology of Women Quartely, 2002: 322-328. Eastwick, P. W., Eagly, A. H., Glick, P., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., Fiske, S. T., Blum, A. M. B., Eckes, T., Freiburger, P., Huang, L., Fernndez, M. L., Manganelli, A. M., Pek, J. C. X., Castro, Y. R., Sakalli-Ugurlu, N., Six-Materna, I., & Volpato, C. "Is Traditional Gender Ideologies Associated with Sex- Typed Mate Preferences? A Test in Nine Nation." Sex Roles, 2006: 603-614. Fryer Jr, Roland G. "Guess Whos Been Coming to Dinner? Trends in Interracial Marriage over the 20th Century." Journal of Economic Perspective Vol 21, Number 2, 2007: 71-90. King, Rosalind Berkowitz & Bratter, Jenifer L. "A Path Toward Interracial Marriage: Women's First Partner and Husbands Across Racial Line." The Sociological Quarterly 48, 2007: 343-369. Rauch, Kristin Liv. "Human Mate Selection: An Exploration of Assortive Mating Preference." http://forms.gradsch.psu.edu/diversity/mcnair/2003/rauch.pdf

Evaluation: Exam Question Answer one (1) of the following questions

1. What conclusions can you draw from the readings about the relationship between the

demographic factors of mate selection and the concepts of sexuality and power? Clearly identify strengths and weakness of the evidence in support of your conclusions. or
2. Attraction and Mate Selection go hand in hand Discuss this statement in relation to

Sexuality and Power.

The What and Why of Mate Selection

Hart 4 For many decades researchers have struggled to answer the age old question of why human beings choose specific individuals as their mate1. Mate Selection in this instance refers to the process of finding a suitable partner to have a long term relationship with, which may or may not result in marriage. Marriage for many, can be seen as the ultimate goal of engaging in intimate relationships, thus it stands to reason that mate selection is imperative to this process. According to the Institute for American Values, marriage is seen as more than a private emotional relationship; it is a social good and an important indicator of the emotional and financial well-being of individuals, families and by extension the society (Institute for American Values, 2002). Mate selection is a critical decision of the human experience since it impacts on the formation of future intimate relationships such as marriage and involves ones sexual praxis. Across the world, countries consist of people from various backgrounds, culture, ethnicity/race and class. Attention to mate selection can help establish the similarities and differences in the process of mate selection and influential factors across the divide. An investigation of mate selection in the Caribbean particularly Trinidad with its multiethnic society, provides a good base from which to examine whether racial lines and barriers have been maintained or eroded over the past few decades. This information will seek to partially account for the myriad of races and mixes that exist in Trinidadian society today. Additionally mate selection is an essential feature in the production of offspring for the survival of the population; it is on this assumption that greater efforts in the area of gender, social and psychological research be conducted as a mechanism in comprehending the constituting factors such as mate selection. What is equally interesting is that mate selection can be a result of free choice, choice with limited family influence, or arranged marriages. Regardless of the
1

a mate refers to ones partner, counterpart, significant other or spouse

Hart 5 level of freedom exercised in the selection of a mate, other extraneous factor may or may not contribute to the continued existence of that union. Sexuality and its by products such as power, beauty, and desire thus become part of mate selection and therefore commands a gaze into such fascinations. Existing research and discussions have been primarily focused on gender differences in mate selection in countries of the developed world, with significantly less research being conducted within a Caribbean context. Few writers have sought to discuss this issue of mate selection within the Caribbean. One example is Mate Selection in Trinidad and Tobago: A Multireligious, Multicultural Perspective by Seegobin and Tarquin 2003. In the Caribbean, sexuality and mate selection is heavily embedded in the dominant heterosexual culture 2 which may not yield the similarities in mate selection observed in the wider global community. Trinidads diverse colonial history, as part of the Caribbean, has influenced its social systems in a unique way, embedding ideas of masculinity and femininity in the behaviors and roles it values and in institutional belief systems of social stability (Vision 2020 Development Report). Owing to the unique structure of Trinidad, it is important to observe whether differences across demographic variations such as ethnicity, and gender have the potential to influence heterosexual mate selection in Trinidad. In the present day, modernization and globalization have redesigned the view of social and cultural norms across the world accompanied by rapid structural changes. Berkovitch & Bradley (1999), assert that the impact of globalization is a well documented phenomenon which has raised the bar on the qualities needed in an acceptable mate. Inherent in global progress, is the increase in womens activity in education and the formal economy over time which has also the openly acceptable mating between men and women

