Digital Modulation Lecture 02

Digital Modulation Techniques

Richard Harris

Objectives
To be able to compute the bit rate and symbol rate for a given system. To be able to determine the bandwidth requirements To be able to describe the various popular forms of digital modulation and implement them on simple data inputs

Communication Systems 143.332 - Digital Modulation

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References
Digital and Analog Communication Systems 6th Edition, Leon W. Couch II (Prentice Hall) Digital Modulation in Communication Systems An Introduction (Hewlett Packard Application Note 1298) Principles of Digital Modulation, by Dr Mike Fitton, mike.fitton@toshiba-trel.com Telecommunications Research Lab Toshiba Research Europe Limited

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Presentation Outline
Bit and Symbol Rates Bandwidth requirements Symbol clock Overview of Binary Keying Description of the popular forms of digital modulation
BASK (OOK) BPSK, QPSK FSK, MSK DPSK

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Bit Rate and Symbol Rate - 1

To understand and compare different modulation format efficiencies, it is important to first understand the difference between bit rate and symbol rate. The signal bandwidth for the communications channel needed depends on the symbol rate, not on the bit rate. (Ignore sync and error) Bit Rate Symbol rate = Number of bits transmitted per symbol
Bit Rate Bit rate is the frequency of a system bit stream. Take, for example, a radio with an 8 bit sampler, sampling at 10 kHz for voice. The bit rate, the basic bit stream rate in the radio, would be eight bits multiplied by 10K samples per second, or 80 Kbits per second. Symbol Rate:
If symbols are generated at a rate of r per second to create a baseband signal with a bandwidth of W Hz, then Nyquist has shown that r 2W. For a double-sideband modulated wave whose transmission bandwidth is BT Hz, BT = 2W so that r BT.

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Bit Rate and Symbol Rate - 2

01 00

11

10

QPSK State Diagram

The state diagram opposite represents QPSK (more details later). Notice that for each constellation point two bits are transmitted. If only one bit was being transmitted per symbol, then in the previous example the symbol and bit rates would be identical at 80Kbits per second. For the QPSK example, the symbol rate will be 40Kbits per second. Symbol rate is sometimes called the baud rate. Note that the baud rate is not the same as bit rate. (These terms are often confused.) If more bits can be sent with each symbol, then the same amount of data can be sent in a narrower spectrum. This is why modulation formats that are more complex and use a higher number of states can send the same information over a narrower piece of the RF spectrum.
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Communication Systems 143.332 - Digital Modulation

Bandwidth Requirements
Consider the two modulation schemes depicted in the figures below:

BPSK One bit per symbol Bit rate = Symbol rate

8PSK 3 bits per symbol Symbol rate = 1/3 Bit rate

An example of how symbol rate influences spectrum requirements can be seen in eight-state Phase Shift Keying (8PSK) as shown on the right. It is a variation of PSK. There are eight possible states that the signal can transition to at any time. The phase of the signal can take any of eight values at any symbol time. Since 23 = 8, there are three bits per symbol. This means the symbol rate is one third of the bit rate.
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Digital Modulation Basics

The bit rate defines the rate at which information is passed. The baud (or signalling) rate defines the number of symbols per second. Each symbol represents n bits, and has M signal states, where M = 2n.
This is called M-ary signalling.

The maximum rate of information transfer through a baseband channel is given by:
Capacity fb = 2 W log2M bits per second
where W = bandwidth of modulating baseband signal
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The Symbol Clock

The symbol clock represents the frequency and exact timing of the transmission of the individual symbols. At the symbol clock transitions, the transmitted carrier is at the correct I/Q (or magnitude/phase) value to represent a specific symbol (a specific point in the constellation).

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Additional Binary Bandpass Signalling Examples

The diagram to the right shows a number of additional Binary Bandpass signalling examples that will be considered further in the coming lectures. Unipolar and bipolar modulation are shown for reference. OOK
On-off keying or Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

PSK and BPSK

Binary Phase Shift Keying

DSB-SC
Double Side Band Suppressed carrier
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Binary Keying
Binary Keying definition:
The bits in a message stream switch the modulation parameters (amplitude, frequency and phase) from one state to another. This process is called binary keying. Binary keying is a process that makes the values of amplitude, phase or frequency of the carrier signal change in sympathy with the values of the bits in the binary signal stream.