Hart 6 affected gender dynamics. Many traditionalists see this trend of womens work outside the home as a cause of family breakdown (Vision 2020 Sub-Committee Report). Thus the possible social spin-offs merit a comprehensive gaze into the issues of heterosexual mate selection and the impact of race/ethnicity and gender.

Theories in Mate Selection According to Buss and Schmitt (1993; 1996) all mating theories hold that human mating is strategic and choices are made either unconsciously or consciously to capitalize on some entity, match or balance. Thus some popular theories on mate selection include: the Evolutionary theory, Social Role Theory, Social Homogamy, the Theory of Complimentary Needs, and Filter Theory. The evolutionary theory stands out as the doyen of all theories in the field. The crux of the evolutionary hypothesis is that differing biological and psychological mechanisms in men and women account for gender differences in mate preferences. Proponents of the evolutionary perspective contend that men prefer physical attractiveness and youth in mates whereas women prefer mates who possess resources and status (Buss & Barnes, 1986; Feingold, 1992; Townsend, 1989). Social learning theorists on the other hand postulate that mate preferences are a product of the power of social and cultural factors such as learning (Mischel, 1966), socialization and positive reinforcement of gender role consistent behavior (e.g., Eagly & Wood, 1999). The Social Role Theory (Eagly, 1987) for example, maintains that gender differences are an outcome of the opposing positions that men and women occupy in society and the sexual division of labor (Wood & Eagly, 2002).

Hart 7 The theoretical concept of Social Homogamy (Watson, Klohnen, Casillas, Simms & Berry 2004) postulates that people seek similarity in mates whereby like attracts like. It refers to passive, indirect effects on spousal similarity (Watson et al., 2004) and further asserts that the choice of a mate is based on endogamous mate selection norms that include race, status, religious affiliations and ethnic background. Homogamy is also distinguished as an effect of

proximity and denotes a tendency to live close to our probable mates as well as a strong propensity to live near to people who are akin to us. Homogamy is also referred to as Assortative Mating. The Theory of Complimentary Needs stresses the importance of psychological variable rather than social similarities in finding a mate. The theory of complementary needs argues that individuals look for a mate that can meet them half way or provide for them what they may be missing and vice versa. Filter Theory on the other hand, presumes that individual go through

numerous filters that will progressively lessen the collection of prospective mates to only one. The filters are: Propinquity, Social Background, Attractiveness, Compatibility and the Balance Sheet.

A look at sex differences in Mate Selection "Another Look at Sex Difference in Prefered Mate Characteristics: The Effects of Endorsing the Traditional Female Gender Role." By Mary C Johannesen-Schmidt and Alice H. Eagly addressed mate selection from a gendered perspective, suggesting that there are preferred sex difference characteristics associated with an individuals mate choice. Johannesen-Schmidt and Eagly uses the Social Role Theory to advance their argument that generally men and women