Basic actions can be classified as:

ASK Amplitude Shift Keying PSK Phase Shift Keying FSK Frequency Shift Keying

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Binary Amplitude Shift Keying

As shown in the diagram in the following slides, the transmitted signal for BASK is a sinusoid whose amplitude is changed by onoff keying (OOK) so that a 1 is represented by the presence of a signal and a 0 is represented by the absence of a signal. The modulated pulse can be described mathematically when signal 1 is present as:

A cos 2 f c t , when 0 < t Tb p1 (t ) = 0 otherwise

where Tb is the bit duration (in sec). When signal 0 is present we have

p0 (t ) = 0

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Double Side Band - Suppressed Carrier

The Double Side Band - Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal is essentially an AM signal that has a suppressed discrete carrier. This signal is given by the following equation:

s (t ) = Ac m(t )cos ct
where m(t) is assumed to have a zero dc level for the suppressed carrier case. The complex envelope for this is given by:

g (t ) = Ac m(t )
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On-off Keying - OOK

p1(t) 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5 -2 -2.5

OOK
On-off keying is also known as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) The above graph shows a time domain representation of Binary Amplitude Shift Keying
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Binary or Bi-Phase Shift Keying

One of the simplest forms of digital modulation is Binary or Bi-Phase Shift Keying (BPSK). One application where this is used is for deep space telemetry. The phase of a constant amplitude carrier signal moves between zero and 180 degrees. On an I and Q diagram, the I state has two different values. There are two possible locations in the state diagram, so a binary one or zero can be sent.

BPSK One bit per symbol Bit rate = Symbol rate Slide 15

Communication Systems 143.332 - Digital Modulation

Binary Phase-Shift Keying 2

p1(t) 1

0.5 0 p1(t)

-0.5 -1

This is illustrated in the chart above. Notice the 180o phase shifts indicated by the arrow.
A cos 2f c t when 0 < t Tb p1 (t ) = 0 otherwise A cos 2f c t when 0 < t Tb p0 (t ) = 0 otherwise
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Binary Phase-Shift Keying 3

The above equations describe the waveforms for BPSK. Note that it can also be referred to as phasereversal keying or PRK. Let

s (t ) = Ac cos[c t + D p m(t )]

Where m(t) is given in the figure below:

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Binary Phase-Shift Keying - 4

Typically, m(t) has peak values of 1 and Dp = /2 radians, thus

s (t ) = Ac m(t ) sin c t
BPSK is equivalent to DSB-SC with polar data waveform.

The complex envelope is given by

g (t ) = jAc m(t )
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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK - 1

A more common type of phase modulation is Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). QPSK is used extensively in applications including:
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) cellular service, Wireless local loop, Iridium (a voice/data satellite system) and DVB-S (Digital Video Broadcasting - Satellite).
01 00

11

10

QPSK State Diagram

QPSK is effectively two independent BPSK systems (I and Q), and therefore exhibits the same performance but twice the bandwidth efficiency.
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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK - 2

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying can be filtered using raised cosine filters (see later for details) to achieve excellent out of band suppression. Large envelope variations occur during phase transitions, thus requiring linear amplification.

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Nyquist & Root-Raised Cosine Filters

The Nyquist bandwidth is the minimum bandwidth that can be used to represent a signal. It is important to limit the spectral occupancy of a signal, to improve bandwidth efficiency and remove adjacent channel interference. Root raised cosine filters allow an approximation to this minimum bandwidth.
More discussion on the details of these filters later.
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Types of Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

(-1,1)

(1,1)

(-1,1)

Q
(1,1) (-1,1) (1,1)

I
(1,-1)

I
(1,-1) (-1,-1) (1,-1)

(-1,-1)

(-1,-1)

Conventional QPSK

Offset QPSK

/4 QPSK

Conventional QPSK has transitions through zero (ie. 180o phase transitions). A highly linear amplifier is required. In Offset QPSK, the transitions on the I and Q channels are staggered. Phase transitions are therefore limited to 90o. In /4-QPSK the set of constellation points are toggled for each symbol, so transitions through zero cannot occur. This scheme produces the lowest envelope variations. All QPSK schemes require linear power amplifiers.
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QPSK Summary comments

Quadrature means that the signal shifts between phase states that are separated by 90 degrees (/2 radians). The signal shifts in increments of 90 degrees from 45 to 135, 45, or 135 degrees. These points are chosen as they can be easily implemented using an I/Q modulator. Only two I values and two Q values are needed and this gives two bits per symbol. There are four states because 22 = 4. It is therefore a more bandwidth-efficient type of modulation than BPSK - potentially twice as efficient.
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Frequency Shift Keying

Frequency Modulation and Phase Modulation are closely related. A static frequency shift of +1 Hz means that the phase is constantly advancing at the rate of 360 degrees per second (2 rad/sec), relative to the phase of the unshifted signal.

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Frequency Shift Keying 1

Frequency Shift Keying
Discontinuous phase FSK Where f1 = mark frequency; f2 = space frequency

Ac cos(1t + 1 ) for sending a 1 s (t ) = Ac cos(2t + 2 ) for sending a 0

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Frequency Shift Keying 2

Electronic Switch Oscillator Freq = f1

Oscillator Freq = f2

Binary data input m(t)

Control line
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Communication Systems 143.332 - Digital Modulation

Frequency Shift Keying 3

Continuous phase FSK
Binary data input m(t)

Frequency Modulator (Carrier freq = fc)

FSK Output

t + D t m( )d s (t ) = Ac cos c f = Re{g (t )e jct } Where g (t ) = Ac e j ( t )

(t ) = D f m( )d

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Frequency Shift Keying - 4

In FSK, the frequency of the carrier is changed as a function of the modulating signal (data) being transmitted. The amplitude is unchanged. In Binary FSK (BFSK or 2FSK), a 1 is represented by one frequency and a 0 is represented by another frequency.

The bandwidth occupancy of FSK depends on the spacing of the two symbols. A frequency spacing of 0.5 times the symbol period is typically used. FSK can be expanded to a M-ary scheme, employing multiple frequencies as different states.
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Applications for FSK

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) is used in many applications including cordless and paging systems. Some of the cordless systems include
DECT (Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephone)

and
CT-2: Cordless Telephone 2
CT-2 is a second generation cordless telephone system that allows users to roam away from their home base stations and receive service in public places. Away from the home base station, the service is one way outbound from the phone to a telepoint that is within range.
Communication Systems 143.332 - Digital Modulation

DECT Phone

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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying - 1

Here the modulated wave is a sinusoid of constant amplitude whose presence at one frequency means a 1 is present and if another frequency is present then this means a 0 is present. When signal 1 is present, the pulse can be described as:

A cos 2 f mt , when 0 < t Tb p1 (t ) = 0, otherwise

When signal 0 is present, the pulse can be described as:

A cos 2 f nt , when 0 < t Tb p0 (t ) = 0, otherwise

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Binary Frequency-Shift Keying - 2

p1(t) 1

0.5 0 p1(t)

-0.5 -1

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Minimum Shift Keying - 1

Since a frequency shift produces an advancing or retarding phase, frequency shifts can be detected by sampling the phase at each symbol period. Phase shifts of (2N + 1) /2 radians are easily detected with an I/Q demodulator.
At even numbered symbols, the polarity of the I channel conveys the transmitted data, At odd numbered symbols the polarity of the Q channel conveys the data.

This orthogonality between I and Q simplifies detection algorithms and hence reduces power consumption in a mobile receiver.
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Minimum Shift Keying - 2

The minimum frequency shift which yields orthogonality of I and Q is that which results in a phase shift of /2 radians per symbol (90 degrees per symbol). FSK with this deviation is called MSK (Minimum Shift Keying). The deviation must be accurate in order to generate repeatable 90 degree phase shifts. MSK is used in the GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) cellular standard. A phase shift of +90 degrees represents a data bit equal to 1, while 90 degrees represents a 0. The peak-to-peak frequency shift of an MSK signal is equal to half of the bit rate.
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Comments on FSK and MSK - 1

FSK and MSK produce constant envelope carrier signals, which have no amplitude variations.
This is a desirable characteristic for improving the power efficiency of transmitters.
Amplitude variations can exercise nonlinearities in an amplifiers amplitude-transfer function, generating spectral re-growth, a component of adjacent channel power.

Therefore, more efficient amplifiers (which tend to be less linear) can be used with constant-envelope signals, reducing power consumption.

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Comments on FSK and MSK - 2

MSK has a narrower spectrum than wider deviation forms of FSK. The width of the spectrum is also influenced by the waveforms causing the frequency shift.
If those waveforms have fast transitions or a high slew rate, then the spectrum of the transmitter will be broad.

In practice, the waveforms are filtered with a Gaussian filter, resulting in a narrow spectrum.
In addition, the Gaussian filter has no time-domain overshoot, which would broaden the spectrum by increasing the peak deviation.

MSK with a Gaussian filter is termed GMSK (Gaussian MSK).

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DPSK 1
Recovery of the data stream from a PSK modulated wave requires synchronous demodulation
The receiver must reconstruct the carrier exactly so that it can detect changes in the phase of the received signal.

Differential PSK eliminates the need for the synchronous carrier in the demodulation process and this has the effect of simplifying the receiver. At the transmitter, we process the data stream to give a modulated wave where the phase changes by radians whenever a 1 appears in the stream. It remains constant whenever a 0 appears in the stream.
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DPSK - 2
Differential Phase-Shift Keying
Binary data are first differentially encoded and then passed to the BPSK modulator.

Example 1:

Note: if d n = 1, en en1 if d n = 0, en = en1

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DPSK - 3
Thus we see that the receiver only needs to detect phase changes. It does not need to search for specific phase values.
180 phase shifts
p1(t) 1

0.5 0 p1(t)

-0.5 -1

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DPSK - 4
Original datastream 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 Relative Phase Angle 0 + + + +2 +3 +3 +3 +3 +4 +5 +6 +6 Processed datastream 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 Demodulated Datastream 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

+6 +6 0 0 0 0

A further example showing how the phase changes and is processed and finally demodulated.

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