Hart 8 engage in different social roles and as such exhibit the tendency to endorse traditional gender role (based on traditional division of labour) supported by age when seeking a mate. It was proposed that males had the tendency to prefer younger mates with traditional domestic skills such as cleaning and cooking, while their female counterparts were likely to favor older mates with good provider capability3. Johannesen-Schmidt and Eaglys research design replicated previous cross cultural studies conducted by Eagly and Wood 1999, and Kasser and Sharma 1999 in an analysis of whether men and women sanctioned the traditional divison of labour in mate preference. A sample of 198 student subject were surveyed (96 males and 102 females) from Northwestern university. Their finding revealed that the sexes did not differ in their prefernce for traditional female qualities. This reading "Another Look at Sex Difference in Prefered Mate Characteristics: The Effects of Endorsing the Traditional Female Gender Role" assist in the understanding of the existance of prefernces in mate selection based on sex typed charateristics and the role of socialization in establishing and maintaing the hegemonic system of gender role traditions. This focus of endorsing traditional roles is in fact critcal to mate selection as it speaks to expectation that individuals will desire, and in essence require in their mate when engaging in the long standing intimate relationships (generally marriage ). It suggest that ones preference, desires and expectations will impact on the relationship and thus influence the emotional life experiences with that selected mate, and consequently the longevity of said relationship. An individuals mate selection is useful for making linkages to sexuality from a gender perspective, as male were more likely to be attracted to a younger female with surface qualities4 . The type of mate
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a financially secured with good earning capacity facial attractiveness and body shape

Hart 9 selected is inherently linked to their bodies and expression of their own sexuality in mate selction.

Gender Ideologies in Mate Selection Is Traditional Gender Ideology Associated with Sex-Typed Mate Preference? A test in Nine Nations supports the first assigned reading on mate selection in that it examines sex-types gender roles influences qualities in mate selection using Glick and Fiskes (1996,1999) index of ambivalent attitude of men and women. This study also support the Social Role Theory which argues that mate preferences is largely associated with traditional gender ideology of male and females. This research goes a step further by examining the individualistic versus community oriented societies as influencing one mate choice and whether or not gender ideologies were similar across various. This study utilized 1606 male and 2076 females subjects across nine nations. The results of this research replicated previous studies in this area in establishing a relationship between ones sex and gender ideology. This study provides a cross cultural analysis of mate selection enabling its research to establish generalization of mate selection as well as factors that maybe specific to a particular country or nation. In relation to the course Sexuality, Bodies and Power this reading implies the notion of power struggles and the concept of masculinity. Masculinity is rooted in traditional gender ideologies as males are expected to be the provider and protector of their families, this role in and of itself bestows upon males the power and control over their female companion who are sometimes socialized to embrace the idea of being provided for and assuming a submissive role within the union. In turn, this masculinity emphasizes the dominance of heterosexual mating culture. Even in modern times gendered hierarchy still exist whereby masculinity is still

Hart 10 preferred over femininity, again hinting to the issue of the power and privilege, supporting a binary gender system that undermines femininity.

Assortative Mating (Propinquity and Norms of Endogamy) Kristin Liv Rauch in her study Human Mate Selection : An Exploration of Assortative Mating Prefereces investigated the influence of demographic traits such as race , age, religion, and other intersectionalities on mate selection preferences across different types of unions namely dating, sexual encouters and marriage, and whether this was based on assortative mating. Rauch utilized a three part survey which was distributed to three hundred and seventeen (317) person attending Penn State University during the summer of which two hundred and forty-eight 248 completed documents were collected. Assortative Mating is based on the premise that individuals choose mates that have more traits (usually demographic in nature) in common with them than likely to occur in random mating. Rauch advances two major theories to explain Assortative mating namely: Propinquity and Cultural norms of endogamy5. Propinquity is one of the major factors in attraction, and thus mate selection. Propinquity refers to the physical6 or psychological7 proximity between people. In relation to physical closeness, an individual is likely to develop close relationship with another based on attraction through the frequency of interaction. Attraction speaks to ones sexuality and of the body. The constant interaction can result in deep romantic feelings and sexual desires for the person who we are in constant contact with. Thus it is this physical closeness coupled with trait similarity that influences mate selection particularly marriage.
5

marrying within a group

closeness

kinship between people e.g racial similarity

Hart 11 Norms of Endogamy emphasizes the tendency for an individual to choose a mate from within ones group. This group relates but is not limited, to factors such as race/ethnicity social status, religion etc. Race will be the focus for this discussion on norm of endogamy. Racial endogamy refers to selecting a mate from within ones racial group. Across the world common phenomena such as racial similarities have the tendency of providing comfort, identity and a sense of belonging. The decision of selecting a mate from within one racial/ethnic group can have implication for the individual, present and future family members and society at large. For some, choosing a mate of racial/ethnic similarity is a personal decision, while other have the decision made for them by their family. Evolutionary theorists argue that racial endogamy is necessary good for the preservation of a species. Race, they argue is a genetic trait and thus selecting a mate outside of ones racial group will result in the contamination of the pure race and can result in the extinction of the particular racial group. According to Fang, Sidanius and Pratto, 1998, ethnicity/race has traditionally been used as a heuristic cue to resource possession. In light of this fact, many individuals of rich economic backgrounds choose a mate from within their group. This supports the conceptualization of the relationship between theories of mate preference and ethnicity in the Caribbean which has been traditionally seen as a product of the historical correlation between race and resource possession for example plantocracy8 The Mate selection outside ones racial group is referred to a mixing.

Interracial Marriage

A plantocracy is a ruling class, political order or government comprised of (or dominated by) plantation owners. WordReference.com English Dictionary

Hart 12 "A Path Toward Interracial Marriage: Women's First Partner and Husbands Across Racial Line" by Bratter and King 2007 investigate mate selection and marriage across the racial divide. They examined the background charateristic in selecting a sex partner and first husband of a different race among various ethnic groups . This study revealed that individuals who were likely to select a sex partner from another racial group were just as likely to select a husband from another race. Guess Whos Been Coming to Dinner? : Trends in Interracial Marriage over the 20th Centry by Roland G. Freyer Jr looks at interracial relationships and marriage between white, black and asians across a time span in the United States of America . He outlines the history of interracial unions leading up to the 20th Century which was fraught with restriction and antimescegenation laws, and then identifies the trends influencing an increase in these union. Some of these trends in Interracial Marriage over the 20th Century include: Racial Intermarriage Relative to All Marriage; Intermarriages Across Regions and States; Educational level; Social and Economic Status; Intermarriages Rates by Gender etc. This mixing of the races identified above is termed miscegenation. Miscegenation can be defined in two ways: sexual relations between races: sexual relations between people of different races, especially of different skin colors, leading to the birth of children and; intermarriage between races: marriage or cohabitation between people of different races.9 Interracial marriages which produce children result in the blurring of the racial line as this new generation does not prescribe to a single racial group. Secondly, interracial marriages can help to debunk the myths and stereotypes ascribes to particular racial groups. Reddock (1999) postulated that in some ways, mixing in ethnically defined societies represents a challenge to the dominant ideologies and structures of these societies. Within a
9

Encarta World English Dictionary [North American Edition] & (P) 2009.

Hart 13 Caribbean context (particularly Trinidad), however, increasing numbers of mixed couples across the social, economic and educational divide of Trinidadian society gives relevance, to a study on the mitigating factors in the process of mate selection; significant aspect in the ever changing landscape of Trinidadian life. According to the population census of 2000, the ethnic makeup of Trinidad is comprised of (40%) Indo-Trinidadians, (37.5%) Afro-Trinidadians, (20.5%) Mixed ethnicity, and a remaining (2%) which incorporates the Chinese, Syrian Lebanese, White and Other classifications. These articles ("A Path Toward Interracial Marriage and Guess Whos Been Coming to Dinner?) speak to the growing acceptance and practice of interracial relationship such as marriage. The rise in interracial mate selection can be linked to the process of globalization which influences the changing view of social and cultural norms across the world, unlike many decades ago where interracial unions were illegal and forbidden.The more modern society becomes, the greater the access to education, interactions with the raced other and shift in the socio-economic systems. Globalization has also influenced the move from a society of collectivism to one of individualism with the internet linking individuals from all over the world so that ones choice of partners is no longer restricted to the local persons (partner from the same geographic location). With this new age comes a sexual freedom, and sexuality demonstrates vast variability over time, space, and place; and this sexuality uses a power system in mate selection.

Historicizing Mate Selection in the Caribbean In the historicizing of sexuality one can trace the path along which miscegenation occurred in the Caribbean. In attempting to place mate selection within this historical context one

Hart 14 observes that many of the interracial union (involving mixing of the race) during colonialism were the result of forced sex (rape). Various themes in mate selection can be connected to form a chain of sexuality in history. The intersectionality of race, gender, sexuality, patriarchy and marginalization of women evidence of miscegenation throughout colonialism is obtained by reviewing the works of Ann Stoler, particularly her article Carnal knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender and Morality in the making of Race. Stoler suggests that the concept of male power is utilized to maintain the patriarchal system and regularization of the racialized other during colonialism. Stoler advances the argument that native women were doubly marginalized by their European colonizers. Women were used for economic, domestic and sexual purposes. Though the racialized gaze was forbidden between Europeans and natives, it was this sexual exploitation that led to the creation of new race, the mixed race.

Theorizing Mate Selection In an attempt to theorize mate selection from a gendered perspective, it is observed that the Caribbean inclusive of Trinidad subscribe to heteronormative sexuality, which is supported by dominate hegemonic system, hence mate selection in same sex relationship are not discussed in this context. A discourse is the theorizing sexuality with respect to mate selection would be incomplete without mentioning Judith Butler. Butlers contend that bodies come into being pregendered through a hegemonic heterosexual matrix where one moves to the performativity of gender.

Patriarchy within mate selection

Hart 15 Within mate selection some individual subscribe to traditional gender ideologies, and these ideologies rest on the concept of patriarchy 10. Patriarchy innately gives privilege to men to dominate women; however this is dependent on womens submissiveness and subordination. Hence, selecting a mate based on traditional gender roles is a mechanism for maintain a hegemonic system of unjust social realities exerted on women. However with the move towards modernization and changing socio- economic structures this reliance on tradition gender ideologies seem to be fading.

The Racialized Body The Western perspective11 of individuals and bodies of another race is usually one of exoticism 12. Exoticism is a mechanism of attraction in mate selection and relates to the unearthing of sexual desire for that body. The sexual desire for the unusual or racialized other has implication for not only mate selection but for Power negotiation as well. Throughout history the racialized other (this exotic body) has been plagued by exploitation and manipulation. Evidence of this comes from the sexual desires of White European master for the enslaved native women. As such these native women were seen as exotic to the foreigners and thus something to be conquered. In essence, exoticism is part of idea of hypersexuality contrasted against a traditionally repressed background, in which sexual attraction is motivated by physical features exclusive for a

10

a social system in which the role of the male as the primary authority figure is central to social organization Views of Europeans Exoticism refers to the condition the condition of being foreign, striking, or unusual in color

11

12

Hart 16 particular race and the forbidden. Also in relation to race, certain races are preferred over others and are seen as superior in nature, and thus have the power to manipulate and exploit others.

Question to Ponder Questions arising out of the discourse on mate selection are numerous however; the main concerns are as follows: Do unspoken social rules exist for women and men in selecting a mate? Is sexual freedom in selecting a mate power, or are their unseen forces at work? Since traditional gender roles are social displays of patriarchy, how do women fear in the power negotiations? Given that globalization has resulted in greater participation of women in education, politics, and the labour economy, do women have agency with respect to mate selection? Does the sexual desire for the racialized other transmit to the desire to marry that other?

Conclusion The topic of mate is one of great interest that should be given a comprehensive analysis within feminist discourse. As part of the human experience, mate selection is an important decision that impacts on the formation of intimate relationships such as marriage and survival of a species through the production of offspring. A comprehensive study of mate selection can help establish a baseline of similarities and differences in the process selecting a mate and the factors influences such a process since research existing on mate selection has been based mainly on gender differences developed countries. Little to no research is available with regards to mate selection in the Caribbean and the unique cultural diversity allows for greater cross culture analysis.

Hart 17 When it comes to mate selection, many theories have been advanced to explain how and why people choose their mates. The assigned reading examined factors associated with selecting a mate such as traditional gender ideologies, assortative mating, and interracial marriages. It should be noted that traditional gender roles are connected to the notion of power as a function of masculinity, while assortative mate selection discussed issues of Propinquity and Norms of Endogamy. A major debate in mate selection is that of interracial unions and how they affect and are affect by society and circumstance. Out of the discourse some key concepts emerging are patriarcy, racialized bodies, and globalization and how they influences main choice. This brief insight into mate selection is aimed a sparking the interest in future rearch and expanding analysis to other area of mate selecction such as religion, education and even homo sexual mate selection. Thus the paper serves to provide basic know of mate selection and situate it with the Sexualities, Bodies and Power.

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Bibliography Barrow, C., & Reddock, R. (2001). Caribbean Sociology. James Currey Ltd. Berkovitch, N.,& Bradley, K. (1999). The globalization of womens status: Consensus/dissensus in the world polity. Sociological Perspectives, 42(3),481-499. Brandt, D., & Birnhaum, G. E. (2002). Gender differences in the experience of heterosexual intercourse. The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 11(3-4), 143-158. Buss, D. M., & Schmidt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: A contextual evolutionary analysis of human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204-232. Buss, D. M. (1998). Sexual strategies theory: Historical origins and current status. Journal of Sex Research, 35, 19-31. Buss, D. M., Shackelford, T. K., Kirkpatrick, L.A.,& Larsen, R. J. ( 2001 ). A half century of American mate preferences: The cultural evolution of values. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 63, 491-503. Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behaviour: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54, 408-423.

Hart 19 Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. ( 2002). Another look at sex differences in preferred mate characteristics: The effects of endorsing the traditional female gender role. Psychology of woman quarterly, 26(4), 322-328. Eastwick, P. W., Eagly, A. H., Glick, P., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., Fiske, S. T., Blum, A. M. B., Eckes, T., Freiburger, P., Huang, L., Fernndez, M. L., Manganelli, A. M., Pek, J. C. X., Castro, Y. R., Sakalli-Ugurlu, N., Six-Materna, I., & Volpato, C. "Is Traditional Gender Ideologies Associated with Sex- Typed Mate Preferences? A Test in Nine Nation." Sex Roles, 2006: 603-614. Feingold, A. (1992). Good looking people are not what we think. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 304-341. Fryer Jr, Roland G. "Guess Whos Been Coming to Dinner? Trends in Interracial Marriage over the 20th Century." Journal of Economic Perspective Vol 21, Number 2, 2007: 71-90.

King, Rosalind Berkowitz & Bratter, Jenifer L. "A Path Toward Interracial Marriage: Women's First Partner and Husbands Across Racial Line." The Sociological Quarterly 48, 2007: 343-369. Mischel, W. (1966). A social learning view of sex differences in behaviour. In E.E Maccoby (Ed.),The development of Sex Differences (56-81). Standford , CA: Standford University Reddock, R. (1994). Jahaji Bhai: The Emergence of A Dougla Poetics in Trinidad and Tobago. Gordon and Breach Publishers. Rauch, Kristin Liv. "Human Mate Selection: An Exploration of Assortive Mating Preference." http://forms.gradsch.psu.edu/diversity/mcnair/2003/rauch.pdf Townsend, J. M., & Roberts L.W. (1993). Gender differences in mate selection among law students: Divergence and convergence of criteria. Journal of Psychology, 29, 507-528. Seegobin, Winston, & K. Tarquin 2003 "Mate Selection in Trinidad and Tobago: A Multireligious, Multicultural Perspective." In R. R. Hamon & B. B. Ingoldsby (Eds.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Stoler, Ann Laura. 2002 Carnal knowledge and Imperial Power: Gender and Morality in the making of Race. In : Colonial rule: race and the intimate in colonial rule. Ed. Ann Laura Stoler, 41-78. Berkely:University of California Press.

Hart 20 Watson, D. (2004). Match makers and deal breakers: Analyses of assortative mating in newlywed couples. Journal of Personality, 72:5, 1029-1068.